Psychological consequences associated with positive and negative responses to disclosure of sexual assault among college women: a prospective study

The Role of Gender and Sexuality in the Experience, Internalization, and Mental Health Correlates of Sexual Victimization Stigma

The stigma associated with sexual victimization (SV) can add to the psychological burden on survivors. We compared experiences of SV and SV stigma by survivor gender and sexuality and evaluated the relevance of public and internalized sources of this stigma to their psychological functioning. An online survey containing measures of SV type (sexual harassment and assault), public SV stigma, internalized SV stigma (self-blame, self-shame, anticipated-shame), and psychological functioning (depression, anxiety, stress, and post-traumatic stress disorder [PTSD] symptomatology) was completed by 877 women and 211 men aged 18 to 66 years (M = 30.2, SD = 8.06), of whom 73.9% were heterosexual and 26.1% identified as a sexual minority (same-sex-attracted, bisexual, pansexual, or asexual). Sexual harassment and assault were more prevalent in women and sexual minority men. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) with age and SV frequency as covariates also revealed poorer psychological functioning in sexual minority men, and higher levels of SV stigma in sexual minority women and men. Multigroup path analyses further showed that exposure to public stigma was associated with poorer psychological functioning, that internalized stigma partly mediated these associations, and that the magnitude of the associations (particularly those involving self-shame and anticipated shame) was often greater in men and sexual minorities. The results add to our understanding of the role of gender and sexuality in the experience, internalization, and psychological impact of SV-related stigma on survivors. The results also highlight the need for societal shifts toward acknowledging and validating experiences of SV in men and sexual minorities, alongside women, and the development of intersectionality-informed interventions for SV stigma in survivors.

College Faculty Experiences With Student Disclosures of Victimization

Victimization of college students is widespread, and it is not uncommon for students to disclose these experiences to faculty. Given that how faculty respond to disclosures may have implications for students' psychosocial and academic outcomes, it is key to know more about disclosures to help faculty prepare a supportive response. This study used data from an online survey of members of two U.S.-based professional scholarly associations for criminal justice and criminology (N = 637) to look at the nature of student disclosure of victimization and which faculty are more likely to receive such disclosures. Disclosure to faculty was widespread (87% of faculty had received at least one disclosure of victimization from a student), and disclosures were mostly made in person. Over half the time (52.3%), participants thought the disclosure was prompted by an incident in class or another aspect of the course, and more than a quarter of the time (28.8%), the disclosure came from a student in a course that utilized trigger warnings. A faculty member's individual identities, such as gender or race and ethnicity, did not appear to render them more or less likely to receive student disclosures. However, faculty with victimization experiences who had links to victim services organizations, who were teaching in a Sociology department, or who had been teaching longer were more likely to have received a disclosure. Graduate student instructors were less likely to have received a disclosure, even controlling for years of teaching. This suggests widespread training of college-level instructors in how to respond to a student's disclosure of victimization may be warranted, at least for faculty teaching courses focusing on criminology and criminal justice.

Effects of Social Acknowledgment and Interpersonal Shame on Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms of Sexual Violence Survivors in South Korea

Sexual violence (SV) survivors face negative social reactions, which can affect their recovery. Based on the socio-interpersonal model of trauma, understanding how societal circumstances impact SV survivors' mental health is important. This study examined conditional indirect effects of interpersonal shame and social acknowledgment on the relationship between perceived SV event severity and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) symptoms. Cross-sectional data from 157 community-based adults who had previously experienced SV were collected from an online panel. Exploratory factor analysis of the Social Acknowledgment Questionnaire was conducted, followed by conditional indirect analyses using Models 1, 4, and 7 of PROCESS macro. First, results showed that a two-factor model of social acknowledgment consisting of "social disapproval" and "social recognition" was more suitable for this study than a three-factor model predominantly used by Western societies. Second, interpersonal shame partially mediated the relationship between perceived SV event severity and CPTSD symptoms. Third, the conditional indirect effect of social disapproval on the mediating effect of interpersonal shame was significant when the social disapproval level was high. This indicates that the indirect effect of interpersonal shame on CPTSD increases when the social disapproval level is high. This study supported the socio-interpersonal perspective of trauma and suggested that increasing social acknowledgment beyond personal-level intervention would be a critical step for recovery of SV survivors to decrease their interpersonal shame and CPTSD.

Associations Among Online Social Reactions to Disclosure of Sexual Victimization, Coping and Social Isolation

Social reactions to the disclosure of sexual victimization are critical to post-assault recovery. The popular social media hashtag "#MeToo" resulted in numerous survivors of sexual victimization disclosing their experience online. Whereas previous research has examined the association between social reactions to in-person disclosure of sexual victimization and factors commonly associated with adjustment among survivors - such as coping and social support - research is needed to examine correlates of social reactions to online disclosure of sexual victimization. Accordingly, the current study investigated the relationship between online social reactions to the disclosure of sexual victimization via #MeToo and engagement in various coping strategies (problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping) and social isolation among a sample of 195 adults with a history of sexual victimization. Results indicated that the provision of online resources was associated with lower use of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies. Receipt of online emotional and informational support was associated with increased use of emotion-focused coping strategies. Further, receipt of online social reactions that turned against the survivor and receipt of online social reactions that "made fun of you, insulted you, or said something to hurt you" were associated with higher levels of social isolation. Lastly, online unsupportive acknowledgment and "sharing your tweet with other people" were associated with lower levels of social isolation. Results highlight how online social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization via #MeToo intersect with coping and social support among survivors of sexual victimization and help to give context to the experience of online disclosure of sexual victimization.

Bystander opportunity in situations of alcohol and violence risk: Exploring the feasibility of collecting daily diary data

Objective: One strategy to address the health issues among college students is through bystander intervention. However, much is still unknown about bystander behavior. The purpose of the current study was to assess the feasibility of daily diary methodology as applied to bystander opportunity. Method: Using a convenience sample, we examined (1) the frequency at which students encounter alcohol use risk and SDV risk bystander opportunities, and (2) the association between participants' daily alcohol use and daily bystander opportunity. Participants were a small group of 32 college students (75% women; 100% heterosexual; 93.7% White; 6.3% multiracial; 3.1% Hispanic) who took up to nine daily diary surveys for a total of 207 days. Results: Over 80% of participants completed the required days. Participants experienced at least one bystander opportunity on 24% of days. Participants were significantly more likely to report an alcohol risk bystander opportunity on days when they drank alcohol, compared to non-drinking days.

