PGK1 is a Potential Survival Biomarker and Invasion Promoter by Regulating the HIF-1α-Mediated Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Process in Breast Cancer

PGK1 Is Involved in the HIF-1 Signaling Pathway as a Hub Gene for Ferroptosis After Traumatic Brain Injury

The pathogenesis of ferroptosis in traumatic brain injury (TBI) is unclear; therefore, we aimed to identify key molecules associated with ferroptosis in TBI using bioinformatics analysis to determine its underlying mechanisms. GSE128543 dataset was downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, and TBI-associated modules were obtained by weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). We identified 60 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) by intersecting the modules with ferroptosis and glycolysis/gluconeogenesis gene libraries. The hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) signaling pathway was identified to be critical for ferroptosis post-TBI, and protein-protein interaction (PPI) network identified 20 hub genes, including phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1), ribosomal protein (RP) family, pyruvate kinase M1/2 (PKM), hypoxia-inducible factor 1α subunit (HIF-1α), and MYC genes. In this study, we further explored the role of PGK1, a gene involved in HIF-1 signaling pathway; however, its role and mechanism in TBI are still unclear. Moreover, we constructed a TBI mouse model and examined PGK1 and HIF-1α expression levels, and the results revealed their expressions increased after cortical injury in mice and they co-localized in the same cells. Furthermore, we examined the expressions of PGK1 in the cerebrospinal fluid of 20 clinical patients with different degrees of brain injuries within 48 h of surgery and examined the cognitive function of patients according to the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS). The results revealed that PGK1 expression level was negatively correlated with the severity of the brain injury. These findings suggest that PGK1 may become a potential hub gene for ferroptosis via the HIF-1 signaling pathway, second to neurological injury after TBI, thereby affecting patient prognosis.

Effects of Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél. polysaccharide acid hydrolysate on glucose metabolism in diabetic mice under oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress can lead to uncontrolled glucose metabolism and, thus, diabetes. Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél. polysaccharides possess biological activities, such as antioxidant and hypoglycemic effects, but their mechanism of their acid hydrolysates on oxidative stress-injured glucose metabolism disorders is unclear.

PURPOSE

Using diabetic mice, we investigated the effect of the acid hydrolysate of polysaccharides from Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél. on improving diabetes.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

The structural information of sample polysaccharides was measured by high performance gel permeation chromatography, nuclear magnetic resolution, and high performance liquid chromatography. The diabetic model was established by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. For eight consecutive weeks, the mice were orally administered sample polysaccharides (100, 200, and 300 mg/kg b.w. per day) for intervention. The improvement effect of the samples on diabetes was explored by detecting the changes in biochemical indicators in mice, and the underlying mechanism was studied by transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis.

RESULTS

The results showed that acid hydrolysate of Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél. polysaccharides consisted mainly of mannose, xylose, glucuronic acid, and glucose; its weight-averaged molecular weight was 6.3842 × 104 Dalton, its number average molecular weight was 2.9594 × 104 Dalton; and the molecule contained α-Glc(1→4)-, β-Glc(1→3)-, and β-Man(1→4)-linked glycosidic bonds. A total of 100 mg/kg b.w. per day sample was the best intervention concentration. After eight weeks of intervention, the sample polysaccharides significantly reduced dynamic blood glucose and serum lipids, enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities, promoted glucagon like peptide-1 and insulin secretion, improved insulin sensitivity and alleviated insulin resistance in diabetic mice. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses showed that sample polysaccharides was able to ameliorate disorders of glucose metabolism by modulating gene expression such as glucokinase; and modulate the state of oxidative stress in mice in vivo by regulating the glutathione metabolism pathway.

CONCLUSION

Acid hydrolysate of Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél. polysaccharides improved glucose metabolism disorders by slowing down the oxidative stress injury in mice, thereby alleviating diabetes. This study provided a basis for determining the underlying mechanism of the antidiabetic effect of Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél. polysaccharides, which would significantly improve the deep development and application of these materials in diabetes control.

Histone lactylation promotes malignant progression by facilitating USP39 expression to target PI3K/AKT/HIF-1α signal pathway in endometrial carcinoma

Histone lactylation has been reported to involve in tumorigenesis and development. However, its biological regulatory mechanism in endometrial carcinoma (EC) is yet to be reported in detail. In the present study, we evaluated the modification levels of global lactylation in EC tissues by immunohistochemistry and western blot, and it was elevated. The non-metabolizable glucose analog 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) and oxamate treatment could decrease the level of lactylation so as to inhibit the proliferation and migration ability, induce apoptosis significantly, and arrest the cell cycle of EC cells. Mechanically, histone lactylation stimulated USP39 expression to promote tumor progression. Moreover, USP39 activated PI3K/AKT/HIF-1α signaling pathway via interacting with and stabilizing PGK1 to stimulate glycolysis. The results of present study suggest that histone lactylation plays an important role in the progression of EC by promoting the malignant biological behavior of EC cells, thus providing insights into potential therapeutic strategies for endometrial cancer.

Targeting the Warburg effect: A revisited perspective from molecular mechanisms to traditional and innovative therapeutic strategies in cancer

Cancer reprogramming is an important facilitator of cancer development and survival, with tumor cells exhibiting a preference for aerobic glycolysis beyond oxidative phosphorylation, even under sufficient oxygen supply condition. This metabolic alteration, known as the Warburg effect, serves as a significant indicator of malignant tumor transformation. The Warburg effect primarily impacts cancer occurrence by influencing the aerobic glycolysis pathway in cancer cells. Key enzymes involved in this process include glucose transporters (GLUTs), HKs, PFKs, LDHs, and PKM2. Moreover, the expression of transcriptional regulatory factors and proteins, such as FOXM1, p53, NF-κB, HIF1α, and c-Myc, can also influence cancer progression. Furthermore, lncRNAs, miRNAs, and circular RNAs play a vital role in directly regulating the Warburg effect. Additionally, gene mutations, tumor microenvironment remodeling, and immune system interactions are closely associated with the Warburg effect. Notably, the development of drugs targeting the Warburg effect has exhibited promising potential in tumor treatment. This comprehensive review presents novel directions and approaches for the early diagnosis and treatment of cancer patients by conducting in-depth research and summarizing the bright prospects of targeting the Warburg effect in cancer.

Hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) in breast cancer: The crosstalk with oncogenic and onco-suppressor factors in regulation of cancer hallmarks

Low oxygen level at tumor microenvironment leads to a condition, known as hypoxia that is implicated in cancer progression. Upon hypoxia, HIF-1α undergoes activation and due to its oncogenic function and interaction with other molecular pathways, promotes tumor progression. The HIF-1α role in regulating breast cancer progression is described, Overall, HIF-1α has upregulation in breast tumor and due to its tumor-promoting function, its upregulation is in favor of breast tumor progression. HIF-1α overexpression prevents apoptosis in breast tumor and it promotes cell cycle progression. Silencing HIF-1α triggers cycle arrest and decreases growth. Migration of breast tumor enhances by HIF-1α signaling and it mainly induces EMT in providing metastasis. HIF-1α upregulation stimulates drug resistance and radio-resistance in breast tumor. Furthermore, HIF-1α signaling induces immune evasion of breast cancer. Berberine and pharmacological intervention suppress HIF-1α signaling in breast tumor and regulation of HIF-1α by non-coding RNAs occurs. Furthermore, HIF-1α is a biomarker in clinic.

