American ginseng suppresses colitis through p53-mediated apoptosis of inflammatory cells

Pharmacological effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on intestinal inflammation and the immune system

Intestinal inflammatory imbalance and immune dysfunction may lead to a spectrum of intestinal diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and gastrointestinal tumors. As the king of herbs, ginseng has exerted a wide range of pharmacological effects in various diseases. Especially, it has been shown that ginseng and ginsenosides have strong immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory abilities in intestinal system. In this review, we summarized how ginseng and various extracts influence intestinal inflammation and immune function, including regulating the immune balance, modulating the expression of inflammatory mediators and cytokines, promoting intestinal mucosal wound healing, preventing colitis-associated colorectal cancer, recovering gut microbiota and metabolism imbalance, alleviating antibiotic-induced diarrhea, and relieving the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. In addition, the specific experimental methods and key control mechanisms are also briefly described.

Ginsenoside Rk3 Ameliorates Obesity-Induced Colitis by Modulating Lipid Metabolism in C57BL/6 Mice

Lipid metabolism is closely related to obesity and its complications. Our previous study found that ginsenoside Rk3 (Rk3), a natural bioactive substance derived from ginseng, can effectively alleviate obesity-induced colitis, while its impact on the improvement of the lipid metabolism disorder remains unclear. Here, we demonstrated that Rk3 significantly alleviated inflammation, oxidative stress, and lipid dysregulation in high-fat diet-induced colitis C57BL/6 mice. The potential mechanism by which Rk3 mitigated colon inflammation in the context of obesity may involve the modulation of polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism with specific attention to n-6 fatty acids, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid. Rk3 intervention markedly reduced the production of pro-inflammatory factors (PGE2, PGD2, TXB2, HETE, and HODE) by inhibiting cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways, while enhancing the production of anti-inflammatory factors (EET and diHOME) via cytochrome P450 pathways. Our findings suggest that Rk3 is a potential anti-inflammatory natural drug that can improve obesity-induced intestinal inflammation by regulating lipid metabolism.

Characterization and In Vitro Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Ginsenosides Extracted from Forest-Grown Wild Panax quinquefolius L

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) is known for its health benefits, which are attributed to various terpenoids. However, the specific composition and activities of these terpenoids in forest-grown wild American ginseng remain understudied. This study aimed to characterize the terpenoid composition, particularly triterpene saponins, in forest-grown wild American ginseng. The analysis revealed that triterpene saponins, notably American ginseng ginsenosides (AGGs), are the predominant active components, as identified through LC-MS/MS and HPLC. A subsequent in vitro evaluation of AGGs showcased their potent antioxidant capabilities, displaying the dose-dependent scavenging of free radicals and reducing agents. Moreover, AGGs demonstrated efficacy in reducing oxidative injury and intracellular ROS levels in RAW 264.7 macrophages treated with H2O2. In addition to their antioxidant properties, AGGs exhibited anti-inflammatory effects, significantly inhibiting NO and inflammatory substance production in lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages. These findings highlight the potential of AGG-rich forest-grown wild American ginseng as a functional food with promising implications for improving human health.

Panaxynol alleviates colorectal cancer in a murine model via suppressing macrophages and inflammation

Currently available colorectal cancer (CRC) therapies have limited efficacy and severe adverse effects that may be overcome with the alternative use of natural compounds. We previously reported that panaxynol (PA), a bioactive component in American ginseng, possesses anticancer properties in vitro and suppresses murine colitis through its proapoptotic and anti-inflammatory properties. Because colitis is a predisposing factor of CRC and inflammation is a major driver of CRC, we sought to evaluate the therapeutic potential of PA in CRC. Azoxymethane-dextran sodium sulfate (AOM/DSS) mice (C57BL/6) were administered 2.5 mg/kg PA or vehicle 3 times/wk via oral gavage over 12 wk. PA improved clinical symptoms (P ≤ 0.05) and reduced tumorigenesis (P ≤ 0.05). This improvement may be reflective of PA's restorative effect on intestinal barrier function; PA upregulated the expression of essential tight junction and mucin genes (P ≤ 0.05) and increased the abundance of mucin-producing goblet cells (P ≤ 0.05). Given that macrophages play a substantial role in the pathogenesis of CRC and that we previously demonstrated that PA targets macrophages in colitis, we next assessed macrophages. We show that PA reduces the relative abundance of colonic macrophages within the lamina propria (P ≤ 0.05), and this was consistent with a reduction in the expression of important markers of macrophages and inflammation (P ≤ 0.05). We further confirmed PA's inhibitory effects on macrophages in vitro under CRC conditions (P ≤ 0.05). These results suggest that PA is a promising therapeutic compound to treat CRC and improve clinical symptoms given its ability to inhibit macrophages and modulate the inflammatory environment in the colon.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We report that panaxynol (PA) reduces colorectal cancer (CRC) by improving the colonic and tumor environment. Specifically, we demonstrate that PA improves crypt morphology, upregulates crucial tight junction and mucin genes, and promotes the abundance of mucin-producing goblet cells. Furthermore, PA reduces macrophages and associated inflammation, important drivers of CRC, in the colonic environment. This present study provides novel insights into the potential of PA as a therapeutic agent to ameliorate CRC tumorigenesis.

Phytotherapy in Integrative Oncology-An Update of Promising Treatment Options

Modern phytotherapy is part of today's conventional evidence-based medicine and the use of phytopharmaceuticals in integrative oncology is becoming increasingly popular. Approximately 40% of users of such phytopharmaceuticals are tumour patients. The present review provides an overview of the most important plants and nature-based compounds used in integrative oncology and illustrates their pharmacological potential in preclinical and clinical settings. A selection of promising anti-tumour plants and ingredients was made on the basis of scientific evidence and therapeutic practical relevance and included Boswellia, gingko, ginseng, ginger, and curcumin. In addition to these nominees, there is a large number of other interesting plants and plant ingredients that can be considered for the treatment of cancer diseases or for the treatment of tumour or tumour therapy-associated symptoms. Side effects and interactions are included in the discussion. However, with the regular and intended use of phytopharmaceuticals, the occurrence of adverse side effects is rather rare. Overall, the use of defined phytopharmaceuticals is recommended in the context of a rational integrative oncology approach.