Help-seeking among college survivors of dating and sexual violence: a qualitative exploration of utilization of university-based victim services

Objective: Study uses qualitative data to examine help-seeking decisions as well as the drivers and barriers to utilization of university-based victim services through the accounts of survivors. Participants: The current study involves the analysis of 33 semi-structured interviews that were conducted with dating and sexual violence (DSV) survivors at a large, Mid-Atlantic University who both did and did not utilize university-based victim services. Methods: Data were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach. Results: Analysis shows that while survivors of DSV undergo a process of help-seeking that is similar to those described in previous help-seeking models, there are additional factors that contribute to a reluctancy to seek services at a university-based victim services center in particular that must be accounted for in the literature. Conclusions: The findings from the current study underscore the importance of understanding the specific drivers and barriers to utilization of university-based victim services.

Perceptions of Anticipated Peer Support for Survivors of Sexual Violence Among Students with Minoritized Identities

Peers' attitudes toward survivors of sexual violence can impact their willingness to disclose. Students with minoritized identities may perceive and experience their campus environments as less supportive than peers with privileged identities. The purpose of this study was to examine perceptions of anticipated peer support for sexual violence survivors, using a cross-sectional study of 2,727 students. Linear regression modeling showed significant associations between students with minoritized identities and lower scores on perceptions of anticipated peer support for survivors. There were also several important interactions between specific overlapping student identities. The findings suggest that students with minoritized identities perceive anticipated peer support less favorably than those with privileged identities.

Examining the Supports and Advice That Women With Intimate Partner Violence Experience Received in Online Health Communities: Text Mining Approach

BACKGROUND

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is an underreported public health crisis primarily affecting women associated with severe health conditions and can lead to a high rate of homicide. Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, more women with IPV experiences visited online health communities (OHCs) to seek help because of anonymity. However, little is known regarding whether their help requests were answered and whether the information provided was delivered in an appropriate manner. To understand the help-seeking information sought and given in OHCs, extraction of postings and linguistic features could be helpful to develop automated models to improve future help-seeking experiences.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine the types and patterns (ie, communication styles) of the advice offered by OHC members and whether the information received from women matched their expressed needs in their initial postings.

METHODS

We examined data from Reddit using data from subreddit community r/domesticviolence posts from November 14, 2020, through November 14, 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic. We included posts from women aged ≥18 years who self-identified or described experiencing IPV and requested advice or help in this subreddit community. Posts from nonabused women and women aged <18 years, non-English posts, good news announcements, gratitude posts without any advice seeking, and posts related to advertisements were excluded. We developed a codebook and annotated the postings in an iterative manner. Initial posts were also quantified using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count to categorize linguistic and posting features. Postings were then classified into 2 categories (ie, matched needs and unmatched needs) according to the types of help sought and received in OHCs to capture the help-seeking result. Nonparametric statistical analysis (ie, 2-tailed t test or Mann-Whitney U test) was used to compare the linguistic and posting features between matched and unmatched needs.

RESULTS

Overall, 250 postings were included, and 200 (80%) posting response comments matched with the type of help requested in initial postings, with legal advice and IPV knowledge achieving the highest matching rate. Overall, 17 linguistic or posting features were found to be significantly different between the 2 groups (ie, matched help and unmatched help). Positive title sentiment and linguistic features in postings containing health and wellness wordings were associated with unmatched needs postings, whereas the other 14 features were associated with postings with matched needs.

CONCLUSIONS

OHCs can extract the linguistic and posting features to understand the help-seeking result among women with IPV experiences. Features identified in this corpus reflected the differences found between the 2 groups. This is the first study that leveraged Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count to shed light on generating predictive features from unstructured text in OHCs, which could guide future algorithm development to detect help-seeking results within OHCs effectively.

Online Social Reactions to Disclosure of Sexual Victimization via #MeToo and Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Sexual victimization is a major public health concern with significant consequences for survivors, their families, and society at large. Studies examining in-person disclosure of sexual victimization suggest that the way others respond to disclosure has a significant impact on survivors' well-being. With the advent of social media, more survivors are choosing to disclose their experience online. Research is needed to understand how social reactions to online disclosure of sexual victimization impact survivors. Accordingly, the current study examined the association between online social reactions to the disclosure of sexual victimization and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a sample of 195 individuals who disclosed their experience online via the hashtag #MeToo. Symptoms of PTSD were positively associated with the level of assault severity reported by the survivor, as well as receipt of online social reactions to disclosure via #MeToo that made fun, insulted, or said something to hurt the survivor. Online social reactions to disclosure via #MeToo that involved turning away from the survivor or providing unsupportive acknowledgment of the experience were unrelated with PTSD symptoms. PTSD symptoms were also not associated with the receipt of positive online social reactions to disclosure via #MeToo. Like research addressing in-person social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization, some forms of online negative social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization via #MeToo appear to be associated with worse psychological outcomes among survivors. Thus, online disclosure of sexual victimization and its impact needs to be attended to in clinical and research settings.

Variations in Women's Attribution of Blame for Sexual Assault

In the United States, sexual assault (SA) is a significant problem that has adverse psychological impacts on women. Scholarship has shown that when survivors choose to disclose their experiences, the way their networks react has a powerful impact on their well-being, but literature on response to SA disclosure has not extensively explored variation among women, who are likely recipients of these disclosures. This study explored variation among perceptions of and blame attribution for SA within a geographically and politically diverse but primarily White sample of women. Participants were assigned one of four vignettes, each of which described a non-stereotypical SA. The vignettes differed in two ways: (1) the social status of the perpetrator of the assault and (2) the length of time the victim waited to report. Results showed that being older and more politically conservative was associated with assigning less blame to the perpetrator and more blame to the victim, but neither education level nor where the participant lived were linked with blame attribution. While women's own experiences of SA were unrelated to their responses, having a loved one who had experienced SA was associated with less victim blaming. With respect to attitudes, women endorsing higher levels of social dominance orientation (SDO) and sexism also reported higher levels of victim blame and lower levels of perpetrator blame. Further research should explore the role of specific personal experiences and knowledge of others' SA in assignment of blame, investigate the predictors and moderators of SDO, and should extend these findings to more racially/ethnically diverse samples of women.