Glucocorticoid Receptors Drive Breast Cancer Cell Migration and Metabolic Reprogramming via PDK4

Corticosteroids act on the glucocorticoid receptor (GR; NR3C1) to resolve inflammation and are routinely prescribed to breast cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy treatment to alleviate side effects. Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs) account for 15% to 20% of diagnoses and lack expression of estrogen and progesterone receptors as well as amplified HER2, but they often express high GR levels. GR is a mediator of TNBC progression to advanced metastatic disease; however, the mechanisms underpinning this transition to more aggressive behavior remain elusive. We previously showed that tissue/cellular stress (hypoxia, chemotherapies) as well as factors in the tumor microenvironment (transforming growth factor β [TGF-β], hepatocyte growth factor [HGF]) activate p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), which phosphorylates GR on Ser134. In the absence of ligand, pSer134-GR further upregulates genes important for responses to cellular stress, including key components of the p38 MAPK pathway. Herein, we show that pSer134-GR is required for TNBC metastatic colonization to the lungs of female mice. To understand the mechanisms of pSer134-GR action in the presence of GR agonists, we examined glucocorticoid-driven transcriptomes in CRISPR knock-in models of TNBC cells expressing wild-type or phospho-mutant (S134A) GR. We identified dexamethasone- and pSer134-GR-dependent regulation of specific gene sets controlling TNBC migration (NEDD9, CSF1, RUNX3) and metabolic adaptation (PDK4, PGK1, PFKFB4). TNBC cells harboring S134A-GR displayed metabolic reprogramming that was phenocopied by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4) knockdown. PDK4 knockdown or chemical inhibition also blocked cancer cell migration. Our results reveal a convergence of GR agonists (ie, host stress) with cellular stress signaling whereby pSer134-GR critically regulates TNBC metabolism, an exploitable target for the treatment of this deadly disease.

Regulation of Autophagy via Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism in Cancer

Metabolic changes are an important component of tumor cell progression. Tumor cells adapt to environmental stresses via changes to carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Autophagy, a physiological process in mammalian cells that digests damaged organelles and misfolded proteins via lysosomal degradation, is closely associated with metabolism in mammalian cells, acting as a meter of cellular ATP levels. In this review, we discuss the changes in glycolytic and lipid biosynthetic pathways in mammalian cells and their impact on carcinogenesis via the autophagy pathway. In addition, we discuss the impact of these metabolic pathways on autophagy in lung cancer.

Circular RNA circHMCU promotes breast tumorigenesis through miR-4458/PGK1 regulatory cascade

BACKGROUND

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are abnormally expressed in breast cancer (BC). However, the biological function and mechanism of circHMCU still need to be further explored.

METHODS

The expression levels of circHMCU, miR-4458 and phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) or western blot. The glucose uptake, lactate production and ATP level were assayed by related commercial kits. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8), 5'-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) and flow cytometry assays were used to test cell proliferation and apoptosis, respectively. The migratory and invasive abilities were detected by transwell and wound-healing assays. The relationships among circHMCU, miR-4458 and PGK1 were verified by dual-luciferase reporter assay. The function of circHMCU in tumor growth was evaluated by animal studies.

RESULTS

CircHMCU was upregulated in BC tissues and cell lines, whereas miR-4458 was downregulated. For biological experiments, circHMCU knockdown inhibited cell proliferation, migration, glycolysis, while promoted cell apoptosis. CircHMCU bound miR-4458, and miR-4458 targeted PGK1. MiR-4458 inhibition reversed circHMCM knockdown-mediated effects on BC cell malignant behaviors. MiR-4458 overexpression suppressed cell glycolysis, proliferation, and metastasis and promoted apoptosis in BC cells through PGK1 upregulation. Additionally, circHMCU suppressed tumor growth in vivo.

CONCLUSION

CircHMCU acted as an oncogenic factor by regulating the miR-4458/PGK1 axis in BC.

Development and validation of a combined hypoxia and ferroptosis prognostic signature for breast cancer

Background

Hypoxia is involved in tumor biological processes and disease progression. Ferroptosis, as a newly discovered programmed cell death process, is closely related to breast cancer (BC) occurrence and development. However, reliable prognostic signatures based on a combination of hypoxia and ferroptosis in BC have not been developed.

Method

We set The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) breast cancer cohort as training set and the Molecular Taxonomy of Breast Cancer International Consortium (METABRIC) BC cohort as the validation set. Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) and COX regression approaches were used to construct ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs) and hypoxia-related genes (HRGs) prognostic signature (HFRS). The CIBERSORT algorithm and ESTIMATE score were used to explore the relationship between HFRS and tumor immune microenvironment. Immunohistochemical staining was used to detect protein expression in tissue samples. A nomogram was developed to advance the clinical application of HFRS signature.

Results

Ten ferroptosis-related genes and hypoxia-related genes were screened to construct the HFRS prognostic signature in TCGA BC cohort, and the predictive capacity was verified in METABRIC BC cohort. BC patients with high-HFRS had shorter survival time, higher tumor stage, and a higher rate of positive lymph node. Moreover, high HFRS was associated with high hypoxia, ferroptosis, and immunosuppression status. A nomogram that was constructed with age, stage, and HFRS signature showed a strong prognostic capability to predict overall survival (OS) for BC patients.

Conclusion

We developed a novel prognostic model with hypoxia and ferroptosis-related genes to predict OS, and characterize the immune microenvironment of BC patients, which might provide new cures for clinical decision-making and individual treatment of BC patients.

PGK1 modulates balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines by interacting with ITI-H4

Inter-α-trypsin inhibitor heavy chain 4 (ITI-H4) is one of the acute phase proteins and is mainly related with inflammatory diseases such as bacterial bloodstream infection and recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL). In a previous study, ITI-H4 was reported to be cleaved by kallikrein B1 (KLKB1) and its cleaved form induces the imbalance between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, in this study, putative substrates of ITI-H4 were isolated by immunoprecipitation and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS) analysis. Of those, phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) was found to be a binding protein of ITI-H4. PGK1 increases the level of ITI-H4 expression and blocks the cleavage of ITI-H4 mediated by KLKB1. It also inhibits pro-inflammatory response by inhibiting the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. Therefore, PGK1, a novel binding partner of ITI-H4, is expected to have cellular functions in the pathogenesis of ITI-H4-related inflammatory diseases.

Mining TCGA Database for Genes with Prognostic Value in Breast Cancer

The aim of the study was to use transcriptomics data to identify genes associated with advanced/aggressive breast cancer and their effect on survival outcomes. We used the publicly available The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database to obtain RNA sequence data from patients with less than five years survival (Poor Prognosis, n = 101), patients with greater than five years survival (Good Prognosis, n = 200), as well as unpaired normal tissue data (normal, n = 105). The data analyses performed included differential expression between groups and selection of subsets of genes, gene ontology, cell enrichment analysis, and survival analyses. Gene ontology results showed significantly reduced enrichment in gene sets related to tumor immune microenvironment in Poor Prognosis and cell enrichment analysis confirmed significantly reduced numbers of macrophages M1, CD8 T cells, plasma cells and dendritic cells in samples in the Poor Prognosis samples compared with Good Prognosis. A subset of 742 genes derived from differential expression analysis as well as genes coding for immune checkpoint molecules was evaluated for their effect on overall survival. In conclusion, this study may contribute to the better understanding of breast cancer transcriptomics and provide possible targets for further research and eventual therapeutic interventions.

Investigating the Function of Human Jumping Translocation Breakpoint Protein (hJTB) and Its Interacting Partners through In-Solution Proteomics of MCF7 Cells

Human jumping translocation breakpoint (hJTB) gene is located on chromosome 1q21 and is involved in unbalanced translocation in many types of cancer. JTB protein is ubiquitously present in normal cells but it is found to be overexpressed or downregulated in various types of cancer cells, where this protein and its isoforms promote mitochondrial dysfunction, resistance to apoptosis, genomic instability, proliferation, invasion and metastasis. Hence, JTB could be a tumor biomarker for different types of cancer, such as breast cancer (BC), and could be used as a drug target for therapy. However, the functions of the protein or the pathways through which it increases cell proliferation and invasiveness of cancer cells are not well-known. Therefore, we aim to investigate the functions of JTB by using in-solution digestion-based cellular proteomics of control and upregulated and downregulated JTB protein in MCF7 breast cancer cell line, taking account that in-solution digestion-based proteomics experiments are complementary to the initial in-gel based ones. Proteomics analysis allows investigation of protein dysregulation patterns that indicate the function of the protein and its interacting partners, as well as the pathways and biological processes through which it functions. We concluded that JTB dysregulation increases the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) potential and cell proliferation, harnessing cytoskeleton organization, apical junctional complex, metabolic reprogramming, and cellular proteostasis. Deregulated JTB expression was found to be associated with several proteins involved in mitochondrial organization and function, oxidative stress (OS), apoptosis, and interferon alpha and gamma signaling. Consistent and complementary to our previous results emerged by using in-gel based proteomics of transfected MCF7 cells, JTB-related proteins that are overexpressed in this experiment suggest the development of a more aggressive phenotype and behavior for this luminal type A non-invasive/poor-invasive human BC cell line that does not usually migrate or invade compared with the highly metastatic MDA-MB-231 cells. This more aggressive phenotype of MCF7 cells related to JTB dysregulation and detected by both in-gel and in-solution proteomics could be promoted by synergistic upregulation of EMT, Mitotic spindle and Fatty acid metabolism pathways. However, in both JTB dysregulated conditions, several downregulated JTB-interacting proteins predominantly sustain antitumor activities, attenuating some of the aggressive phenotypical and behavioral traits promoted by the overexpressed JTB-related partners.