Panax ginseng modulates oxidative stress, DNA damage, apoptosis, and inflammations induced by silicon dioxide nanoparticles in rats

Silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO₂ NPs) are extensively used in cosmetics, food, and drug delivery. The main mechanism of SiO₂ NPs toxicities depends on oxidative stress. Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is used in various medicinal applications because of its antioxidant efficiency. Therefore, the present study was carried out to investigate the possible combated role of ginseng against SiO₂ NPs toxicity in rat liver. Thirty-five male rats (160-180 g) were allocated into five groups of seven rats each, randomly. The first group was used as a control while groups 2, 3, 4, and 5 were treated orally with ginseng (Gin; 75 mg/kg, 1/10 LD₅₀ ), SiO₂ NPs, (200 mg/kg, 1/10 LD₅₀ ), Gin + SiO₂ NPs (protection group), and SiO₂ NPs + Gin (therapeutic group) for 5 weeks, respectively. Treatment with SiO₂ NPs increased lipid peroxidation, liver function enzymes, and decreased antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GPx, GST) activity and non-enzymatic antioxidant (GSH) level. SiO₂ NPs administration motivated liver apoptosis as revealed by the upregulation of the apoptotic genes, Bcl2-associated x protein (Bax), and Beclin 1 and downregulation of the anti-apoptotic gene, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) as well as increase in DNA damage. Also, SiO₂ NPs administration caused inflammation as indicated by upregulation of the inflammation-related genes (interleukin 1 beta [IL1β], tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNFα], nuclear factor kappa B [NFκB], cyclooxygenase 2 [Cox2], transforming growth factor-beta 1 [TGFβ1]) as well as cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase of liver cells. Moreover, histopathological examination proved the biochemical and molecular perturbations occurred due to SiO₂ NPs toxicity. On the other hand, ginseng caused a significant modulation on the deleterious effects induced by SiO₂ NPs in rat liver. In conclusion, ginseng has a potent preventive effect than the therapeutic one and might be used in the treatment of SiO₂ NPs hepatotoxicity.

The high expression of miR-564 in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus promotes differentiation and maturation of DC cells by negatively regulating TP53 expression in vitro

BACKGROUND

miRNA is involved in the occurrence and progression of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), but the regulatory effect of miRNA on dendritic cells in SLE patients is still unclear.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Bioinformatics methods were used to analyze the differentially expressed miRNA and its target genes in SLE patients. In vitro experiments were conducted to explore the effects and mechanisms of differentially expressed miRNAs in SLE patients on the differentiation and maturation of monocyte-derived dendritic cells.

RESULTS

Bioinformatics analysis showed that miR-564 was up-regulated in SLE patients, and TP53 was the core target gene of miR-564. The expression level of miR-564 showed a rising trend during the differentiation and maturation of monocytes into Mo-DC cells. The differentiation, maturation and proliferation of Mo-DC cells were significantly inhibited by transfection with miR-564 antagomir. The expression of TP53 is negatively regulated by miR-564. In rescue experiments, the proliferation and migration of DC cells were significantly restored by co-transfection of miR-564 antagomir and TP53 si-RNA.

CONCLUSION

Highly expressed miR-564 promotes the maturation, proliferation of Mo-DC cells by negatively regulating the expression of TP53.

Terahertz Spectroscopy for Accurate Identification of Panax quinquefolium Basing on Nonconjugated 24(R)-Pseudoginsenoside F11

Panax quinquefolium is a perennial herbaceous plant that contains many beneficial ginsenosides with diverse pharmacological effects. 24(R)-pseudoginsenoside F₁₁ is specific to P. quinquefolium, a useful biomarker for distinguishing this species from other related plants. However, because of its nonconjugated property and the complexity of existing detection methods, this biomarker cannot be used as the identification standard. We herein present a stable 24(R)-pseudoginsenoside F₁₁ fingerprint spectrum in the terahertz band, thereby proving that F₁₁ can be detected and quantitatively analyzed via terahertz spectroscopy. We also analyzed the sample by high-performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. The difference between the normalized data for the two analytical methods was less than 5%. Furthermore, P. quinquefolium from different areas and other substances can be clearly distinguished based on these terahertz spectra with a standard principal component analysis. Our method is a fast, simple, and cost-effective approach for identifying and quantitatively analyzing P. quinquefolium.

iTRAQ-Based Quantitative Proteomic Analysis of Intestines in Murine Polymicrobial Sepsis with Hydrogen Gas Treatment

Objective

Sepsis-associated intestinal injury has a higher morbidity and mortality in patients with sepsis, but there is still no effective treatment. Our research team has proven that inhaling 2% hydrogen gas (H₂) can effectively improve sepsis and related organ damage, but the specific molecular mechanism of its role is not clear. In this study, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ)-based quantitative proteomics analysis was used for studying the effect of H₂ on intestinal injury in sepsis.

Methods

Male C57BL/6J mice were used to prepare a sepsis model by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). The 7-day survival rates of mice were measured. 4-kd fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated Dextran (FITC-dextran) blood concentration measurement, combined with hematoxylin-eosinstain (HE) staining and Western blotting, was used to study the effect of H₂ on sepsis-related intestinal damage. iTRAQ-based liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis was used for studying the proteomics associated with H₂ for the treatment of intestinal injury.

Results

H₂ can significantly improve the 7-day survival rates of sepsis mice. The load of blood and peritoneal lavage bacteria was increased, and H₂ treatment can significantly reduce it. CLP mice had significant intestinal damage, and inhalation of 2% hydrogen could significantly reduce this damage. All 4194 proteins were quantified, of which 199 differentially expressed proteins were associated with the positive effect of H₂ on sepsis. Functional enrichment analysis indicated that H₂ may reduce intestinal injury in septic mice through the effects of thyroid hormone synthesis and nitrogen metabolism signaling pathway. Western blot showed that H₂ was reduced by down-regulating the expressions of deleted in malignant brain tumors 1 protein (DMBT1), insulin receptor substrate 2 (IRS2), N-myc downregulated gene 1 (NDRG1) and serum amyloid A-1 protein (SAA1) intestinal damage in sepsis mice.

Conclusion

A total of 199 differential proteins were related with H₂ in the intestinal protection of sepsis. H₂-related differential proteins were notably enriched in the following signaling pathways, including thyroid hormone synthesis signaling pathway, nitrogen metabolism signaling pathways, digestion and absorption signaling pathways (vitamins, proteins and fats). H₂ reduced intestinal injury in septic mice by down-regulating the expressions of SAA1, NDRG1, DMBT1 and IRS2.

Status of the application of exogenous enzyme technology for the development of natural plant resources

Exogenous enzymes are extraneous enzymes that are not intrinsic to the subject. The exogenous enzyme industry has been rapidly developing recently. Successful application of recombinant DNA amplification, high-efficiency expression, and immobilization technology to genetically engineered bacteria provides a rich source of enzymes. Amylase, cellulase, protease, pectinase, glycosidase, tannase, and polyphenol oxidase are among the most widely used such enzymes. Currently, the application of exogenous enzyme technology in the development of natural plant resources mainly focuses on improving the taste and flavor of the product, enriching the active ingredient contents, deriving and transforming the structure of a chosen compound, and enhancing the biological activity and utilization of the functional ingredient. In this review, we discuss the application status of exogenous enzyme technology for the development of natural plant resources using typical natural active ingredients from plant, such as resveratrol, steviosides, catechins, mogrosides, and ginsenosides, as examples, to provide basis for further exploitation and utilization of exogenous enzyme technology.

Ginseng and Cancer-Related Fatigue: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials

PURPOSE

The data on the effect of ginseng on general fatigue were previously reviewed. However, there is limited data on the effect of various types of ginseng on cancer-related fatigue (CRF). CRF is one of the most pervasive symptoms of cancer and cancer treatment. The primary objective of the current study was to systematically review trials investigating the safety and efficacy of three different types of ginseng separately used in the treatment protocol for patients with CRF.

METHODS

We searched the available online databases for relevant publications up to October 2019. Data were independently extracted by two reviewers. We assessed the risk of bias using the Cochrane Collaboration Review Manager (RevMan, version 5.3) and reported the results in a narrative summary.