"I Could Never Tell My Parents": Barriers to Queer Women's College Sexual Assault Disclosure to Family Members

Queer women are at high risk of college sexual victimization, but they face barriers to formal support services. As a result, informal support is critical. This study uses data from 40 open-ended interviews to explore family members' reactions to queer women's disclosures and examine whether their family is a reliable source of informal support. Findings indicate that family reactions are often more harmful than helpful. In comparison to research focused on heterosexual survivors, we find family reactions to be more extreme and disparaging of queer survivors' sexual identities. In fact, family members' negative reactions may pose barriers to accessing formal services.

Online Disclosure of Sexual Victimization: A Systematic Review

We map the available scientific literature on how and why victims of sexual violence use digital platforms in the aftermath of victimization. Twenty-four empirical studies on sexual victimization and online disclosure were identified by systematically searching Web of Science and PsycINFO, checking reference lists, and consulting authors about relevant publications. The literature on online disclosure of sexual victimization does not yield a coherent picture. International literature pays limited attention to the various components of online disclosure like the characteristics of victims who disclosure online and the characteristics of the disclosure messages. Most studies focused on motivations for and reactions to online disclosure. Victims of sexual violence disclose sexual victimization online to seek support for clarification and validation, unburdening, documenting, seeking justice, informing others, or commercial goals (individual-oriented disclosure) and to provide support, educate, and as a form of activism (other-oriented disclosure). Responses to online disclosure are predominantly positive. Negative responses are rare. This review provides a comprehensive overview of multidisciplinary empirical information and displays knowledge gaps in victimological research. Future research should use robust quantitative and/or qualitative designs with substantial sample sizes, comparing victims who do disclose their sexual victimization online to victims who do not and comparing disclosure on different online platforms to increase generalizability. Potential for online support is identified, in which online disclosure can serve as a relatively safe alternative to off-line disclosure. This offers points of intervention for assistance and victim support in facilitating the use of the internet for support for victims of sexual violence.

How Will I Be Perceived: The Role of Trauma-Related Shame in the Relationship Between Psychological Distress and Expectations of Disclosure Among Survivors of Sexual Victimization

Sexual assault is a serious physical and psychological concern worldwide. Various negative psychological outcomes are associated with survivor well-being, including depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depressive symptoms, and trauma-related shame. Opportunities for emotional expression and processing have been shown to be beneficial among survivors of trauma; however, survivors of sexual victimization may be reticent to disclose details of their traumatic experience, particularly to formal sources of support. Trauma-related shame (e.g., negative evaluations of self, feelings of worthlessness, and powerlessness) has been shown to negatively impact expectations of disclosure, as some survivors may fear being blamed or judged. Limited research exists on the impact of psychological distress on survivors' expectations of disclosure. The current study investigated whether psychological distress (i.e., depressive and PTSD symptoms) is associated with expectations of disclosure (positive vs. negative) through trauma-related shame among survivors of sexual victimization. Participants, recruited from a primarily Hispanic-serving institution, participated in the present study. Participants (N = 86) completed measures of PTSD and depression symptom severity, trauma-related shame, and expectations of disclosure. Results revealed that psychological distress severity was associated with negative expectations of disclosure through trauma-related shame (b = 0.682, p < .05, 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.197, 1.367]), but not positive expectation (b = -0.068, p = .417, 95% CI [-0.523, 0.155]). Our findings have implications for prognosis and treatment for survivors of sexual victimization, particularly among LatinX populations.

A Vignettes-Based Exploration of Attitudes of Parents Toward Reporting of Child Sexual Abuse in Ghana

Reporting child sexual abuse (CSA) to law enforcement institutions is the ideal child protection imperative. The role of parents in this process is unquestionably profound. Yet, there is limited evidence on parental perspectives on reporting CSA to law enforcement agencies in developing country contexts. We apply vignettes to describe the views of parents about reporting CSA perpetrated by "family members, schoolteachers, and strangers." Data was collected from 89 parents from four culturally diverse regions of Ghana. A systematic inductive approach was used to determine patterns and similarities in participants' attitudes toward reporting. We note that the attitudes of participants about reporting CSA varied considerably; these are influenced by the nature of social relationships between the victim and perpetrator. In a seeming order of severity, CSA perpetrated by a family member was viewed less seriously compared to victimization by a teacher or a stranger. The desire to preserve familial/kin ties and reputation and keeping to the cultural heritage of resolving "disputes and disagreements" amicably were primary norms against reporting CSA. However, attitudes toward reporting CSA by teachers were influenced by expectation of higher moral standards, which made reporting CSA by a teacher a reasonable cause of action. Positive attitudes toward reporting CSA by "strangers" were prevalent. Child protection programs must recognzse the segmented attitudes toward CSA and tackle the deep-seated cultural and social norms through social and behavioral change communication (SBCC).

Social Reactions and Trauma Symptoms Among Gender and Sexual Minority Students Disclosing Sexual Violence

Addressing the higher rates of sexual violence experienced by gender and sexual minority students in university contexts requires an understanding of responses to disclosures of sexual violence. Using data from a large-scale study of sexual violence in university contexts, the current study examined (1) whether gender and sexual minority status was associated with responses to sexual violence disclosure and (2) how disclosure responses were associated with trauma symptoms among these students. Linear regression indicated that university students' (n = 1,464) reports of responses to disclosures of sexual violence did not differ across gender or sexual minority status. Focusing on gender and sexual minority participants (n = 327), linear regression linked turning against the victim and positive responses to higher levels of trauma symptoms.

Social Support as a Buffer of the Association between Sexual Assault and Trauma Symptoms Among Transgender and Gender Diverse Individuals

The prevalence of experiencing sexual assault is alarmingly high among Transgender and Gender Diverse people (TGD; people whose gender identities and/or expressions are not traditionally associated with their sex assigned at birth) and is associated with various mental health sequalae. Perceived social support has been shown to abate the negative outcomes of sexual assault among cisgender individuals, yet little is known about this association among TGD people, especially which provider of support (i.e., family, friends, or significant others) may be most beneficial. To that end, 191 TGD adults were recruited through Amazon's Mechanical Turk to examine perceived social support as a potential moderator of the association between sexual assault victimization and post-sexual assault trauma symptomology. Results showed an interaction trending toward significance between sexual assault and support from a significant other. Decomposition of this interaction demonstrated that sexual assault was associated with post-assault trauma symptoms when support from a significant other was low (ß = .25, p < .05) but not high (ß = .10, p = .089). The interaction between sexual assault and perceived social support was not significant for perceived support from friends (p = .133) or family (p = .954). Findings highlight the need for additional research on perceived social support as a potential buffering mechanism between sexual assault and post-assault symptomology in TGD people.