Development of an Independent Prognostic Signature Based on Three Hypoxia-Related Genes for Breast Cancer

Background. Hypoxia was considered to be a prognostic indicator in a variety of solid tumors. This study aims at identifying the hypoxia-related genes (HRGs) in breast cancer (BC) and the feasibility of HRGs as a prognostic indicator. Methods. We downloaded the mRNA expression data of BC patients from TCGA and GEO databases. The LASSO Cox regression analysis was applied to screen the hub HRGs to establish a prognostic Risk Score. The independence of Risk Score was assessed by multivariate Cox regression analysis. And the immune checkpoint analysis was also performed. In addition, we also detected the expression level of hub HRGs in MCF-10A cells, MCF-7 cells, and SK-BR-3 cells by RT-qPCR. Results. Three HRGs were identified as hub genes with prognostic value in BC, including CA9, PGK1, and SDC1. The Risk Score constructed by these three genes could efficiently distinguish the prognosis of different BC patients and has been shown to be an independent prognostic indicator. In the high-risk group, patients had lower overall survival and poorer prognosis. In addition, the expression levels of five immune checkpoints (PD1, CTLA4, TIGIT, LAG3, and TIM3) in the high-risk group were significantly higher than those in the low-risk group. Moreover, the expression levels of PGK1 and SDC1 in BC cells were significantly increased. Conclusion. In this study, we established an efficiently model based on three optimal HRGs (CA9, PGK1, and SDC1) could clearly distinguish the prognosis of different BC patients.

Proteomics-Based Identification of Dysregulated Proteins in Breast Cancer

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is still widely used as a morphology-based assay for in situ analysis of target proteins as specific tumor antigens. However, as a very heterogeneous collection of neoplastic diseases, breast cancer (BC) requires an accurate identification and characterization of larger panels of candidate biomarkers, beyond ER, PR, and HER2 proteins, for diagnosis and personalized treatment, without the limited availability of antibodies that are required to identify specific proteins. Top-down, middle-down, and bottom-up mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics approaches complement traditional histopathological tissue analysis to examine expression, modification, and interaction of hundreds to thousands of proteins simultaneously. In this review, we discuss the proteomics-based identification of dysregulated proteins in BC that are essential for the following issues: discovery and validation of new biomarkers by analysis of solid and liquid/non-invasive biopsies, cell lines, organoids and xenograft models; identification of panels of biomarkers for early detection and accurate discrimination between cancer, benign and normal tissues; identification of subtype-specific and stage-specific protein expression profiles in BC grading and measurement of disease progression; characterization of new subtypes of BC; characterization and quantitation of post-translational modifications (PTMs) and aberrant protein-protein interactions (PPI) involved in tumor development; characterization of the global remodeling of BC tissue homeostasis, diagnosis and prognostic information; and deciphering of molecular functions, biological processes and mechanisms through which the dysregulated proteins cause tumor initiation, invasion, and treatment resistance.

The Role of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor Isoforms in Breast Cancer and Perspectives on Their Inhibition in Therapy

Simple Summary

In many types of cancers, the activity of the hypoxia-inducible factors enhances hallmarks such as suppression of the immune response, altered metabolism, angiogenesis, invasion, metastasis, and more. As a result of observing these features, HIFs became attractive targets in designing anticancer therapy. The lack of effective breast treatment based on HIFs inhibitors and the elusive role of those factors in this type of cancer raises the concern wheter targeting hypoxia-inducible factors is the right path. Results of the study on breast cancer cell lines suggest the need to consider aspects like HIF-1α versus HIF-2α isoforms inhibition, double versus singular isoform inhibition, different hormone receptors status, metastases, and perhaps different not yet investigated issues. In other words, targeting hypoxia-inducible factors in breast cancers should be preceded by a better understanding of their role in this type of cancer. The aim of this paper is to review the role, functions, and perspectives on hypoxia-inducible factors inhibition in breast cancer.

Abstract

Hypoxia is a common feature associated with many types of cancer. The activity of the hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), the critical element of response and adaptation to hypoxia, enhances cancer hallmarks such as suppression of the immune response, altered metabolism, angiogenesis, invasion, metastasis, and more. The HIF-1α and HIF-2α isoforms show similar regulation characteristics, although they are active in different types of hypoxia and can show different or even opposite effects. Breast cancers present several unique ways of non-canonical hypoxia-inducible factors activity induction, not limited to the hypoxia itself. This review summarizes different effects of HIFs activation in breast cancer, where areas such as metabolism, evasion of the immune response, cell survival and death, angiogenesis, invasion, metastasis, cancer stem cells, and hormone receptors status have been covered. The differences between HIF-1α and HIF-2α activity and their impacts are given special attention. The paper also discusses perspectives on using hypoxia-inducible factors as targets in anticancer therapy, given current knowledge acquired in molecular studies.

A potent PGK1 antagonist reveals PGK1 regulates the production of IL-1β and IL-6

Glycolytic metabolism enzymes have been implicated in the immunometabolism field through changes in metabolic status. PGK1 is a catalytic enzyme in the glycolytic pathway. Here, we set up a high-throughput screen platform to identify PGK1 inhibitors. DC-PGKI is an ATP-competitive inhibitor of PGK1 with an affinity of K_d = 99.08 nmol/L. DC-PGKI stabilizes PGK1 in vitro and in vivo, and suppresses both glycolytic activity and the kinase function of PGK1. In addition, DC-PGKI unveils that PGK1 regulates production of IL-1β and IL-6 in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Mechanistically, inhibition of PGK1 with DC-PGKI results in NRF2 (nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2, NFE2L2) accumulation, then NRF2 translocates to the nucleus and binds to the proximity region of Il-1β and Il-6 genes, and inhibits LPS-induced expression of these genes. DC-PGKI ameliorates colitis in the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis mouse model. These data support PGK1 as a regulator of macrophages and suggest potential utility of PGK1 inhibitors in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.

Crocodylus porosus Sera a Potential Source to Identify Novel Epigenetic Targets: In Silico Analysis

We have previously found that sera from Crocodylus porosus contain anticancer agents and the treatment of MCF7 cells with this serum resulted in the differential expression of 51 genes. The purpose of this study was to use in silico analysis to identify genes that might be epigenetically modulated in cells treated with crocodile serum and to understand the role of potential genes as novel candidates with epigenetic therapeutic potential. The findings report five proto-oncogenes (TUBA1B, SLC2A1, PGK1, CCND1, and NCAPD2) and two tumor suppressor genes (RPLP2, RPL37) as novel therapeutic targets. Furthermore, we present a comprehensive overview of relevant studies on epigenetic regulation of these genes along with an insight into their clinical implications. Therefore, elucidating the molecules present in the serum and gut bacteria of reptiles such as crocodiles may offer insights into the role of these genes on longevity, health, disease, and life expectancy.

Identification of a combined apoptosis and hypoxia gene signature for predicting prognosis and immune infiltration in breast cancer

Background

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignant tumor worldwide. Apoptosis and hypoxia are involved in the progression of BC, but reliable biomarkers for these have not been developed. We hope to explore a gene signature that combined apoptosis and hypoxia‐related genes (AHGs) to predict BC prognosis and immune infiltration.

Methods

We collected the mRNA expression profiles and clinical data information of BC patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. The gene signature based on AHGs was constructed using the univariate Cox regression, least absolute shrinkage and selection operator, and multivariate Cox regression analysis. The associations between risk scores, immune infiltration, and immune checkpoint gene expression were studied using single‐sample gene set enrichment analysis. Besides, gene signature and independent clinicopathological characteristics were combined to establish a nomogram. Finally, Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) were performed on the potential functions of AHGs.