RESULTS

A total of 210 studies were identified by the initial search, from which seven clinical trials and one retrospective study were included in this systematic review. A total of two clinical trials and one retrospective review examined the impact of American ginseng on CRF symptoms, three studies tested Asian ginseng, and two trials were conducted using Korean ginseng. The quality of the selected studies varied greatly. All three types of ginseng were tolerated well with few low-grade adverse events. American ginseng, containing more than 5% ginsenosides, consumed at the dosage of 2000 mg/day for up to eight weeks significantly reduced fatigue. Asian ginseng, containing ≥ 7% ginsenosides, relieved symptoms of fatigue at the dosage of 400 mg/day in the majority of patients with CRF. Korean ginseng, consumed at the dosage of 3000 mg/day for 12 weeks, decreased symptoms of CRF.

CONCLUSIONS

Although our findings support the safety and effectiveness of ginseng in the treatment of CRF, the number of high-quality studies is not adequate to adopt ginseng as a standard treatment option for CRF.

Molecules from American Ginseng Suppress Colitis through Nuclear Factor Erythroid-2-Related Factor 2

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease that affects millions of people worldwide and increases the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) development. We have previously shown that American ginseng (AG) can treat colitis and prevent colon cancer in mice. We further fractionated AG and identified the most potent fraction, hexane fraction (HAG), and the most potent compound in this fraction, panaxynol (PA). Because (1) oxidative stress plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of colitis and associated CRC and (2) nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is the master regulator of antioxidant responses, we examined the role of Nrf2 as a mechanism by which AG suppresses colitis. Through a series of in vitro and in vivo Nrf2 knockout mouse experiments, we found that AG and its components activate the Nrf2 pathway and decrease the oxidative stress in macrophages (mΦ) and colon epithelial cells in vitro. Consistent with these in vitro results, the Nrf2 pathway is activated by AG and its components in vivo, and Nrf2^-/- mice are resistant to the suppressive effects of AG, HAG and PA on colitis. Results from this study establish Nrf2 as a mediator of AG and its components in the treatment of colitis.

Panaxynol, a bioactive component of American ginseng, targets macrophages and suppresses colitis in mice

Ulcerative colitis has a significant impact on the quality of life for the patients, and can substantially increase the risk of colon cancer in patients suffering long-term. Conventional treatments provide only modest relief paired with a high risk of side effects, while complementary and alternative medicines can offer safe and effective options. Over the past decade, we have shown that both American ginseng and its hexane fraction (HAG) have anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that can suppress mouse colitis and prevent colitis-associated colon cancer. With the goal of isolating a single active compound, we further fractionated HAG, and found the most abundant molecule in this fraction was the polyacetylene, panaxynol (PA). After isolating and characterizing PA, we tested the efficacy of PA in the treatment and prevention of colitis in mice and studied the mechanism of action. We demonstrate here that PA effectively treats colitis in a Dextran Sulfate Sodium mouse model by targeting macrophages for DNA damage and apoptosis. This study provides additional mechanistic evidence that American ginseng can be used for conventional treatment of colitis and other diseases associated with macrophage dysfunction.

American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) as a Source of Bioactive Phytochemicals with Pro-Health Properties

Panax quinquefolium L. (American Ginseng, AG) is an herb characteristic for regions of North America and Asia. Due to its beneficial properties it has been extensively investigated for decades. Nowadays, it is one of the most commonly applied medical herbs worldwide. Active compounds of AG are ginsenosides, saponins of the glycosides group that are abundant in roots, leaves, stem, and fruits of the plant. Ginsenosides are suggested to be primarily responsible for health-beneficial effects of AG. AG acts on the nervous system; it was reported to improve the cognitive function in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, display anxiolytic activity, and neuroprotective effects against neuronal damage resulting from ischemic stroke in animals, demonstrate anxiolytic activity, and induce neuroprotective effects against neuronal damage in ischemic stroke in animals. Administration of AG leads to inhibition of hypertrophy in heart failure by regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mice as well as depletion of cardiac contractile function in rats. It also has an anti-diabetic and anti-obesity potential as it increases insulin sensitivity and inhibits formation of adipose tissue. AG displays anti-cancer effect by induction of apoptosis of cancer cells and reducing local inflammation. It exerts antimicrobial effects against several pathogenic strains of bacteria. Therefore, AG presents a high potential to induce beneficial health effects in humans and should be further explored to formulate precise nutritional recommendations, as well as to assess its value in prevention and therapy of some disorders, including cancer.

Investigating the Effects of Oral Ginseng on the Cancer-Related Fatigue and Quality of Life in Patients with Non-Metastatic Cancer

Background: Cancer affects the physical, psychological, and social aspects of the patients' life. Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) is the most common and severe condition among cancer patients. Ginseng has long been used as an efficient treatment for CRF and improvement of quality of life (QOL). The present study aims to assess the efficacy of Panax Ginseng (PG) in reducing CRF in patients with non-metastatic cancer. In addition, the safety of the medication is evaluated. Materials and Methods: This was a prospective clinical trial conducted on the patients (n=113) suffering from non-metastatic colon cancer (age range: 20-70 years old) referring to the Shafa Hospital, Ahvaz, Iran for chemotherapy treatment. After the chemotherapy sessions, the patients were randomly divided into two groups. The first group received daily dose of 100 mg PG for 30 days and the second group received placebo medication. The demographic information and clinical parameters of the patients including age, sex, weight, symptoms of fatigue, depression, sleep disturbances, and pain were measured pre and post intervention. Afterwards, the variables were compared in each group and between the groups. Results: Results of study showed that the ginseng improved the quality of life and mood in the subjects. (P<0.0001) and no difference was observed in the placebo group (P=0.887). Conclusion: The use of ginseng may can effective on reducing CRF and the associated symptoms in the patients with cancer, but further studies should be conducted for the evaluation of comprehensive therapeutic efficacy.

Looking for the best anti-colitis medicine: A comparative analysis of current and prospective compounds

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic lifelong inflammatory disorder of the colon, which, while untreated, has a relapsing and remitting course with increasing risk of progression toward colorectal cancer. Current medical treatment strategies of UC mostly focus on inhibition of the signs and symptoms of UC to induce remission and prevent relapse of disease activity, minimizing the impact on quality of life, but not affecting the cause of disease. To date, however, there is no single reliable treatment agent and/or strategy capable of effectively controlling colitis progression throughout the patient's life without side effects, remission, or resistance. Taking into consideration an urgent need for the new colitis treatment strategies, targets and/or modulators of inflammation, we have tested current and prospective compounds for colitis treatment and directly compared their anti-colitis potency using a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) mouse model of colitis. We have introduced a composite score - a multi-parameters comparison tool - to assess biological potency of different compounds.

Repurposing the anti-malarial drug, quinacrine: new anti-colitis properties

Background

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease that is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer in 8-10 years after disease onset. Current colitis treatment strategies do not offer a cure for the disease, but only treat the symptoms with limited success and dangerous side-effects. Also, there is no preventive treatment for either UC or colorectal cancer. Quinacrine is an anti-malarial drug with versatile use in the treatment of diseases involving inflammatory response such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus erythematosus. It also has putative anti-cancer effect. Quinacrine's anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant properties, and anti-tumorigenic properties make it a potential small molecule preventive agent for both UC and associated colorectal cancer.