Disclosure Recipients' Perceptions Related to Helping Victims of Dating and Sexual Violence

To date, research on social reactions to dating and sexual violence (DSV) disclosure has largely neglected the perspective of disclosure recipients. Moreover, few studies have explored disclosure recipients' perceptions of the victim and perceptions of their own effectiveness in helping as well as the correlates of these perceptions. The purpose of this study was to address these gaps in the literature. Participants were 783 college students (73.0% female) who reported receiving a DSV disclosure in the past 6 months. Participants who provided more negative social reactions to victim disclosures were less likely to empathize with the victim and more likely to feel victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness in their responses. Conversely, those providing more positive social reactions were more likely to empathize with the victim and were less likely to report victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness. Further, recipients with a DSV victimization history were more likely to report empathy for the victim. Being a man and having higher post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with greater victim blame/burdensomeness, while the victim approaching the recipient to disclose and DSV experiences that occurred long ago were associated with lower victim blame/burdensomeness. Finally, depressive symptoms, receiving disclosures from a stranger/casual friend, and less frequent discussion about the incident were significantly associated with increased confusion/ineffectiveness. These findings suggest that perceptions of the victim and helping effectiveness, and factors associated with them, may be promising targets of programs seeking to reduce negative and increase positive social reactions to DSV disclosures.

Rape Myth Acceptance and General Self-Efficacy: Gender, Race, and Ethnic Differences of Knowing a Sexual Assault Victim among University Students

Knowing a sexual assault victim and general self-efficacy (GSE) were examined as predictors of rape myth acceptance (RMA) among university students. Where knowing a sexual assault victim was associated with greater rejection of rape myths among female students, most notably White females, a null effect occurred on male students, except for Black males whose RMA increased. Higher self-efficacy predicted the overall rejection of rape myths differently among identity intersections, most prominently with victim blaming. Knowing a sexual assault victim moderated GSE and RMA for male students and Latinos. These findings offer practical and critical implications as universities grow in diversity.

Barriers to Reporting Sexual Violence: A Qualitative Analysis of #WhyIDidntReport

The present study conducted thematic analyses of tweets including #WhyIDidntReport (N = 500) to examine barriers to reporting sexual victimization. Barriers to reporting were identified across individual, interpersonal, and sociocultural levels of the social ecology. Common barriers to reporting included labeling of the experience, age, fear, privacy concerns, self-blame, betrayal/shock, the relation/power of the perpetrator, negative reactions to disclosure, and the belief-or personal experience-that reporting would not result in justice and societal norms.

A Review of Undergraduate Student Disclosures of Sexual Violence

INTRODUCTION

Sexual violence (SV) has been a prevalent issue on college campuses for decades. Researchers, universities, and legislators have tried to understand and prevent it. Despite these efforts, 25% of female and 6% of male undergraduate students will experience a nonconsensual sexual experience (NSE) as a student. An immense amount of research has been conducted on the prevalence, effects, resources for, and outcomes of SV over the last few decades.

OBJECTIVES

The current paper aims to compile and summarize the extant literature on undergraduate student disclosures of sexual violence. The objective is to provide a comprehensive review of the research.

METHODS

A literature search was performed using the terms sexual violence, NSE, undergraduate students, informal and formal reporting, and disclosure.

RESULTS

Disclosure patterns and outcomes for survivors vary widely based on individual factors including type of disclosure source (ie, informal or formal reporting), disclosure recipient response, previous history of NSEs, and personal identity (ie, gender identity, sexual orientation, race/ethnicity). Though there are many formal resources (ie, police, Title IX), the majority of survivors report to informal sources (ie, family or friends). In addition to researching survivors' experiences and rates of disclosures, research also evaluates how disclosure recipients perceive their response to a survivor's disclosure, their likelihood of receiving a disclosure based on their own individual identities, and how the disclosure impacts the recipient and their relationship with the survivor.

CONCLUSION

The individualized response and decision to report SV has made prevention and the creation of effective resources difficult. As there are so many individual factors to consider when evaluating how or whether a NSE will be disclosed, future research should consider these individual differences and use them to create more effective reporting sources and resources. Sears-Greer MA, Friehart BK, Meston CM. A Review of Undergraduate Student Disclosures of Sexual Violence. Sex Med Rev 2022;XX:XXX-XXX.

Sexual Violence Among Sorority Women: Victimization Experiences, Contexts, and Disclosure

The purpose of this study was to examine and compare sexual violence (SV) victimization among sorority women and unaffiliated counterparts. Results showed sorority women were more likely than unaffiliated women to report experiencing some types of SV, consuming alcohol prior to victimization, and to identify their perpetrator as a hookup/casual partner. More women, regardless of affiliation, informally disclosed their victimization compared to formally reporting; many did not tell anyone because they did not think it was serious enough. The findings point to implications for harm reduction, bystander intervention, and primary prevention programming, as well as institutional policy to address SV.

Inconsistency is the Consistency: The Title IX Reporting Process for Sexual and Gender-Based Misconduct Within Maryland Public Universities

Title IX is a primary federal legal approach to address campus sexual and gender-based misconduct, yet few students utilize Title IX reporting as a formal campus support, and those that do frequently report negative experiences. In this study, we interviewed 11 student survivors at four Maryland public universities who engaged with the Title IX reporting and response process. Our aims were to (a) examine how Title IX functions in a state public education system with a robust Title IX policy; (b) describe commonalities and differences in experiences; and (c) use theories of institutional betrayal and support to understand aspects of the process most helpful or harmful for survivors, especially minoritized survivors. Results reflected several common themes, but also an inconsistent Title IX process both within and across institutions beholden to the same Title IX policy, representing potential policy deviations. Further, institutional betrayal was reflected in the experiences of minoritized survivors who described Title IX staff microaggressions and invalidations and survivors who unknowingly disclosed to mandatory reporters. Overall, experiences contributed to a perception of the Title IX office and reporting process as unhelpful and untrustworthy. Results identify the need to reduce inconsistencies in Title IX reporting and response processes to ameliorate process harms.