Results

We identified a 16‐AHG signature (AGPAT1, BTBD6, EIF4EBP1, ERRFI1, FAM114A1, GRIP1, IRF2, JAK1, MAP2K6, MCTS1, NFKBIA, NFKBIZ, NUP43, PGK1, RCL1, and SGCE) that could independently predict BC prognosis. The median score of the risk model divided the patients into two subgroups. By contrast, patients in the high‐risk group had poorer prognosis, less abundance of immune cell infiltration, and expression of immune checkpoint genes. The gene signature and nomogram had good predictive effects on the overall survival of BC patients. GO and KEGG analyses revealed that the differential expression of AHGs may be closely related to tumor immunity.

Conclusion

We established and verified a 16‐AHG BC signature which may help predict prognosis, assess potential immunotherapy benefits, and provide inspiration for future research on the functions and mechanisms of AHGs in BC.

Tumor Cell Glycolysis—At the Crossroad of Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition and Autophagy

Upregulation of glycolysis, induction of epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) and macroautophagy (hereafter autophagy), are phenotypic changes that occur in tumor cells, in response to similar stimuli, either tumor cell-autonomous or from the tumor microenvironment. Available evidence, herein reviewed, suggests that glycolysis can play a causative role in the induction of EMT and autophagy in tumor cells. Thus, glycolysis has been shown to induce EMT and either induce or inhibit autophagy. Glycolysis-induced autophagy occurs both in the presence (glucose starvation) or absence (glucose sufficiency) of metabolic stress. In order to explain these, in part, contradictory experimental observations, we propose that in the presence of stimuli, tumor cells respond by upregulating glycolysis, which will then induce EMT and inhibit autophagy. In the presence of stimuli and glucose starvation, upregulated glycolysis leads to adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation and autophagy induction. In the presence of stimuli and glucose sufficiency, upregulated glycolytic enzymes (e.g., aldolase or glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase) or decreased levels of glycolytic metabolites (e.g., dihydroxyacetone phosphate) may mimic a situation of metabolic stress (herein referred to as “pseudostarvation”), leading, directly or indirectly, to AMPK activation and autophagy induction. We also discuss possible mechanisms, whereby glycolysis can induce a mixed mesenchymal/autophagic phenotype in tumor cells. Subsequently, we address unresolved problems in this field and possible therapeutic consequences.

PGK1 contributes to tumorigenesis and sorafenib resistance of renal clear cell carcinoma via activating CXCR4/ERK signaling pathway and accelerating glycolysis

Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) has complicated and multiple functions in cancer occurrence, tumor progression and drug resistance. Sorafenib is the first-line treatment targeted drug for patients with kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC) as a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, but sorafenib resistance is extremely common to retard therapy efficiency. So far, it is unclear whether and how PGK1 is involved in the pathogenesis and sorafenib resistance of KIRC. Herein, the molecular mechanisms of PGK1-mediated KIRC progression and sorafenib resistance have been explored by comprehensively integrative studies using biochemical approaches, mass spectrometry (MS) identification, microarray assay, nude mouse xenograft model and bioinformatics analysis. We have confirmed PGK1 is specifically upregulated in KIRC based on the transcriptome data generated by our own gene chip experiment, proteomics identification and the bioinformatics analysis for five online transcriptome datasets, and PGK1 upregulation in tumor tissues and serum is indicative with poor prognosis of KIRC patients. In the KIRC tissues, a high expression of PGK1 is often accompanied with an increase of glycolysis-related enzymes and CXCR4. PGK1 exhibits pro-tumorigenic properties in vitro and in a xenograft tumor model by accelerating glycolysis and inducing CXCR4-mediated phosphorylation of AKT and ERK. Moreover, PGK1 promotes sorafenib resistance via increasing CXCR4-mediated ERK phosphorylation. In conclusion, PGK1-invovled metabolic reprogramming and activation of CXCR4/ERK signaling pathway contributes to tumor growth and sorafenib resistance of KIRC.

Cellular stress responses and metabolic reprogramming in cancer progression and dormancy

Recurrent disease after prolonged cancer dormancy is a major cause of cancer associated mortality, yet many of the mechanisms that are engaged to initiate dormancy as well as later recurrence remain incompletely understood. It is known that cancer cells initiate adaptation mechanisms to adapt tightly regulated cellular processes to non-optimal growth environments; Recent investigations have begun to elucidate the contribution of these mechanisms to malignant progression, with intriguing studies now defining cellular stress as a key contributor to the development and maintenance of cancer dormancy. This review will focus on our current understanding of stress responses facilitating malignant cell adaptation and metabolic reprogramming to establish cancer dormancy.

PGK1 : An Essential Player in Modulating Tumor Metabolism

Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) is the first enzyme in glycolysis to generate a molecule of ATP in the conversion of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) to 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PG). In addition to the role of glycolysis, PGK-1 acts as a polymerase alpha cofactor protein, with effects on the tricarboxylic acid cycle, DNA replication and repair. Posttranslational modifications such as methylation, phosphorylation, and acetylation have been seen to activate PGK1 in cancer. High levels of intracellular PGK1 are associated with tumorigenesis and progression, and chemoradiotherapy resistance. However, high levels of extracellular PGK1 suppress angiogenesis and subsequently counteract cancer malignancy. Here we have summarized the current knowledge on the mechanisms and effects of PGK1 in various tumor types and evaluated its potential prognostic and therapeutic value in cancer. The data summarized here aims at providing molecular information and new ideas of employing natural products to combat cancer associated with PGK1.

The Metabolism Reprogramming of microRNA Let-7-Mediated Glycolysis Contributes to Autophagy and Tumor Progression

Cancer is usually a result of abnormal glucose uptake and imbalanced nutrient metabolization. The dysregulation of glucose metabolism, which controls the processes of glycolysis, gives rise to various physiological defects. Autophagy is one of the metabolic-related cellular functions and involves not only energy regeneration but also tumorigenesis. The dysregulation of autophagy impacts on the imbalance of metabolic homeostasis and leads to a variety of disorders. In particular, the microRNA (miRNA) Let-7 has been identified as related to glycolysis procedures such as tissue repair, stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes, and tumoral metastasis. In many cancers, the expression of glycolysis-related enzymes is correlated with Let-7, in which multiple enzymes are related to the regulation of the autophagy process. However, much recent research has not comprehensively investigated how Let-7 participates in glycolytic reprogramming or its links to autophagic regulations, mainly in tumor progression. Through an integrated literature review and omics-related profiling correlation, this review provides the possible linkage of the Let-7 network between glycolysis and autophagy, and its role in tumor progression.

Lung Adenocarcinoma Transcriptomic Analysis Predicts Adenylate Kinase Signatures Contributing to Tumor Progression and Negative Patient Prognosis

The ability to detect and respond to hypoxia within a developing tumor appears to be a common feature amongst most cancers. This hypoxic response has many molecular drivers, but none as widely studied as Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1 (HIF-1). Recent evidence suggests that HIF-1 biology within lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) may be associated with expression levels of adenylate kinases (AKs). Using LUAD patient transcriptome data, we sought to characterize AK gene signatures related to lung cancer hallmarks, such as hypoxia and metabolic reprogramming, to identify conserved biological themes across LUAD tumor progression. Transcriptomic analysis revealed perturbation of HIF-1 targets to correlate with altered expression of most AKs, with AK4 having the strongest correlation. Enrichment analysis of LUAD tumor AK4 gene signatures predicts signatures involved in pyrimidine, and by extension, nucleotide metabolism across all LUAD tumor stages. To further discriminate potential drivers of LUAD tumor progression within AK4 gene signatures, partial least squares discriminant analysis was used at LUAD stage-stage interfaces, identifying candidate genes that may promote LUAD tumor growth or regression. Collectively, these results characterize regulatory gene networks associated with the expression of all nine human AKs that may contribute to underlying metabolic perturbations within LUAD and reveal potential mechanistic insight into the complementary role of AK4 in LUAD tumor development.