Results

There were obvious changes in the CDI, histology, and inflammatory load in quinacrine-treated groups in a dose and time dependent manner in both models of UC, induced by chemical or haptenating agent.

Methods

We tested quinacrine at two different doses as a colitis treatment agent in two mouse models of UC - the dextran sulfate sodium and oxazolone. The clinical disease index (CDI), histological changes of the colon, levels of inflammatory markers (Cox-2, iNOS, p53) and overall health vitals were evaluated.

Conclusions

We demonstrate that quinacrine successfully suppresses colitis without any indication of toxicity or side-effects in two mouse models of UC.

Ginseng: An Nonnegligible Natural Remedy for Healthy Aging

Aging is an irreversible physiological process that affects all humans. Numerous theories have been proposed to regarding the process from a Western medicine perspective; however, ancient Chinese medicine practices and theories have increasingly gained attention, particularly ginseng, a grass that has been studied for the anti-aging properties of its active constituents. This review seeks to analyze current data on ginseng and its anti-aging properties. The plant species, characteristics, and active ingredients will be introduced. The main part of this review is focused on ginseng and its active components with regards to their effects on prolonging lifespan, the regulation of multiple organ systems including cardiovascular, nervous, immune, and skin, as well as the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The molecular mechanisms of these properties elucidated via various studies are summarized as further evidence of the anti-aging effects of ginseng.

Characterization and immunostimulating effects on murine peritoneal macrophages of a novel protein isolated from Panax quinquefolius L

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax quinquefolius L. has been used as a proverbial tonic in oriental countries for hundreds of years. It is used as a traditional medicinal herb to nourish vitality.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of our study was to inquiry the activation effects on murine peritoneal macrophages of a novel protein separated from the roots of Panax quinquefolius L.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In our work, a novel protein of the roots of American ginseng (AGNP) was separated and purified from the roots of Panax quinquefolius L. The characteristic was investigated with SDS-PAGE, high pressure gel filtration chromatography (HPGFC) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/time-of-flight mass (MALDI-TOF-MS) spectrometry method. The method of neutral red was carried out to investigate the phagocytosis of peritoneal macrophages. And Griess method and colorimetry were executed to detect the level of nitric oxide and iNOS activity respectively. Tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 were analyzed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

Our results demonstrated that the subunit molecular weight of AGNP determined by SDS-PAGE was 15kD and the content of proteins determined by Bradford assay was 2.31mg/mL. The molecular weight of the AGNP was15, 114Da both of electrophoresis and MS purity. And the result of HPGFC showed that the molecular weight of AGNP was 31,086Da, Immunological studied indicated that AGNP could conspicuously increase phagocytosis of macrophages, facilitate the nitric oxide production, Tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 production. What is more, AGNP dose-dependently stimulated NO formation through the up-regulation of iNOS activity.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, AGNP had good immunoregulatory effects supporting the traditional claims and may provide a valuable therapeutic strategy to promoting immune function and metabolism.

American Ginseng Attenuates Colitis-Associated Colon Carcinogenesis in Mice: Impact on Gut Microbiota and Metabolomics

Inflammatory bowel disease is a risk factor for colorectal cancer initiation and development. In this study, the effects of American ginseng on chemically induced colitis and colon carcinogenesis were evaluated using an azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) mouse model. During the acute phase on day 15, the oral administration of ginseng (15 and 30 mg/kg/day) significantly suppressed AOM/DSS-induced colitis, as demonstrated by the disease activity index and colon tissue histology. During the chronic phase in week 13, AOM/DSS-induced tumor multiplicity was significantly suppressed by ginseng. Ginseng significantly attenuated the increase of inflammatory cytokines, such as IL1α, IL1β, IL6, G-CSF, and GM-CSF. Serum metabolomics data in the PCA plots showed good separation between the AOM/DSS model and ginseng-treated mice, and the most important endogenous metabolite changes were identified. The 16S rRNA data showed that after AOM/DSS, the microbiome community in the model group was obviously changed, and ginseng inhibited these changes. Fecal metabolomics analysis supported these findings. In conclusion, oral ginseng significantly decreased AOM/DSS-induced colitis and colon carcinogenesis by inhibiting inflammatory cytokines and restoring the metabolomics and microbiota profiles accordingly. Selective endogenous small molecules could be used as biomarkers to elucidate the effects of ginseng treatment. Cancer Prev Res; 9(10); 803-11. ©2016 AACR.

A mechanistic review on plant-derived natural compounds as dietary supplements for prevention of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a recurrent idiopathic inflammatory condition, characterized by disruption of the gut mucosal barrier. This mechanistic review aims to highlight the significance of plant-derived natural compounds as dietary supplements, which can be used in addition to restricted conventional options for the prevention of IBD and induction of remission. Various clinical trials confirmed the effectiveness and tolerability of natural supplements in patients with IBD. Mounting evidence suggests that these natural compounds perform their protective and therapeutic effect on IBD through numerous molecular mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory, anti-oxidative stress, modulation of intracellular signaling transduction pathways, as well as improving gut microbiota. In conclusion, natural products can be considered as dietary supplements with therapeutic potential for IBD, provided that their safety and efficacy is confirmed in future well-designed clinical trials with adequate sample size.

Mangiferin attenuates DSS colitis in mice: Molecular docking and in vivo approach

Inflammation, oxidative stress and altered mucosal barrier permeability are potential etiopathological or triggering factors for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In this study, the therapeutic potential of Mangiferin was investigated in vivo in mouse model of colitis and also attempts were made to understand mechanistic insights of Mangiferin in IBD. In present study, colitis was induced by administration of 5% DSS for 11 days, followed by 3 days of DSS free period. On day 14, animals were sacrificed and colon tissues were taken for biochemical and histological analysis. Therapeutic treatment with Mangiferin after colitis induction (i.e. day 5) ameliorated symptoms of colitis (presence of blood in stools, body weight loss and diarrhea) as evidenced by reduced DAI score, attenuated the levels of catalase (CAT), reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), myeloperoxidase (MPO). It also decreased the colonic pro-inflammatory mediators tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) levels, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) activity and histopathological score. Molecular docking of Mangiferin against TNF-α and MMP-9 was evaluated using GLIDE software. Mangiferin demonstrated the glide score of -8.04 kcal/mol for TNF-α and -9.97 kcal/mol for MMP-9, which indicated its binding potential with TNF-α and MMP-9. In conclusion, Mangiferin reduces colonic damage in a murine model of colitis, alleviates the oxidative and inflammatory events partly through directly influencing the activity of TNF-α and MMP-9 and therefore might have therapeutic usefulness in the management of inflammatory bowel disease.