Chipped or Whole? Listening to Survivors' Experiences With Disclosure Following Sexual Violence

Sexual violence is a prevalent crime but vastly underreported and with serious long-term health consequences for survivors. Disclosure of sexual violence represents a social experience that may offer support towards healing or further traumatization depending on the response received. Although current research suggests that process of disclosure itself is important, as are social responses, there is a dearth of research examining the perceived impact of initial responses to disclosure on healing and relationships, particularly over time. The current study used data from nine focus groups with 45 survivors to explore the impact of initial disclosure reactions on recovery, from the survivors' perspectives. Constant comparative analysis identified several themes, including subtypes of positive and negative responses to disclosure and long-term impacts on healing and relationships. Survivors disclosed to informal and formal support persons and although many identified responses as positive or negative, some also experienced mixed responses. Survivors identified perceived long-term impacts on healing, interpersonal relationships, and social justice. Our findings suggest disclosures are a critical point for potential intervention after sexual violence. It is through the disclosure process that survivors can be supported and empowered to connect with others and move further along in their journey towards healing and recovery. Public awareness and promotion of positive responses could be designed to reach children and youth, so that the next generation is equipped with the tools to support each other in difficult times, particularly in the aftermath of sexual violence.

Campus Sexual Violence Victims with Disabilities: Disclosure and Help Seeking

Undergraduate students with disabilities represent an important population on college campuses. Yet the incidence of sexual violence and disclosing/reporting of sexual violence among this population is understudied. This exploratory and largely descriptive study uses an intersectional framework to understand the sexual victimization of undergraduate students with disabilities at a large Mid-Atlantic academic institution. The sample consisted of students who completed a sexual violence module (N = 2,929) as part of a larger campus climate survey. Students with disabilities comprised a smaller sample within this group (n = 177) and descriptive and chi-square results from both groups of students are reported. Students with disabilities had a statistically significant higher likelihood of sexual violence victimization before coming to campus and while at the university, with much higher rates for precollege victimization than students with no disabilities. Disclosure rates were not different for students across the two groups, though students with disabilities were more likely to utilize formal sources of support, such as campus Title IX offices and mental health services. This study shows support for a strengths-based approach that recognizes that students with disabilities may be more likely to reach out to campus resources. The findings of the study also underscore the need for culturally relevant victim services for students with disabilities. An evaluation of the culture of a university and its environment of openness, sharing, community, and protection (or lack thereof) can be a key point for future approaches to sexual violence on campus.

What Helps and Hinders Students' Intervening in Incidents of Dating Violence On Campus? an Exploratory Study Using Focus Groups

Dating violence is a problem occurring on college campuses that requires unique prevention and intervention needs. Despite the widespread prevalence and pervasive impact of dating violence victimization, formal disclosure and utilization of on-campus support services for student survivors remain low and often survivors who do tell someone disclose to an informal source of support, most often a friend. Many current educational efforts on college campuses regarding dating violence, including bystander intervention programming, fail to increase students' understanding of how to safely address a situation where a peer is experiencing an abusive relationship or to provide students with information about their role as potential responders to disclosures of violence from friends. In the present exploratory study, a series of qualitative focus groups were conducted to better understand students' perspectives on dating violence on campus. Data were analyzed according to processes of thematic analysis to examine how students' understanding and knowledge of dating violence impact their decision about whether to intervene as prosocial bystanders within their social networks using focus groups. Emergent findings reveal that students undergo a multistage process of intervening that relies heavily on their existing knowledge and attitudes toward dating violence. The findings from this article are consistent with Banyard's Action Coils model. Suggestions for future research are also discussed.

Latent Profiles of Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Disclosure Among Undergraduate Women

The types of social reactions that victims receive when they disclose experiences of sexual assault are important for post-trauma recovery. Using a person-centered analytic approach, we identified latent profiles based upon the nature of two types of negative (turning against and unsupportive acknowledgment) and two types of positive (emotional support and informational/tangible aid) reactions received by 300 undergraduate women who disclosed sexual assault. Analyses identified four latent profiles characterized by (a) moderate emotional support/low negative reactions, (b) moderate emotional support/moderate negative reactions, (c) high positive/some unsupportive acknowledgment reactions, and (d) moderate positive/high negative reactions. Differences between the profiles in sexual assault acknowledgment, self- and perpetrator-blame, and some assault-related characteristics (victim injury but not victim or perpetrator intoxication) were identified. Group comparisons revealed that the two profiles characterized by greater negative reactions reported greater posttraumatic stress, whereas the profile characterized by moderate support/moderate negative reactions reported greater depression. No differences were identified for hazardous alcohol use. Findings highlight the importance of addressing negative reactions to sexual assault disclosure as potential barriers to recovery. Colleges may benefit from programming targeted at disclosure recipients as part of violence prevention efforts. A broader societal shift is also imperative to eliminate stigmatization of victims. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843211038924 .

It Happens in #ChurchToo: Twitter Discourse Regarding Sexual Victimization Within Religious Communities

This study sought to characterize online disclosure of, and reactions to, sexual violence victimization via the Twitter hashtag #ChurchToo, which emerged following the hashtag #MeToo as a call for disclosure of victimization within religious contexts. Thematic content analysis of 1,017 original content, English-language tweets containing the hashtag was conducted. Twitter users who chose to disclose personal experiences of violence often shared specific details about their abuse and described institutional harm they experienced. Institutional harm included negative responses from their religious communities (e.g., minimizing, denying, blaming, and silencing). Among tweets categorized as responses to disclosure, subthemes included both positive (e.g., raising awareness, emotional support) and negative (e.g., distracting and egocentric) reactions. The commentary on Twitter reflected a concerted desire to establish accountability for perpetrators of interpersonal violence within religious communities. These data highlight the importance of providing education to religious communities on how to best support and respond to individuals who experience victimization perpetrated by religious leaders or another member of the religious community.