HPV16 E6/E7 stabilize PGK1 protein by reducing its poly-ubiquitination in cervical cancer

This study aimed to explore the expression profile, prognostic value, regulatory effect, and the underlying mechanism of dysregulation of phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) in high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV)-positive cervical epithelial squamous cell carcinoma (CESC). Bioinformatic analysis was performed using the CESC subset of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)-Cervical Cancer (CESC) and normal cervix in The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project. HPV-16 positive CaSki and SiHa cells were used as in vitro cell models. Results showed that compared to the normal cervix, CESC tissues had significantly higher expression of PGK1. CESC patients with the higher 50% expression of PGK1 had substantially shorter disease-specific survival (DSS), and progression-free survival (PFS) compared to the cases with the lower 50% expression of PGK1. PGK1 knockdown impaired, but PGK1 overexpression enhanced the proliferation, colony formation, aerobic glycolytic activities (lactate production, intracellular ATP levels, glucose uptake, and extracellular acidification rate), migration, and invasion of CaSki and SiHa cells. HPV-16 E6/E7 knockdown in CaSki and SiHa cells had limited influence on PGK1 transcription but significantly decreased the half-life of PGK1 protein. E6/E7 knockdown mediated PGK1 downregulation could be blocked by adding MG-132. PGK1 poly-ubiquitination was significantly enhanced after E6/E7 knockdown. In conclusion, this study showed that PGK1 expression might serve as a prognostic biomarker in cervical cancer. Its upregulation contributes to enhanced aerobic glycolysis, migration, and invasion of CESC cells. HPV16 E6/E7 stabilizes PGK1 protein by reducing its poly-ubiquitination.

Construction and validation of a metabolic gene-associated prognostic model for cervical carcinoma and the role on tumor microenvironment and immunity

Metabolic reprogramming is a common feature of tumor cells and is associated with tumorigenesis and progression. In this study, a metabolic gene-associated prognostic model (MGPM) was constructed using multiple bioinformatics analysis methods in cervical carcinoma (CC) tissues from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, which comprised fifteen differentially expressed metabolic genes (DEMGs). Patients were divided into a high-risk group with shorter overall survival (OS) and a low-risk group with better survival. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis showed that the MGPM precisely predicted the 1-, 3- and 5-year survival of CC patients. As expected, MGPM exhibited a favorable prognostic significance in the training and testing datasets of TCGA. And the clinicopathological parameters including stage, tumor (T) and metastasis (M) classifications had significant differences in low- and high-risk groups, which further demonstrated the MGPM had a favorite prognostic prediction ability. Additionally, patients with low-ESTMATEScore had a shorter OS and when those combined with high-risk scores presented a worse prognosis. Through “CIBERSORT” package and Wilcoxon rank-sum test, patients in the high-risk group with a poor prognosis showed lower levels of infiltration of T cell CD8 (P < 0.001), T cells memory activated (P = 0.010) and mast cells resting (P < 0.001), and higher levels of mast cells activated (P < 0.001), and we also found these patients had a worse response for immunosuppressive therapy. These findings demonstrate that MGPM accurately predicts survival outcomes in CC patients, which will be helpful for further optimizing immunotherapies for cancer by reprogramming its cell metabolism.

Ribosome Proteins Represented by RPL27A Mark the Development and Metastasis of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer in Mouse and Human

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is known to have a poor prognosis and limited treatment options. The lack of targeted therapies and poor prognosis of patients with TNBC have made it urgent to discover novel critical diagnosis and therapeutic targets in the TNBC field. Here, in the current study, we integrated the single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) data from four normal mouse mammary tissues and four mouse breast tumors. Comparative analysis was conducted to identify the gene profiles of normal epithelial cells and cancer cells at different models. Surprisingly, two ribosomal protein genes, Rpl27a and Rpl15, were significantly upregulated in the cancer cells in all the TNBC models. Next, we accessed the scRNA-seq data from human primary and metastatic TNBC tissues, and comparative analysis revealed gene profiles of human primary and metastatic TNBC cancer cells. Ribosomal protein genes, represented by RPL27A and RPL15, showed significantly upregulated expression in metastatic TNBC cancer cells. Pathway analysis on the upregulated genes of the metastatic TNBC cancer cells identified the key regulators and signaling pathways that were driving the metastasis of the TNBC cancer cells. Specifically, EIF2 signaling was significantly activated, and major member genes of this signaling pathway were upregulated. In vitro study revealed that targeting RPL27A or EIF2 signaling in a TNBC cell line, MDA-MB-231, significantly reduced cell migration and invasion. Altogether, these data suggested that the RPL27A gene is conducting critical functions in TNBC cancer development and metastasis and is a potential therapeutic target for TNBC.

Identification of CCNB2 as A Potential Non-Invasive Breast Cancer Biomarker in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Using The Systems Biology Approach

OBJECTIVE

Breast cancer (BC) still remains an imperative clinical issue, despite advances in the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment modalities of this malignancy. Hence, progress has been made to identify non-invasive, high sensitive and specific biomarkers. Since immune system affects development of breast cancer, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) -a subpopulation of immune cells- can be considered as a promising tool in the field of BC biomarker research. In the current study, we initially attempted to use concept of the present shared biomarkers in solid tumors and systemic immune profile and then evaluate correlation of these biomarkers to clinical use in cancer research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this experimental study, available microarray gene expression datasets of BC as well as the related PBMCs were retrieved and downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, followed by analysis using GEO2R along with affylmGUI, a R-based package, to obtain differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Signature genes from 20 types of cancer were also applied to validate DEGs. Quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was carried out to assess mRNA level of CCNB2 in PBMC of the BC patients and healthy subjects.

RESULTS

DEGs analysis for the transcription profile of BC cells and PBMCs showed two shared targets, CCNB2 and PGK1. Validation with systems biology using reweighted 20 types of cancer signature genes revealed that CCNB2 is the only common target in BC and its related PBMCs, which was further validated by qRT-PCR implying a significant increase in the level of CCNB2 in the BC patients.

CONCLUSION

Results of this study demonstrated that PBMCs are affected by BC cells and CCNB2 may be of value as a diagnostic biomarker for breast cancer. However, verification would require future detailed experimental plans.

Pathological Role of Phosphoglycerate Kinase 1 in Balloon Angioplasty-Induced Neointima Formation

Restenosis is a common vascular complication after balloon angioplasty. Catheter balloon inflation-induced transient ischemia (hypoxia) of local arterial tissues plays a pathological role in neointima formation. Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1), an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-generating glycolytic enzyme, has been reported to associate with cell survival and can be triggered under hypoxia. The purposes of this study were to investigate the possible role and regulation of PGK1 in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and balloon-injured arteries under hypoxia. Neointimal hyperplasia was induced by a rat carotid artery injury model. The cellular functions and regulatory mechanisms of PGK1 in VSMCs were investigated using small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), chemical inhibitors, or anaerobic cultivation. Our data indicated that protein expression of PGK1 can be rapidly induced at a very early stage after balloon angioplasty, and the silencing PGK1-induced low cellular energy circumstance resulted in the suppressions of VSMC proliferation and migration. Moreover, the experimental results demonstrated that blockage of PDGF receptor-β (PDGFRB) or its downstream pathway, the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) axis, effectively reduced hypoxia-induced factor-1 (HIF-1α) and PGK1 expressions in VSMCs. In vivo study evidenced that PGK1 knockdown significantly reduced neointima hyperplasia. PGK1 was expressed at the early stage of neointimal formation, and suppressing PGK1 has a potential beneficial effect for preventing restenosis.

Expression Characteristics and Significant Prognostic Values of PGK1 in Breast Cancer

It was proven that PGK1 plays a vital role in the proliferation, migration, and invasion of human breast cancer. However, the correlation of PGK1 mRNA and protein expression with clinicopathologic characteristics and prognostic values according to various kinds of breast cancer patient classifications remains unsufficient. Here, we analyzed data from the Oncomine database, Breast cancer Gene-Expression Miner v4.5, TNMplot, MuTarget, PrognoScan database, and clinical bioinformatics to investigate PGK1 expression distribution and prognostic value in breast cancer patients. Our study revealed that the mRNA and protein expression levels of PGK1 were up-regulated in various clinicopathologic types of breast cancer. Moreover, the expression of PGK1 was correlated with mutations of common tumor suppressor genes TP53 and CDH1. In addition, we found that high mRNA level of PGK1 was significantly associated with poor OS, RFS, and DMFS. Notably, Cox regression analysis showed that PGK1 could be used as an independent prognostic marker. In summary, the aforementioned findings suggested that PGK1 might be not only explored as a potential biomarker, but also combined with TP53/CDH1 for chemotherapy in breast cancer.