Ocotillol, a Majonoside R2 Metabolite, Ameliorates 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzenesulfonic Acid-Induced Colitis in Mice by Restoring the Balance of Th17/Treg Cells

In a preliminary experiment, majonoside R2 (MR2), isolated from Vietnamese ginseng (Panax vietnamensis Ha et Grushv.), inhibited differentiation to Th17 cells and was metabolized to ocotillol via pseudoginsenoside RT4 (PRT4) by gut microbiota. Therefore, we examined the inhibitory effects of MR2 and its metabolites PRT4 and ocotillol against Th17 cell differentiation. These ginsenosides significantly suppressed interleukin (IL)-6/tumor growth factor beta-induced differentiation of splenic CD4(+) T cells into Th17 cells and expression of IL-17 in vitro. Among these ginsenosides, ocotillol showed the highest inhibitory effect. We also examined the anti-inflammatory effect of ocotillol in mice with 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis. Oral administration of ocotillol significantly suppressed TNBS-induced colon shortening, macroscopic score, myeloperoxidase activity, and production of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2. Ocotillol treatment increased TNBS-suppressed expression of tight junction proteins ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-1 in the colon. Treatment with ocotillol inhibited TNBS-induced expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-1β, as well as activation of NF-κB and MAPKs. Moreover, treatment with ocotillol inhibited TNBS- induced differentiation to Th17 cells in the lamina propria of colon, as well as expression of T-bet, RORγt, IL-17, and IL-23. Ocotillol treatment also increased Treg cell differentiation and Foxp3 and IL-10 expression. These findings suggest that orally administered MR2 may be metabolized to ocotillol in the intestine by gut microbiota and the transformed ocotillol may ameliorate inflammatory diseases such as colitis by restoring the balance of Th17/Treg cells.

Metabonomic Profiling Reveals Cancer Chemopreventive Effects of American Ginseng on Colon Carcinogenesis in Apc(Min/+) Mice

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) is one of the most commonly used herbal medicines in the West. It has been reported to possess significant antitumor effects that inhibit the process of carcinogenesis. However, the mechanisms underlying its anticancer effects remain largely unresolved. In this study, we investigated the cancer chemopreventive effects of American ginseng on the progression of high fat (HF) diet-enhanced colorectal carcinogenesis with a genetically engineered Apc(Min/+) mouse model. The metabolic alterations in sera of experimental mice perturbed by HF diet intervention as well as the American ginseng treatment were measured by gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOFMS) and liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-TOFMS) analysis. American ginseng treatment significantly extended the life span of the Apc(Min/+) mouse. Significant alterations of metabolites involving amino acids, organic acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates were observed in Apc(Min/+) mouse in sera, which were attenuated by American ginseng treatment and concurrent with the histopathological improvement with significantly reduced tumor initiation, progression and gut inflammation. These metabolic changes suggest that the preventive effect of American ginseng is associated with attenuation of impaired amino acid, carbohydrates, and lipid metabolism. It also appears that American ginseng induced significant metabolic alterations independent of the Apc(Min/+) induced metabolic changes. The significantly altered metabolites induced by American ginseng intervention include arachidonic acid, linolelaidic acid, glutamate, docosahexaenoate, tryptophan, and fructose, all of which are associated with inflammation and oxidation. This suggests that American ginseng exerts the chemopreventive effects by anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms.

Taste characteristics based quantitative and qualitative evaluation of ginseng adulteration

BACKGROUND

Adulteration of American ginseng with Asian ginseng is common and has caused much damage to customers. Panel evaluation is commonly used to determine their differences, but it is subjective. Chemical instruments are used to identify critical compounds but they are time-consuming and expensive. Therefore, a fast, accurate and convenient method is required. A taste sensing system, combining both advantages of the above two technologies, provides a novel potential technology for determining ginseng adulteration. The aim is to build appropriate models to distinguish and predict ginseng adulteration by using taste characteristics.

RESULTS

It was found that ginsenoside contents decreased linearly (R(2) = 0.92) with mixed ratios. A bioplot of principal component analysis showed a good performance in classing samples with the first two principal components reaching 89.7%, and it was noted that it was the bitterness, astringency, aftertaste of bitterness and astringency, and saltiness leading the successful determination. After factor screening, bitterness, astringency, aftertaste of bitterness and saltiness were employed to build latent models. Tastes of bitterness, astringency and aftertaste bitterness were demonstrated to be most effective in predicting adulteration ratio, mean while, bitterness and aftertaste bitterness turned out to be most effective in ginsenoside content prediction.

CONCLUSION

Taste characteristics of adulterated ginsengs, considered as taste fingerprint, can provide novel guidance for determining the adulteration of American and Asian ginseng.

Spray-dried extract of Phyllanthus niruri L. reduces mucosal damage in rats with intestinal inflammation

Objectives

In this study, the preventive intestinal anti-inflammatory activity of spray-dried extract of P. niruri (SDEPn) was tested in the model of acetic acid (10%)-induced ulcerative colitis in the rat.

Methods

Colitis animals were given orally at doses 25, 100 and 200 mg/kg. Colons tissue was analysed by macroscopic score, by histopathology score, by the immunohistochemical examination of tumour necrosis factor alpha, p53 and interferon gamma; by spectroscopic ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry (UV/VIS) analysis of the levels of myeloperoxidase, malonaldehyde and total glutathione.

Key Findings/Result

Pretreatment of the extract to colitic rats significantly attenuated colonic macroscopic damage induced by acetic acid (P &lt; 0.01). Spray-dried extract of P. niruri prevented glutathione depletion (P &lt; 0.001) and malondialdehyde levels (P &lt; 0.05) declined. Spray-dried extract of P. niruri significantly reduced microscopic damage to tissues, such as leukocyte infiltration accompanied by a significant reduction in myeloperoxidase activity (P &lt; 0.5). Immunohistochemistry revealed a decline in the TNF-α, IFN-γ and p53 protein (P &lt; 0.05).

Conclusion

Spray-dried extract of P. niruri has a beneficial effect in the acute phase of acetic acid-induced colitis in the rat, which is probably related to its antioxidant properties.

p53 protects against LPS-induced lung endothelial barrier dysfunction

New therapies toward heart and blood vessel disorders may emerge from the development of Hsp90 inhibitors. Several independent studies suggest potent anti-inflammatory activities of those agents in human tissues. The molecular mechanisms responsible for their protective effects in the vasculature remain unclear. The present study demonstrates that the transcription factor p53, an Hsp90 client protein, is crucial for the maintenance of vascular integrity, protects again LPS-induced endothelial barrier dysfunction, and is involved in the mediation of the anti-inflammatory activity of Hsp90 inhibitors in lung tissues. p53 silencing by siRNA decreased transendothelial resistance (a measure of endothelial barrier function). A similar effect was induced by the p53 inhibitor pifithrin, which also potentiated the LPS-induced hyperpermeability in human lung microvascular endothelial cells (HLMVEC). On the other hand, p53 induction by nutlin suppressed the LPS-induced vascular barrier dysfunction. LPS decreased p53 expression in lung tissues and that effect was blocked by pretreatment with Hsp90 inhibitors both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, the Hsp90 inhibitor 17-allyl-amino-demethoxy-geldanamycin suppressed the LPS-induced overexpression of the p53 negative regulator MDMX as well as p53 and MDM2 (another p53 negative regulator) phosphorylation in HLMVEC. Both negative p53 regulators were downregulated by LPS in vivo. Chemically induced p53 overexpression resulted in the suppression of LPS-induced RhoA activation and MLC2 phosphorylation, whereas p53 suppression caused the opposite effects. These observations reveal new mechanisms for the anti-inflammatory actions of Hsp90 inhibitors, i.e., the induction of the transcription factor p53, which in turn can orchestrate robust vascular anti-inflammatory responses both in vivo and in vitro.