Why I said #MeToo: An Exploration of the Purpose of Disclosure Among Indian Women

The surge of sexual abuse disclosures by women during the #MeToo movement raised awareness about an important social issue that has garnered much attention. However, apart from the changes the movement initiated, the issue of why women chose to disclose in the context of the movement has not been extensively examined. Why women disclose such a sensitive topic in the public domain, often via social media, within the Indian cultural context, where matters such as sexual abuse are considered taboo, warrants further examination. This article explores the reasons for disclosure among Indian women participating in the #MeToo movement, through qualitative research, using the interpretative phenomenological approach. The emergent themes include reactions to the injustice, expectations of validation and closure, addressing stigma, initiation of dialogue and social change, as well as expression of solidarity, as the purpose for which disclosures were undertaken.

The Impact of Campus-Level Factors on Peers' Perceived Ability to Support a Survivor

Campus sexual violence is a complex issue that has led to a proliferation of federal legislation and best practices with the intent to better support student survivors. Despite these efforts, research suggests that many survivors do not disclose to formal resources on campus, but rather, to their peers. While there is growing theoretical and empirical support for the role of peer-level influences on both preventing and responding to sexual violence on college campuses, our understanding of students' confidence in knowing how to respond is limited. Furthermore, disclosure research has yet to assess the impact of broader campus-level factors on students' confidence in being able to support survivors. In the present exploratory study, undergraduate students responded to a survey, which included questions about receiving disclosures and perceived ability to respond as well as measures of individual-level correlates (gender, race, prior victimization) and campus community factors (perceptions of the university's responsiveness, exposure to information, awareness of resources). Bivariate analyses were conducted to examine whether certain students were more likely to receive a disclosure on campus. To look at the impact of individual- and community-level factors, a series of hierarchical logistic regression models were estimated. Ability to respond to a disclosure was measured using three separate dichotomous variables. Findings show that 34% of our sample has received at least one disclosure of sexual violence from a peer since coming to campus. In addition, results show that above and beyond individual correlates, campus-level factors impacted students' confidence in their roles as disclosure recipients. These results have significant implications for sexual violence programs on campus. Suggestions for future research are also discussed.

Youth Response to Rape: Rape Myths and Social Support

Adolescents and young adults face the highest incidence of sexual assault, yet only limited research focuses on the experience of adolescent survivors, adolescent rape myth acceptance, or the ways youth respond to rape. Survivors tend to disclose to at least one person, typically peers, and the response, whether positive or negative, can impact well-being and help-seeking behaviors. Focus groups across Oregon, a leader in state-level comprehensive sexuality education policy, solicited high school-student reactions to an alcohol-involved rape scenario. These rich-case participants had taken comprehensive sexuality education classes and were affiliated with health and sexuality organizations. These youth were anticipated to showcase best possible outcomes resulting from current sexuality education practices. After hearing a hypothetical scenario involving a friend's experience with alcohol-involved sexual assault, participants were asked how they would respond. Participants spontaneously discussed whether the actions described constituted rape, often relying on victim-blaming rape myths as evidence. Alcohol use was a critical factor in interpretations. Female use increased her perceived culpability and male use decreased his. After assessing blame and whether the incident constituted rape, youth described three types of support (informational, instrumental or practical, and emotional support) they would offer as well as barriers when responding to the victim and intentions to hold victims accountable. These responses paint a concerning portrait of the ways youth make sense of sexual violence and consider responding to a friend's disclosure. Sexuality education policy mandates and intervention programs must target the problematic links between alcohol, rape, and rape myths while reinforcing non-victim-blaming support.

Not Just an Undergraduate Issue: Campus Climate and Sexual Violence Among Graduate Students

The lack of research on graduate students' experiences with campus sexual violence and the campus climate is a glaring gap in the literature (Bonistall Postel, 2020). Thus, the current exploratory study examines the experience of graduate students at one university to determine their victimization rates and the number of disclosures they receive from peers. In addition, we compare graduate and undergraduate students' awareness of resources on campus and their confidence in knowing where to seek assistance for their peers or themselves. Finally, we compare key influential factors related to the campus climate such as sense of community and perceptions of the university's responsiveness to incidents of sexual violence among graduate and undergraduate students. An online survey was administered to a sample of 9,546 students, with 79.9% undergraduates and 20.1% graduates. A total of 5.2% of graduate students reported experiences of sexual violence since attending the university, with 13% receiving disclosures from peers. MANCOVA revealed that compared with undergraduate students, graduate students had significantly less awareness of campus resources, less confidence in knowing where to seek assistance, and less of a sense of community. There were no differences in perceptions of the university's handling of sexual violence. The findings highlight the importance of including and targeting graduate students in sexual violence awareness and prevention programming on college campuses.

College Students' Responses to Their Sexually Assaulted Friends: Impact of Rape Myth Acceptance, Prior Victimization, and Social Relationships

College students often confide in their friends following sexual assaults. Friends' reactions may include a variety of emotions and helping behaviors; prior victimization, knowing the accused, and rape myth acceptance may affect these. A sample of 1016 students at a religiously affiliated university completed quantitative surveys measuring their rape myth acceptance, history of sexual assault victimization, disclosures received, and reactions to the most recent disclosure. A subset of 636 students (506 females, 130 males) reported receiving at least one rape disclosure from a friend. Regression analysis of the subset revealed that participants' rape myth acceptance, victimization histories, and relationships to the accused influenced reactions to friends who were sexually assaulted. Students who endorsed rape myths were less likely to lend support to survivors; they were also more likely to experience shame and anger, and to blame their sexually assaulted friends. Students who shared friends with both the survivor and the accused were more likely to offer support to the survivor, experience feelings of divided loyalty, and blame the survivor. Blaming or feeling embarrassed toward survivors was associated with a tendency to advise them on how to avoid revictimization. This suggests that some disclosure recipients focused on their friend's behavior to explain the sexual assault. Cognitive dissonance theory may partially explain the findings.

Recognizing and Responding to the Commonly Misunderstood Reactions to Sexual Assault: Evaluation of an Online Curriculum

Background: Sexual assault remains a serious public health issue with significant impacts on the health and well-being of individual women. Many women's reactions and behaviors post sexual assault are not well understood by the general public, or more worrying, among professionals to whom women frequently turn to for help. An innovative and evidence-informed online curriculum was developed to educate health and social service providers about the range of possible psychological responses and associated behaviors post sexual assault and to better equip them in supporting survivors in their recovery. Methods: The curriculum was evaluated using pre- and post-training tests designed to measure changes in fact-based knowledge, self-assessed knowledge, and procedural knowledge, that is, perceived competency. Results: A total of 759 participants registered to complete the curriculum between July 2018 and July 2019 and 175 completed both the pre- and post-training surveys. Data analyses showed significant improvement in the mean number of correct answers to the fact-based knowledge, self-reflection, and procedural knowledge questions from pre- to post-training. The response to the training was also very positive. Conclusions: The online curriculum was effective in improving participants' knowledge about and response to women who, in the aftermath of a sexual assault, may exhibit reactions or behaviors that are commonly misunderstood.