Metabolic protein phosphoglycerate kinase 1 confers lung cancer migration by directly binding HIV Tat specific factor 1

Phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) is involved in glycolytic and various metabolic events. Dysfunction of PGK may induce metabolic reprogramming and the Warburg effect. In this study, we demonstrated that PGK1, but not PGK2, may play a key role in tumorigenesis and is associated with metastasis. We observed an inverse correlation between PGK1 and the survival rate in several clinical cohorts through bioinformatics statistical and immunohistochemical staining analyses. Surprisingly, we found that PGK1 was significantly increased in adenocarcinoma compared with other subtypes. Thus, we established a PGK1-based proteomics dataset by a pull-down assay. We further investigated HIV-1 Tat Specific Factor 1 (HTATSF1), a potential binding partner, through protein–protein interactions. Then, we confirmed that PGK1 indeed bound to HTATSF1 by two-way immunoprecipitation experiments. In addition, we generated several mutant clones of PGK1 through site-directed mutagenesis, including mutagenesis of the N-terminal region, the enzyme catalytic domain, and the C-terminal region. We observed that even though the phosphoglycerate kinase activity had been inhibited, the migration ability induced by PGK1 was maintained. Moreover, our immunofluorescence staining also indicated the translocation of PGK1 from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and its colocalization with HTATSF1. From the results presented in this study, we propose a novel model in which the PGK1 binds to HTATSF1 and exerts functional control of cancer metastasis. In addition, we also showed a nonenzymatic function of PGK1.

A four-hypoxia-genes-based prognostic signature for oral squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is one of the most common maligancies of the head and neck. The prognosis was is significantly different among OSCC patients. This study aims to identify new biomarkers to establish a prognostic model to predict the survival of OSCC patients.

METHODS

The mRNA expression and corresponding clinical information of OSCC patients were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus. Additionally, a total of 26 hypoxia-related genes were also obtained from a previous study. Univariate Cox regression analysis and LASSO Cox regression analysis were performed to screen the optimal hypoxia-related genes which were associated with the prognosis of OSCC. to establish the predictive model (Risk Score) was established for estimating the patient's overall survival (OS). Multivariate Cox regression analysis was used to determine whether the Risk Score was an independent prognostic factor. Based on all the independent prognostic factors, nomogram was established to predict the OS probability of OSCC patients. The relative proportion of 22 immune cell types in each patient was evaluated by CIBERSORT software.

RESULTS

We determined that a total of four hypoxia-related genes including ALDOA, P4HA1, PGK1 and VEGFA were significantly associated with the prognosis of OSCC patients. The nomogram established based on all the independent factors could reliably predict the long-term OS of OSCC patients. In addition, our resluts indicated that the inferior prognosis of OSCC patients with high Risk Score might be related to the immunosuppressive microenvironments.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that high expression of hypoxia-related genes including ALDOA, P4HA1, PGK1 and VEGFA is associated with poor prognosis in OSCC patients, and they can be used as potential markers for predicting prognosis in OSCC patients.

Silencing of PGK1 Promotes Sensitivity to Paclitaxel Treatment by Upregulating XAF1-Mediated Apoptosis in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Objective: Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is known to have aggressive clinical course and a high risk of recurrence. Given the lack of effective targeted therapy options, paclitaxel-based chemotherapy is still the primary option for TNBC patients. However, patients who fail to achieve a complete response during neoadjuvant chemotherapy may be mainly due to sensitivity and resistance to chemotherapy. Thus, we concentrated the present research on the role of PGK1 in the sensitivity to paclitaxel treatment and the possible underlying mechanisms in TNBC.

Methods: After exposure to paclitaxel, a cell viability analysis was made to investigate the influence of PGK1 silencing on cell death. The effect of PGK1 on apoptosis induced by paclitaxel treatment was examined in vitro by flow cytometry cell apoptosis assays. Western blotting was performed to examine the impact of PGK1 on paclitaxel-induced apoptosis. The correlation of PGK1 with apoptosis-associated protein X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP)-associated factor 1 (XAF1) was analyzed in 39 specimens by immunohistochemistry analysis.

Results: We observed that silencing PGK1 sensitized triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell lines to paclitaxel treatment as a result of increased drug-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, mechanistic investigations suggested that XAF1 was increased in PGK1-knockdown cells along with the expression of the apoptotic proteins including cleaved caspase-3 and Bax. Immunohistochemistry analysis showed that PGK1 was negatively related to XAF1. Moreover, we found that downregulation of XAF1 reduced paclitaxel-induced apoptosis in PGK1-silenced triple-negative cell lines.

Conclusion: Our results identified PGK1 as a potential biomarker for the treatment of TNBC, and inhibition of PGK1 expression might represent a novel strategy to sensitize TNBC to paclitaxel treatment.

A Novel Glycolysis-Related Four-mRNA Signature for Predicting the Survival of Patients With Breast Cancer

Background: Glycolysis is critical in the occurrence and development of tumors. Owing to the biological and clinical heterogeneity of patients with BRCA, the traditional predictive classification system is far from satisfactory. Survival and prognosis biomarkers related to glycolysis have broad application prospects for assessing the risk of patients and guiding their individualized treatment.

Methods: The mRNA expression profiles and clinical information of patients with BRCA were obtained from TCGA database, and glycolysis-related genes were obtained by GSEA. Patients with BRCA were randomly divided into the training cohort and testing cohort. Univariate and multivariate Cox analyses were used to establish and validate a new mRNA signature for predicting the prognosis of patients with BRCA.

Results: We established a four-gene breast cancer prediction signature that included PGK1, SDHC, PFKL, and NUP43. The patients with BRCA in the training cohort and testing cohort were divided into high-risk and low-risk groups based on the signature. The AUC values were 0.74 (training cohort), 0.806 (testing cohort) and 0.769 (entire cohort), thereby showing that the prediction performance of the signature is acceptable. Additionally, Cox regression analysis revealed that four-gene signature could independently predict the prognosis of BRCA patients without being affected by clinical factors.

Conclusion: We constructed a four-gene signature to predict the prognosis of patients with BRCA. This signature will aid in the early diagnosis and personalized treatment of breast cancer, but the specific associated biological mechanism requires further study.

Identification of a Novel Glycolysis-Related Gene Signature for Predicting Breast Cancer Survival

To identify a glycolysis-related gene signature for the evaluation of prognosis in patients with breast cancer, we analyzed the data of a training set from TCGA database and four validation cohorts from the GEO and ICGC databases which included 1,632 patients with breast cancer. We conducted GSEA, univariate Cox regression, LASSO, and multiple Cox regression analysis. Finally, an 11-gene signature related to glycolysis for predicting survival in patients with breast cancer was developed. And Kaplan–Meier analysis and ROC analyses suggested that the signature showed a good prognostic ability for BC in the TCGA, ICGC, and GEO datasets. The analyses of univariate Cox regression and multivariate Cox regression revealed that it’s an important prognostic factor independent of multiple clinical features. Moreover, a prognostic nomogram, combining the gene signature and clinical characteristics of patients, was constructed. These findings provide insights into the identification of breast cancer patients with a poor prognosis.

Quantitative Proteomics and Weighted Correlation Network Analysis of Tear Samples in Adults and Children With Diabetes and Dry Eye

Purpose

Diabetics are more prone to suffer from dry eye (DE). The ages of diabetes are decreasing, so ocular surface status in younger generations is worthy of attention. We used tandem mass tag (TMT)–labeled proteomics and weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) to identify differentially expressed proteins in the tear proteome of adults and children with diabetic DE.

Methods

Study subjects were divided into six groups of 10, including three groups each for adults and children. The adult groups included diabetics with DE (A), diabetics without DE (B), and normal controls (C); the corresponding groups of children were identified as (D), (E), and (F). DE tests were performed on all subjects. We extracted total proteins and labeled them with TMTs for analysis. WGCNA was used to recognize hub genes.