Inhibiting protein arginine deiminases has antioxidant consequences

Ulcerative colitis is a dynamic, idiopathic, chronic inflammatory condition that carries a high colon cancer risk. We previously showed that Cl-amidine, a small-molecule inhibitor of the protein arginine deiminases, suppresses colitis in mice. Because colitis is defined as inflammation of the colon associated with infiltration of white blood cells that release free radicals and citrullination is an inflammation-dependent process, we asked whether Cl-amidine has antioxidant properties. Here we show that colitis induced with azoxymethane via intraperitoneal injection + 2% dextran sulfate sodium in the drinking water is suppressed by Cl-amidine (also given in the drinking water). Inducible nitric oxide synthase, an inflammatory marker, was also downregulated in macrophages by Cl-amidine. Because epithelial cell DNA damage associated with colitis is at least in part a result of an oxidative burst from overactive leukocytes, we tested the hypothesis that Cl-amidine can inhibit leukocyte activation, as well as subsequent target epithelial cell DNA damage in vitro and in vivo. Results are consistent with this hypothesis, and because DNA damage is a procancerous mechanism, our data predict that Cl-amidine will not only suppress colitis, but we hypothesize that it may prevent colon cancer associated with colitis.

American ginseng significantly reduced the progression of high-fat-diet-enhanced colon carcinogenesis in Apc (Min/+) mice

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of death worldwide. Chronic gut inflammation is recognized as a risk factor for tumor development, including CRC. American ginseng is a very commonly used ginseng species in the West.

METHODS

A genetically engineered Apc (Min/+) mouse model was used in this study. We analyzed the saponin composition of American ginseng used in this project, and evaluated its effects on the progression of high-fat-diet-enhanced CRC carcinogenesis.

RESULTS

After oral ginseng administration (10-20 mg/kg/d for up to 32 wk), experimental data showed that, compared with the untreated mice, ginseng very significantly reduced tumor initiation and progression in both the small intestine (including the proximal end, middle end, and distal end) and the colon (all p < 0.01). This tumor number reduction was more obvious in those mice treated with a low dose of ginseng. The tumor multiplicity data were supported by body weight changes and gut tissue histology examinations. In addition, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that compared with the untreated group, ginseng very significantly reduced the gene expression of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1α (IL-1α), IL-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in both the small intestine and the colon (all p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Further studies are needed to link our observed effects to the actions of the gut microbiome in converting the parent ginsenosides to bioactive ginseng metabolites. Our data suggest that American ginseng may have potential value in CRC chemoprevention.

North American ginseng protects against muscle damage and reduces neutrophil infiltration after an acute bout of downhill running in rats

Eccentric muscle contractions such as those experienced during downhill running are associated with inflammation, delayed-onset of muscle soreness, myofiber damage, and various functional deficits. North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory properties and thus may offset some of this exercise-induced damage. Hence, we tested the hypothesis that intervention with North American ginseng would reduce eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage and inflammation. Male Wistar rats were fed (300 mg/(kg·day)(-1)) of either an alcohol (AL) or aqueous (AQ) extract of North American ginseng for 14 days before a single bout of downhill running and were compared with matching nonexercised (C) groups. Plasma creatine kinase levels were significantly reduced in both ginseng treated groups compared with the C group that received a water placebo (p < 0.002). Further, the AQ but not AL group also showed attenuated morphological signs of damage (hemotoxylin and eosin) as well as reduced levels of infiltrating neutrophils (HIS48) in the soleus muscle (p < 0.001). In summary, supplementation with an AQ but not AL extract of North American ginseng was able to reduce eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage and inflammation.

Salvia miltiorrhiza (dan shen) significantly ameliorates colon inflammation in dextran sulfate sodium induced colitis

Inflammatory bowel disease increases the risks of human colorectal cancer. In this study, the effects of Salvia miltiorrhiza extract (SME) on chemically-induced colitis in a mouse model were evaluated. Chemical composition of SME was determined by HPLC analysis. A/J mice received a single injection of AOM 7.5 mg/kg. After one week, these mice received 2.5% DSS for eight days, or DSS plus SME (25 or 50 mg/kg). DSS-induced colitis was scored with the disease activity index (DAI). Body weight and colon length were also measured. The severity of inflammatory lesions was further evaluated by colon tissue histological assessment. HPLC assay showed that the major constituents in the tested SME were danshensu, protocatechuic aldehyde, salvianolic acid D, and salvianolic acid B. In the model group, the DAI score reached its highest level on Day 8, while the SME group on both doses showed a significantly reduced DAI score (both p < 0.01). As an objective index of the severity of inflammation, colon length was significantly shorter in the model group than the vehicle group. Treatment with 25 and 50 mg/kg of SME inhibited the shortening of colon in a dose-related manner (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively). SME groups also significantly reduced weight reduction (p < 0.05). Colitis histological data supported the pharmacological observations. Thus, Salvia miltiorrhiza could be a promising candidate in preventing and treating colitis and in reducing the risks of inflammation-associated colorectal cancer.

Panax notoginseng attenuates experimental colitis in the azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium mouse model

Patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease are at a high risk of developing colorectal cancer. To assess the anticancer potential of botanicals, in this study, we evaluated the effects of Panax notoginseng on azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis. One week after A/J mice received azoxymethane, the animals received DSS for 8 days or were supplemented with P. notoginseng extract, at 30 or 90 mg/kg. DSS-induced colitis was scored with the disease activity index. The severity of the inflammatory lesions was evaluated by a colon tissue histological assessment. The expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) were also explored. We observed that the effects of P. notoginseng on the reduction of colon inflammation, expressed in disease activity index score, were in a dose-related manner (p < 0.01). P. notoginseng inhibited the reduction of the colon length and the loss of bodyweight in dose-related manner (all p < 0.05). The histological assessment of the colitis and inflammatory-related immunohistochemical data also supported the pharmacological observations. Our data suggest that P. notoginseng is a promising candidate in preventing and treating colitis and inflammation-associated colon carcinogenesis.

Wisconsin Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) to improve cancer-related fatigue: a randomized, double-blind trial, N07C2

BACKGROUND

Safe, effective interventions to improve cancer-related fatigue (CRF) are needed because it remains a prevalent, distressing, and activity-limiting symptom. Based on pilot data, a phase III trial was developed to evaluate the efficacy of American ginseng on CRF.

METHODS

A multisite, double-blind trial randomized fatigued cancer survivors to 2000mg of American ginseng vs a placebo for 8 weeks. The primary endpoint was the general subscale of the Multidimensional Fatigue Symptom Inventory-Short Form (MFSI-SF) at 4 weeks. Changes from baseline at 4 and 8 weeks were evaluated between arms by a two-sided, two-sample t test. Toxicities were evaluated by self-report and the National Cancer Institute's Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE) provider grading.