Negative Responses to Disclosure of Sexual Victimization and Victims' Symptoms of PTSD and Depression: The Protective Role of Ethnic Identity

College-aged women experience high rates of sexual victimization. Their postassault symptoms are associated with the types of responses they receive from the people to whom they disclose these experiences. Negative responses are pervasive and associated with poorer outcomes. The current study examined whether a strong sense of ethnic identity and comfort with the mainstream culture moderate the association between negative responses to the first disclosure of sexual victimization and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. A diverse sample (10% Black/African American, 51% White, 39% Other, and 66% Hispanic) of undergraduate women was recruited from two urban, Eastern United States universities for this online study. Participants reported histories of sexual victimization, demographics, responses to sexual assault disclosure (i.e., victim blame, treating the victim differently, taking control, distraction, and egocentric reactions), symptoms of PTSD and depression, and their ethnic identity and mainstream cultural comfort. Thirty-seven percent (n = 221) endorsed an experience of sexual victimization, and 165 disclosed it to someone. Hierarchical ordinary least squares regressions revealed that a stronger sense of ethnic identity was associated with fewer symptoms of PTSD for those women who experienced higher levels of control, distraction, and egocentric responses from the first disclosure recipient. A strong sense of affiliation with the mainstream culture did not protect survivors who reported receiving negative responses to disclosure against symptoms of PTSD or depression. Ethnic affiliation may protect women against PTSD when they receive high levels of negative messages about sexual victimization experiences.

"Call for Help Immediately": A Discourse Analysis of Resident Assistants' Responses to Sexual Assault Disclosures

Formal support providers can play a critical role in sexual assault survivors' well-being (e.g., providing resource referrals). In a university setting, resident assistants (RAs) are key support providers with a unique relationship to survivors based on their dual roles as help-provider and peer. We examined 305 RAs' responses to student sexual assault disclosure scenarios. Employing a critical discourse analysis, we identified four discourses used by RAs in their discussion of resources: controlling, gatekeeping, minimizing, and empowering. Due to power dynamics between RAs and residents, we conclude that empowering discourses would facilitate survivors' access to other resources (e.g., sexual assault center).

Social reactions to disclosure of interpersonal violence and psychopathology: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Public attention has been increasingly paid to how friends, family members, and others can best support survivors of sexual assault and other forms of violence. The broader social support literature posits that perceiving social support positively is more important to mental health than the degree to which social support is actually received, and that negative interactions with social supporters are more harmful than positive interactions are helpful (potentially because negative reactions violate survivors' expectations of their social supporters). This may be especially true after a crisis, such as interpersonal violence. Thus, this systematic review and meta-analysis summarizes the literature on social reactions to interpersonal violence. Meta-regression analyses were performed on 1871 correlations from 51 studies reflecting the degree to which receiving specific reactions more frequently, or perceiving reactions more positively, was associated with psychopathology. Results indicated that negative social reactions to disclosure-especially reactions involving controlling, distracting, and treating survivors differently-were associated with worse psychopathology, whereas positive social reactions did not appear to be protective. Perceiving reactions more positively was associated with less severe psychopathology, but (although causation cannot be concluded) positive perceptions' potential benefit appeared to be smaller than the potential risk conveyed by negative reactions. These findings indicate that interventions which reduce the degree to which survivors receive negative social reactions are needed.

Seeking help for the health sequelae of military sexual trauma: a theory-driven model of the role of institutional betrayal

Although rates vary, approximately 38.4% of women and 3.9% of men report experiencing military sexual trauma (MST). MST is associated with numerous psychosocial consequences, increased propensity for physical and mental health diagnoses, suicide, and an elevated likelihood of revictimization. Consequently, medical and mental health care for MST-related health sequelae is often warranted for individuals who have experienced MST; however, many MST survivors forgo or delay MST-related care, despite the fact that the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) provides free healthcare for MST-related health conditions. One potential explanation for this phenomenon is that survivors of MST feel betrayed by the military institution that they served when the MST occurred due to the institutional response to MST or perceptions that the institution failed to prevent MST from occurring. Perceptions of institutional betrayal may, in turn, decrease survivors' likelihood of disclosing MST and utilizing necessary treatment through VHA or affiliated institutions. A theoretical model of the role of institutional betrayal on help-seeking is proposed in which institutional betrayal serves as a potential barrier to utilizing MST-related healthcare. Potential mediators of this association (e.g., distrust, beliefs about safety) are also posited. This model offers utility in conceptualizing institutional factors that may influence helping-seeking following MST. By testing and refining such models, institutions and providers may be better-equipped to support MST survivors in obtaining necessary healthcare.

Differential perceptions of a hypothetical sexual assault survivor based on race and ethnicity: Exploring victim responsibility, trauma, and need for social support

Objective: Explore the ways in which a sample of college women interpret racially/ethnically coded vignettes to understand their perceptions of responsibility and trauma experienced by a hypothetical female sexual assault survivor and her need for social support. Participants: Convenience sample of college women (N = 51) attending a large, predominately white university in the Southeastern United States recruited between January and March 2013. Methods: Participants were randomly assigned one of three vignettes describing a hypothetical date rape scenario. Vignette scenarios were identical except for discrete statements coded to signify either an African American, Latina, or white female student. Participants responded to open-ended questions that gauged their interpretations of responsibility, trauma, and social support. Results: Qualitative analysis of open-ended responses revealed six overarching themes, including overt victim blaming/shaming, justification of the sexual assault, and perceived need for social support. Conclusions: Findings point to the significance of including race in discussions about and programs that address sexual assault on college campuses to ensure that all women who experience sexual violence receive the support that they need.