Results

Tear film function was poorer in patients with diabetic DE. In adults, 1922 proteins were identified, and WGCNA analysis revealed three hub genes related to diabetic DE. For children, 2709 proteins were identified, and WGCNA analysis identified one hub gene related to diabetic DE. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis found similarities among metabolic pathways involved in differential expression of proteins in adult and child tear samples.

Conclusions

The pathogenesis of diabetic DE was highly similar in adults and children. The differentially expressed tear proteins in type 2 diabetes of adults and children was associated with inflammation, immune factors, and lipid metabolism.

Translational Relevance

Our findings found high similarities in the pathogenesis of diabetic DE in adults and children.

MicroRNA-16-1-3p Represses Breast Tumor Growth and Metastasis by Inhibiting PGK1-Mediated Warburg Effect

The Warburg effect (aerobic glycolysis) is a hallmark of cancer and is becoming a promising target for diagnosis and therapy. Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) is the first adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-generating glycolytic enzyme in the aerobic glycolysis pathway and plays an important role in cancer development and progression. However, how microRNAs (miRNAs) regulate PGK1-mediated aerobic glycolysis remains unknown. Here, we show that miR-16-1-3p inhibits PGK1 expression by directly targeting its 3′-untranslated region. Through inhibition of PGK1, miR-16-1-3p suppressed aerobic glycolysis by decreasing glucose uptake, lactate and ATP production, and extracellular acidification rate, and increasing oxygen consumption rate in breast cancer cells. Aerobic glycolysis regulated by the miR-16-1-3p/PGK1 axis is critical for modulating breast cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. In breast cancer patients, miR-16-1-3p expression is negatively correlated with PGK1 expression and breast cancer lung metastasis. Our findings provide clues regarding the role of miR-16-1-3p as a tumor suppressor in breast cancer through PGK1 suppression. Targeting PGK1 through miR-16-1-3p could be a promising strategy for breast cancer therapy.

Novel PGK1 determines SKP2-dependent AR stability and reprograms granular cell glucose metabolism facilitating ovulation dysfunction

Background

Disordered folliculogenesis is a core characteristic of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and androgen receptors (ARs) are closely associated with hyperandrogenism and abnormalities in folliculogenesis in PCOS. However, whether the new AR binding partner phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) in granulosa cells (GCs) plays a key role in the pathogenesis of PCOS remains unclear.

Methods

We identified the new AR binding partner PGK1 by co-IP (co-immunoprecipitation) in luteinized GCs, and reconfirmed by co-IP, co-localization and GST pull down assay, and checked PGK1 expression levels with qRT-PCR and western blotting. Pharmaceuticals rescue assays in mice, and metabolism assay, AR protein stability and RNA-seq of PGK1 targets in cells proved the function in PCOS.

Findings

PGK1 and AR are highly expressed in PCOS luteinized GCs and PCOS-like mouse ovarian tissues. PGK1 regulated glucose metabolism and deteriorated PCOS-like mouse metabolic disorder, and paclitaxel rescued the phenotype of PCOS-like mice and reduced ovarian PGK1 and AR protein levels. PGK1 inhibited AR ubiquitination levels and increased AR stability in an E3 ligase SKP2-dependent manner. Additionally, PGK1 promoted AR nuclear translocation, and RNA-seq data showed that critical ovulation-related genes were regulated by the PGK1-AR axis.

Interpretation

PGK1 regulated GCs metabolism and interacted with AR to regulate the expression of key ovulation genes, and also mediated cell proliferation and apoptosis, which resulted in the etiology of PCOS. This work highlights the pathogenic mechanism and represents a novel therapeutic target for PCOS.

Funding

National Key Research and Development Program of China; National Natural Science Foundation of China grant.

Screening of Prognostic Factors in Early-Onset Breast Cancer

Background:

Gene expression profiles from early-onset breast cancer and normal tissues were analyzed to explore the genes and prognostic factors associated with breast cancer.

Methods:

GSE109169 and GSE89116 were obtained from the database of Gene Expression Omnibus. We firstly screened the differentially expressed genes between tumor samples and normal samples from patients with early-onset breast cancer. Based on database for annotation, visualization and intergrated discovery (DAVID) tool, functional analysis was calculated. Transcription factor-target regulation and microRNA-target gene network were constructed using the tool of transcriptional regulatory relatitionships unraveled by sentence-based text mining (TRRUST) and miRWalk2.0, respectively. The prognosis-related survival information was compiled based on The Cancer Genome Atlas breast cancer clinical data.

Results:

A total of 708 differentially expressed genes from GSE109169 data sets and 358 differentially expressed genes from GSE89116 data sets were obtained, of which 122 common differentially expressed genes including 102 uniformly downregulated genes and 20 uniformly upregulated genes were screened. Protein–protein interaction network with a total of 83 nodes and 157 relationship pairs was obtained, and genes in protein–protein interaction, such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, FGF2, adiponectin, and PCK1, were recognized as key nodes in protein–protein interaction. In total, 66 transcription factor–target relationship pairs were obtained, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ was the only one downregulated transcription factor. MicroRNA-target gene network contained 368 microRNA-target relationship pairs. Moreover, 16 differentially expressed genes, including 2 upregulations and 14 downregulations, were related to a significant correlation with the prognosis, including SQLE and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ.

Conclusions:

SQLE and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ might be important prognostic factors in breast cancers, and adiponectin might be important in breast cancer pathogenesis regulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ.

Exosome-transferred LINC01559 promotes the progression of gastric cancer via PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Increasing evidence indicates that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are associated with the progression of human cancers. However, the expression level and function of LINC01559 (long intergenic non-protein coding RNA 1559) in gastric cancer (GC) are rarely reported. Here we found that LINC01559 was upregulated in GC tissues based on GEPIA (Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis) and TCGA (The Cancer Genome Atlas) databases. Also, LINC01559 was expressed at a lower level in GC cells than in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). In vitro experiments revealed that silencing LINC01559 remarkably hindered GC cell proliferation, migration and stemness. Then, we identified that LINC01559 was transmitted form MSCs to GC cells via the exosomes. Immunofluorescence staining and electron microscope validated the existence of exosomes in GC cells. Mechanistically, LINC01559 sponged miR-1343-3p to upregulate PGK1 (phosphoglycerate kinase 1), therefore activating PI3K/AKT pathway. Moreover, LINC01559 recruited EZH2 (enhancer of zeste 2 polycomb repressive complex 2 subunit) to PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog) promoter, inducing the methylation of PTEN promoter and finally resulting in PTEN repression. Of note, LINC01559 targeted both PGK1 and PTEN to promote GC progression by activating PI3K/AKT pathway. Taken together, our study demonstrated that LINC01559 accelerated GC progression via upregulating PGK1 and downregulating PTEN to trigger phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT serine/threonine kinase (PI3K/AKT) pathway, indicating LINC01559 as a potential biomarker for GC treatment.

Activation of PGK1 under hypoxic conditions promotes glycolysis and increases stem cell‑like properties and the epithelial‑mesenchymal transition in oral squamous cell carcinoma cells via the AKT signalling pathway

Although it has been previously documented that a hypoxic environment can promote glycolysis and the malignant progression of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells, the specific underlying mechanism remains unclear. Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) has been previously reported to serve an important role in tumor metabolism. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of hypoxia and PGK1 on glycolysis, stem cell-like properties and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in OSCC cells. Cell Counting Kit-8 assays were performed to examine tumor cell viability under hypoxic conditions. Sphere formation, immunohistochemistry, western blotting, Transwell assays and mouse xenograft studies were performed to assess the biological effects of PGK1. Under hypoxic conditions, phosphoglycerate PGK1 expression was found to be upregulated, which resulted in the potentiation of stem cell-like properties and enhancement of EMT. However, PGK1 knockdown reversed hypoxia-mediated glycolysis, stem cell-like properties, EMT in addition to inhibiting OSCC cell invasion and migration. PGK1 knockdown also inhibited tumour growth, whilst the overexpression of PGK1 was demonstrated to promote tumour growth in mouse xenograft models in vivo. Downstream, activation of the AKT signalling pathway reversed the series of changes induced by PGK1 knockdown. PGK1 expression was found to be upregulated in human OSCC tissues, which was associated with the pathological differentiation of tumours and lymph node metastasis. To conclude, results from the present study demonstrate that hypoxia can increase PGK1 expression, resulting in the promotion of glycolysis, enhancing stem cell-like properties and EMT by activating AKT signalling in OSCC.