RESULTS

Three hundred sixty-four participants were enrolled from 40 institutions. Changes from baseline in the general subscale of the MFSI-SF were 14.4 (standard deviation [SD] = 27.1) in the ginseng arm vs 8.2 (SD = 24.8) in the placebo arm at 4 weeks (P = .07). A statistically significant difference was seen at 8 weeks with a change score of 20 (SD = 27) for the ginseng group and 10.3 (SD = 26.1) for the placebo group (P = .003). Greater benefit was reported in patients receiving active cancer treatment vs those who had completed treatment. Toxicities per self-report and CTCAE grading did not differ statistically significantly between arms.

CONCLUSIONS

Data support the benefit of American ginseng, 2000mg daily, on CRF over an 8-week period. There were no discernible toxicities associated with the treatment. Studies to increase knowledge to guide the role of ginseng to improve CRF are needed.

Phenotypic and functional analysis of the modification of murine bone marrow dendritic cells (BMDCs) induced by neutral Ginseng polysaccharides (NGP)

In this study, we reveal that a neutral polysaccharide isolated from a Chinese medicinal herb, named Ginseng (Panaxgiseng C.A. Meyer), promotes maturation of BMDCs via inducing changes both inside and outside BMDCs, as well as changes of functions. These affects of NGP on BMDCs were evaluated with use of conventional scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) for morphology of BMDCs, flow cytometry (FCM) for key surface markers of BMDCs, cytochemistry assay, FITC-dextran, bio-assay for their phagocytosis and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for cytokine production by BMDCs. Our results proved that NGP induced maturation of BMDCs as reflected by the downregulation of acid phosphatase (ACP) activity inside the BMDCs, which occurs when phagocytosis of BMDCs decreased, while antigen presentation increased upon maturation. These data also revealed higher expression of MHC II, CD80, CD86, CD83, CD40 and secretion of higher level of IL-12 and low level of TNF-α. Our approach suggests that NGP could therefore stimulate the maturation of murine BMDCs through a series of regulation to the BMDCs.

Treatment with diammonium glycyrrhizinate down-regulates M30 expression in ulcerative colitis in rats

AIM: To assess the therapeutic effect of diammonium glycyrrhizinate (DG) on 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced ulcerative colitis in rats and to explore the underlying mechanisms by detecting the expression of M30 and Fas/FasL.

METHODS: Thirty Wistar rats were equally randomized into a normal control group, a model group and a DG group. Ulcerative colitis was induced in the DG group and model group with TNBS by enema. After ten days, all rats were killed. Disease activity index (DAI), colon macroscopic damage score (CMDS) and histological damage score were calculated, and the expression of M30 and Fas/FasL in the colonic mucosa was detected by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS: Compared to normal controls, the DAI, CMDS and histological damage score significantly increased in model rats (7.06 ± 0.80 vs 0.32 ± 0.14; 6.03 ± 0.61 vs 0.19 ± 0.16; 5.84 ± 0.53 vs 0.22 ± 0.11, P < 0.01). Compared to the model group, the above parameters were significantly improved in the DG group (3.33 ± 0.27 vs 7.06 ± 0.80; 3.29 ± 0.36 vs 6.03 ± 0.61; 2.98 ± 0.24 vs 5.84 ± 0.53, P < 0.05). Compared to the normal control group, the expression of M30 and Fas/FasL was up-regulated in the model group and DG group (5.76 ± 0.66 vs 0.42 ± 0.18; 26.62 ± 4.20 vs 10.81 ± 2.20; 17.11 ± 3.12 vs 6.02 ± 1.02, P < 0.01). Compared to the model group, the expression of M30 and Fas/FasL was remarkably decreased in the DG group (2.24 ± 0.48 vs 5.76 ± 0.66; 17.23 ± 3.20 vs 26.62 ± 4.20; 11.02 ± 2.12 vs 17.11 ± 3.12, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION: Treatment with DG could reduce inflammatory injury in rats with experimental ulcerative colitis possibly by reducing the expression Fas/FasL and inhibiting apoptosis of cells in the colonic mucosa.

Characterization of the ginsenoside-transforming recombinant β-glucosidase from Actinosynnema mirum and bioconversion of major ginsenosides into minor ginsenosides

This study focused on the cloning, expression, and characterization of ginsenoside-transforming recombinant β-glucosidase from Actinosynnema mirum KACC 20028(T) in order to biotransform ginsenosides efficiently. The gene, termed as bglAm, encoding a β-glucosidase (BglAm) belonging to the glycoside hydrolase family 3 was cloned. bglAm consisted of 1,830 bp (609 amino acid residues) with a predicted molecular mass of 65,277 Da. This enzyme was overexpressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) using a GST-fused pGEX 4T-1 vector system. The recombinant BglAm was purified with a GST·bind agarose resin and characterized. The optimum conditions of the recombinant BglAm were pH 7.0 and 37 °C. BglAm could hydrolyze the outer and inner glucose moieties at the C3 and C20 of the protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides (i.e., Rb(1) and Rd, gypenoside XVII) to produce protopanaxadiol via gypenoside LXXV, F(2), and Rh(2)(S) with various pathways. BglAm can effectively transform the ginsenoside Rb(1) to gypenoside XVII and Rd to F(2); the K (m) values of Rb(1) and Rd were 0.69 ± 0.06 and 0.45 ± 0.02 mM, respectively, and the V (max) values were 16.13 ± 0.29 and 51.56 ± 1.35 μmol min(-1) mg(-1) of protein, respectively. Furthermore, BglAm could convert the protopanaxatriol-type ginsenoside Re and Rg(1) into Rg(2)(S) and Rh(1)(S) hydrolyzing the attached glucose moiety at the C6 and C20 positions, respectively. These various ginsenoside-hydrolyzing pathways of BglAm may assist in producing the minor ginsenosides from abundant major ginsenosides.

Eastern blotting analysis and isolation of two new dammarane-type saponins from American ginseng

Ginsenosides, the major active component of American ginseng, were analyzed using eastern blotting with anti-ginsenoside Rb(1) and Rg(1) monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). Immunoassay-guided fractionation of the methanol extract of American ginseng and column chromatography led to the isolation of two new minor dammarane-type saponins, named quinquenosides Ja (1) and Jb (2). Their structures were elucidated to be 6-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-20-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl(1→4)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-3β,6α,12β,20β-tetrahydroxydammar-24-ene (1) and 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-20-O-{[α-L-arabinofuranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranosyl](1→6)-β-D-glucopyranosyl}-3β,12β,20β-trihydroxydammar-24-ene (2) on the basis of chemical and spectroscopic methods.

A limited role of p53 on the ability of a Hexane fraction of American ginseng to suppress mouse colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is debilitating and carries a high colon cancer risk. Apoptosis of inflammatory cells is a key mechanism regulating UC. We have recently shown that American ginseng (AG), and to a greater extent, a Hexane fraction of AG (HAG) can cause apoptosis and suppress mouse colitis through a p53-mediated mechanism. Here, we tested the hypothesis that HAG suppresses colitis through a p53 mechanism. We found only a limited impact of p53 in the ability of HAG to induce inflammatory cell apoptosis and suppress mouse colitis in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we asked whether HAG could cause cell cycle arrest of HCT116 colon cancer cells in vitro. Interestingly, HAG caused a G1 arrest of such cells independent of p53 status. Findings are significant because HAG suppresses colitis and associated colon cancer, and mutation in p53 is observed in most colitis-driven colon cancers. Therefore, HAG might be very effective in targeting the inflammatory cells and cancer cells since it induces apoptosis of inflammatory cells and cell cycle arrest in both p53^−/− and WT p53 colon cancer cells.