Child Maltreatment Disclosure to a Text Messaging-Based Crisis Service: Content Analysis

Background

Disclosure is a difficult but important process for victims of child maltreatment. There is limited research on child maltreatment disclosure. Young people have been reluctant to disclose victimization to adults, but short message service (SMS) crisis services may represent one novel method of engaging young people around sensitive topics.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to determine characteristics of child maltreatment disclosure to an SMS-based crisis service.

Methods

We conducted a content analysis of all conversations (N=244) that resulted in a mandatory report by an SMS-based crisis service between October 2015 and July 2017. We coded characteristics of the disclosure process, including the reason for initial contact, phrase used to disclose abuse, perpetrator, type of abuse, and length of victimization. After identifying terms used by young people to disclose child abuse, we randomly selected and analyzed 50 conversations using those terms to determine if use of the terms differed between conversations that did and did not result in mandatory report.

Results

Parents were the most common perpetrator. Physical abuse was the most common form of abuse discussed in the initial abuse disclosure (106/244, 43.4%), followed by psychological abuse (83/244, 34.0%), sexual abuse (38/244, 15.6%), and neglect (15/244, 6.1%). More than half of the texters discussed abuse or other significant family issues in the first message. An explicit description of the experience or definite language, such as abuse, rape, and molested, was common in disclosures.

Conclusions

Early disclosure, combined with explicit language, may suggest at least a portion of young victims are actively seeking safe ways to talk about their experiences with abuse, rather than incidentally sharing experiences while seeking support for other issues. SMS text messaging may be a valuable way to engage with young people around sensitive topics, but these approaches will require careful consideration in their development, implementation, and evaluation to ensure a positive experience for young people.

Sexual Assault Reporting and Emotional Distress Among College Female-Identified Victims/Survivors

PURPOSE

The current study tests associations between reporting sexual victimization to a healthcare provider, campus authority, police, or social contact, and emotional well-being among college women.

METHODS

Data from 2,162 women who participated in the 2015 College Student Health Survey at 17 colleges in Minnesota was used. Analyses tested associations between reporting sexual assault to formal or informal resources and diagnosis with anxiety, depression, panic attacks, and posttraumatic stress disorder, as well as self-rated health.

RESULTS

Significantly higher rates of all four diagnoses were observed among those who reported to formal resources (e.g., healthcare provider, police) compared with those who reported to informal resources (i.e., friends, family). However, no differences were seen in self-rated physical or mental health.

CONCLUSIONS

Expansion of trauma-informed healthcare services and advocacy efforts is recommended to optimally support students who report sexual assault experiences.

Predictors of College Students' Likelihood to Report Hypothetical Rape: Rape Myth Acceptance, Perceived Barriers to Reporting, and Self-Efficacy

Rape myth acceptance (RMA), perceived barriers, and self-efficacy were examined as predictors of likelihood to report different types of rape to law enforcement among 409 undergraduates. Participants had lower likelihood to report incapacitated compared to physically forced rape. Men had lower reporting likelihood than women for rape perpetrated by the same and opposite sex, and were more likely to perceive several barriers. RMA and perceived barriers predicted a lower likelihood to report several types of rape. Among men, higher self-efficacy predicted increased reporting likelihood. Targeting RMA and decreasing perceived barriers is imperative to increase college students' likelihood to report rape to local and campus law enforcement.

"I Still Feel Like I Am Not Normal": A Review of the Role of Stigma and Stigmatization Among Female Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse, Sexual Assault, and Intimate Partner Violence

Child sexual abuse (CSA), sexual assault (SA), and intimate partner violence (IPV) occur within social contexts that shape how survivors judge themselves and are evaluated by others. Because these are gendered sexual and intimate crimes that violate social norms about what is appropriate and acceptable, survivors may experience stigma that includes victim-blaming messages from the broader society as well as specific stigmatizing reactions from others in response to disclosure; this stigmatization can be internalized among survivors as self-blame, shame, and anticipatory stigma. Stigma and stigmatization play an important role in shaping survivors' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors as they recover; their risk of revictimization; and their help-seeking and attainment process. In this review, we synthesize recent CSA, SA, and IPV research ( N = 123) that examines female survivors' self-blame, shame, internalized stigma, and anticipatory stigma as well as negative social reactions in response to survivors' disclosure. We highlight critical findings as well as implications for research, practice, and policy, and we note gaps in our current knowledge.

Rape Disclosure and Depression Among Community Women: The Mediating Roles of Shame and Experiential Avoidance

Many women who disclose a rape encounter victim-blaming responses, which are associated with negative outcomes. The present study examined rape-related shame and experiential avoidance as mediators of the relation between victim-blaming responses to rape disclosure and depression among 103 rape survivors drawn from a community sample. Results revealed that victim-blaming responses were positively associated with depressive symptoms through rape-related shame and experiential avoidance, and shame was indirectly related to depression via avoidance. Findings suggest clinical interventions should focus on rape-related shame and experiential avoidance in targeting depression among rape survivors, and future research should continue to examine how victim-blaming responses to rape disclosure may be related to these factors.

"They're hoping we can stop it": Student leadership in sexual violence intervention and response at West Point

This study identified risks and opportunities in peer leadership approaches to sexual violence intervention and response. Constructivist grounded theory was used to analyze semistructured interviews with 24 cadets, including a bystander intervention scenario. With regard to bystander intervention, cadets adhered to gendered assumptions that blocked action, drew upon community values to plan intervention, and thus prepared in ways that reinforced gender biases. With regard to incident response, cadets struggled with cynicism regarding their role in addressing sexual assault, but wanted incidents to be reported despite victim blaming and lack of supports, and responded from their feelings instead of skillfully acting on their values. This study explicates opportunities for leveraging community values in service of intervention and response while illustrating risks of rape myths and gender biases. Addressing inaccurate assumptions and reinforcing positive values could better prepare cadets and other undergraduate students for leadership.

Naming the Unspeakable Harm of Street Harassment: A Survey-Based Examination of Disclosure Practices

Street harassment may be considered an “unspeakable” harm on account of the routine silencing and trivialization of victims’ experiences. Disclosing street harassment is vital in making its harms visible and in working to transform social and cultural attitudes. Despite a recent resurgence of interest in street harassment via online activist groups, there is scant research on disclosure practices. Drawing on findings from an online, mixed-methods survey with 292 participants who have experienced street harassment, I examine disclosure practices using an intersectional lens. I argue that disclosure is an epistemological process, through which a limited and partial understanding of street harassment is produced.