Long noncoding RNA MSC-AS1 promotes hepatocellular carcinoma oncogenesis via inducing the expression of phosphoglycerate kinase 1

Background and Objectives

Increasing studies report that lncRNAs are dysregulated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), which might function as significant diagnostic biomarkers of HCC. LncRNA MSC‐AS1 has been newly discovered in several cancers. However, its biological effect in HCC remains to be clearly elucidated. The aim of our work was to test MSC‐AS1 expression level and assess its function in HCC progression.

Methods

Expression levels of MSC‐AS1 and PGK1 in HCC were tested by qRT‐PCR in HCC cells including HUH‐7, BEL‐7404, SNU449, HepG2, QGY‐7701, and human normal liver cells (HL‐7702 cells). Association of MSC‐AS1 expression with various clinicopathological features and patients’ survival were analyzed by chi‐squared test and Kaplan‐Meier, respectively. The functions of MSC‐AS1 in HCC cells were investigated using EdU assay, colony formation, flow cytometry, would healing assay, and Transwell matrigel invasion assays. The correlation between MSC‐AS1 and PGK1 was confirmed using a RIP assay. Protein expression of PGK1 was evaluated using a western blot assay.

Results

MSC‐AS1 was obviously upregulated in HCC tissues and HCC cells. Knockdown of MSC‐AS1 repressed HepG2 and BEL‐7404 cell proliferation, colony formation capacity, and triggered cell apoptosis. HepG2 and BEL‐7404 cell cycle was blocked in G1 phase and cell migration/invasion was remarkably depressed. Downregulation of MSC‐AS1 in HCC cells reduced PGK1 expression. In vivo data demonstrated that silence of MSC‐AS1 suppressed HCC development via activating PGK1.

Conclusions

Taken these together, we indicated that MSC‐AS1 promoted HCC oncogenesis via inducing the expression of PGK1.

Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) in cancer: A promising target for diagnosis and therapy

Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) is the first critical enzyme to produce ATP in the glycolytic pathway. PGK1 is not only a metabolic enzyme but also a protein kinase, which mediates the tumor growth, migration and invasion through phosphorylation some important substrates. Moreover, PGK1 is associated with poor treatment and prognosis of cancers. This manuscript reviews the structure, functions, post-translational modifications (PTMs) of PGK1 and its relationship with tumors, which demonstrates that PGK1 has indispensable value in the tumor progression. The current review highlights the important role of PGK1 in anticancer treatments.

TLR4 mediates inflammation and hepatic fibrosis induced by chronic intermittent hypoxia in rats

Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) is a common and complex disorder that is associated with liver injury. Moreover, previous studies have revealed that chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) is associated with the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and hepatic fibrosis. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. The present study aimed to investigate whether chronic intermittent hypoxia induced hepatic fibrosis, in addition to determining its underlying mechanisms, in CIH model rats using immunohistochemistry, western blotting and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. The present results suggested that CIH caused hepatic fibrosis and increased the expression levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8, monocyte chemotactic-1, tumor necrosis factor-α, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 in the liver; these conditions could be reversed by Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) short hairpin RNA lentivirus treatment. Moreover, immunohistochemistry and western blotting results indicated that TLR4 and NF-κB expression levels were significantly increased in the CIH and CIH-TLR4 empty vector lentivirus group. However, protein expression levels of TLR4, NF-κB, inhibitor of NF-κB and phosphorylated-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-1 in the hypoxia/reoxygenation group were significantly higher compared with the control group (P<0.05), and these results were reversed by the MAPK inhibitor U0126 in vitro. Collectively, the present preliminary results suggested that inflammation and the TLR4/NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathway may be involved in CIH-induced liver fibrosis.

Recent advances in understanding the role of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α in renal fibrosis

Renal fibrosis is the most common pathological manifestation of chronic kidney disease (CKD), and with numerous influencing factors, its pathogenesis is complex. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is known to promote the progression of renal fibrosis via alterations in the secreted proteome. Moreover, blocking or even reversing EMT can effectively reduce the degree of fibrosis. As such, targeting the key molecules responsible for promoting EMT may be an effective strategy for inhibiting renal fibrosis. Research in recent years has demonstrated that hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) acts to promote renal fibrosis through regulation of EMT. However, the relationship between HIF-1α and EMT remains incompletely understood. In the present review, the underlying mechanism of the interaction between HIF-1α and EMT is explored to provide novel insight into the pathogenesis of renal fibrosis and new ideas for early targeted intervention.

Potent Anticancer Effect of the Natural Steroidal Saponin Gracillin Is Produced by Inhibiting Glycolysis and Oxidative Phosphorylation-Mediated Bioenergetics

Metabolic rewiring to utilize aerobic glycolysis is a hallmark of cancer. However, recent findings suggest the role of mitochondria in energy generation in cancer cells and the metabolic switch to oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in response to the blockade of glycolysis. We previously demonstrated that the antitumor effect of gracillin occurs through the inhibition of mitochondrial complex II-mediated energy production. Here, we investigated the potential of gracillin as an anticancer agent targeting both glycolysis and OXPHOS in breast and lung cancer cells. Along with the reduction in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, gracillin markedly suppresses the production of several glycolysis-associated metabolites. A docking analysis and enzyme assay suggested phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) is a potential target for the antiglycolytic effect of gracillin. Gracillin reduced the viability and colony formation ability of breast cancer cells by inducing apoptosis. Gracillin displayed efficacious antitumor effects in mice bearing breast cancer cell line or breast cancer patient-derived tumor xenografts with no overt changes in body weight. An analysis of publicly available datasets further suggested that PGK1 expression is associated with metastasis status and poor prognosis in patients with breast cancer. These results suggest that gracillin is a natural anticancer agent that inhibits both glycolysis and mitochondria-mediated bioenergetics.

Metabolic classification of circulating tumor cells as a biomarker for metastasis and prognosis in breast cancer

Background

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) has been demonstrated as a promising liquid biopsy marker for breast cancer (BC). However, the intra-patient heterogeneity of CTCs remains a challenge to clinical application. We aim at profiling aggressive CTCs subpopulation in BC utilizing the distinctive metabolic reprogramming which is a hallmark of metastatic tumor cells.

Methods

Oncomine, TCGA and Kaplan–Meier plotter databases were utilized to analyze expression and survival relevance of the previously screened metastasis-promoting metabolic markers (PGK1/G6PD) in BC patients. CTCs detection and metabolic classification were performed through micro-filtration and multiple RNA in situ hybridization using CD45 and PGK1/G6PD probes. Blood samples were collected from 64 BC patients before treatment for CTCs analysis. Patient characteristics were recorded to evaluate clinical applications of CTCs metabolic subtypes, as well as morphological EMT subtypes classified by epithelial (EpCAM/CKs) and mesenchymal (Vimentin/Twist) markers.

Results

PGK1 and G6PD expressions were up-regulated in invasive BC tissues compared with normal mammary tissues. Increased tissue expressions of PGK1 or G6PD indicated shortened overall and relapse-free survival of BC patients (P < 0.001). Blood GM⁺CTCs (DAPI⁺CD45⁻PGK1/G6PD⁺) was detectable (range 0–54 cells/5 mL) in 61.8% of tCTCs > 0 patients. Increased GM⁺CTCs number and positive rate were correlated with tumor metastasis and progression (P < 0.05). The GM⁺CTCs ≥ 2/5 mL level presented superior AUC of ROC at 0.854 (95% CI 0.741–0.968) in the diagnosis of BC metastasis (sensitivity/specificity: 66.7%/91.3%), compared with that of tCTCs (0.779) and CTCs-EMT subtypes (E-CTCs 0.645, H-CTCs 0.727 and M-CTCs 0.697). Moreover, GM⁺CTCs⁺ group had inferior survival with decreased 2 years-PFS proportion (18.5%) than GM⁺CTCs⁻ group (87.9%; P = 0.001).

Conclusions

This work establishes a PGK1/G6PD-based method for CTCs metabolic classification to identify the aggressive CTCs subpopulation. Metabolically active GM⁺CTCs subtype is suggested a favorable biomarker of distant metastasis and prognosis in BC patients.