A hexane fraction of American ginseng suppresses mouse colitis and associated colon cancer: anti-inflammatory and proapoptotic mechanisms

Ulcerative colitis is a chronic inflammatory condition associated with a high colon cancer risk. We have previously reported that American ginseng extract significantly reduced the inflammatory parameters of chemically induced colitis. The aim of this study was to further delineate the components of American ginseng that suppress colitis and prevent colon cancer. Among five different fractions of American ginseng (butanol, hexane, ethylacetate, dichloromethane, and water), a hexane fraction has particularly potent antioxidant and proapoptotic properties. The effects of this fraction were shown in a mouse macrophage cell line (ANA-1 cells), in a human lymphoblastoid cell line (TK6), and in an ex vivo model (CD4(+)/CD25(-) primary effector T cells). A key in vivo finding was that compared with the whole American ginseng extract, the hexane fraction of American ginseng was more potent in treating colitis in a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) mouse model, as well as suppressing azoxymethane/DSS-induced colon cancer. Furthermore, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) labeling of inflammatory cells within the colonic mesenteric lymph nodes was elevated in mice consuming DSS + the hexane fraction of American ginseng. Results are consistent with our in vitro data and with the hypothesis that the hexane fraction of American ginseng has anti-inflammatory properties and drives inflammatory cell apoptosis in vivo, providing a mechanism by which this fraction protects from colitis in this DSS mouse model. This study moves us closer to understanding the molecular components of American ginseng that suppress colitis and prevent colon cancer associated with colitis.

Evaluation of an extract of North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) in Candida albicans-infected complement-deficient mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng is a widely consumed aromatic herb that is purported to have health benefits. Several studies report a beneficial impact of ginseng or its derivatives on Candida albicans infection in mice and suggest that its immune-modulatory properties contribute to this effect. However, these studies generally administered ginseng to experimental animals by injection, whereas people typically ingest ginseng. Furthermore, although disseminated candiasis is typically a disease of immune-impaired hosts, previous studies have generally used immune competent host species in the assessments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We evaluated the efficacy of an ingested extract of ginseng against Candida albicans infection in DBA/2J mice, which are highly susceptible to Candida albicans infection. A ginseng extract was added to the drinking water for two days before and for the remainder of the study after intravenous inoculation of mice with Candida albicans. Mice were evaluated for morbidity, mortality, Candida albicans titers, and concentrations of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines.

RESULTS

Ingestion of the ginseng extract did not significantly affect overall morbidity or mortality. However, ingestion of the extract was associated with significantly lower renal titers of Candida albicans and with significantly lower concentrations of some inflammatory cytokines in kidney and/or serum.

CONCLUSIONS

Assessment of morbidity, mortality, inflammatory markers, and renal titers after spontaneous ingestion of ginseng by susceptible hosts represents a comprehensive approach to characterizations of therapeutic efficacy against infectious agents. Our findings extend previous reports of the efficacy of ginseng against Candida albicans by demonstrating significant reductions in infectious load and some markers of inflammation in susceptible mice. Our data therefore support further assessment of the immune-modulatory properties of this widely consumed herb and its components.

Systematic review of randomized controlled trials evaluating the efficacy and safety of ginseng

This systematic review aims to evaluate the available evidence from randomized clinical trials of the clinical efficacy and safety of ginseng. Systematic literature searches were performed in 13 databases up to March 2009 without language restriction. All randomized clinical trials evaluating the clinical effects or safety of the use of ginseng monopreparations (Panax ginseng or P. quinquefolium) were considered for inclusion. A total of 411 potentially relevant studies were identified and 57 randomized clinical trials were included. The main indications included glucose metabolism, physical performance, psychomotor function, sexual function, cardiac function, pulmonary disease, and cerebrovascular disease. We found strong evidence of a positive effect of ginseng on glucose metabolism, psychomotor function, and pulmonary disease, whereas evidence suggests that ginseng is not effective at enhancing physical performance. However, ginseng generally has a good safety profile and the incidence of adverse effects seems to be low. In conclusion, our review compiles the evidence on the use of ginseng, finding a strong positive potential for glucose metabolism, psychomotor function, and pulmonary disease, but not for physical performance enhancement.

Suppression of colitis in mice by Cl-amidine: a novel peptidylarginine deiminase inhibitor

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), mainly Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, are dynamic, chronic inflammatory conditions that are associated with an increased colon cancer risk. Inflammatory cell apoptosis is a key mechanism for regulating IBD. Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) catalyze the posttranslational conversion of peptidylarginine to peptidylcitrulline in a calcium-dependent, irreversible reaction and mediate the effects of proinflammatory cytokines. Because PAD levels are elevated in mouse and human colitis, we hypothesized that a novel small-molecule inhibitor of the PADs, i.e., chloramidine (Cl-amidine), could suppress colitis in a dextran sulfate sodium mouse model. Results are consistent with this hypothesis, as demonstrated by the finding that Cl-amidine treatment, both prophylactic and after the onset of disease, reduced the clinical signs and symptoms of colitis, without any indication of toxic side effects. Interestingly, Cl-amidine drives apoptosis of inflammatory cells in vitro and in vivo, providing a mechanism by which Cl-amidine suppresses colitis. In total, these data help validate the PADs as therapeutic targets for the treatment of IBD and further suggest Cl-amidine as a candidate therapy for this disease.

Ginsenosides from American ginseng: chemical and pharmacological diversity

Ginseng occupies a prominent position in the list of best-selling natural products in the world. Compared to the long history of use and widespread research on Asian ginseng, the study of American ginseng is relatively limited. In the past decade, some promising advances have been achieved in understanding the chemistry, pharmacology and structure-function relationship of American ginseng. To date, there is no systematic review of American ginseng. In this review, the different structures of the ginsenosides in American ginseng are described, including naturally occurring compounds and those resulting from steaming or biotransformation. Preclinical and clinical studies published in the past decade are also discussed. Highlighted are the chemical and pharmacological diversity and potential structural-activity relationship of ginsenosides. The goal is that this article is a useful reference to chemists and biologists researching American ginseng, and will open the door to agents in drug discovery.

American ginseng: potential structure-function relationship in cancer chemoprevention

Ginseng has a prominent position on the list of best-selling herbal products in the world, and its main active constituents are thought to be ginsenosides. Compared with the long history of use and widespread research on Asian ginseng, studies of American ginseng are relatively limited, especially regarding cancer chemoprevention. In recent studies of American ginseng, steaming or heating altered the ginsenoside profile and thereby increased anticancer effects. Yet the ginsenoside structures and their activities have not been systematically elucidated. In this commentary, we introduce the different ginsenosides in American ginseng, both the naturally occurring compounds and those resulting from steaming or biotransformation. We briefly review American ginseng's reported anticancer effects and their mechanisms of action, and explore the possible structural-function relationship with a focus on sugar molecules, hydroxyl groups and stereoselectivity in ginsenosides. Understanding these relationships may produce insights into chemical and pharmacological approaches for enhancing the chemopreventive effects of ginsenoside and for developing novel anticancer agents.