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Lin Z, Luo X, Wickman JR, Reddy D, Pande R, Tian Y, Triana V, Lee J, Furdui CM, Pink D, Sacan A, Ajit SK. Inflammatory pain resolution by mouse serum-derived small extracellular vesicles. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.16.578759. [PMID: 38405813 PMCID: PMC10888877 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.16.578759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Chronic pain is a significant public health issue. Current treatments have limited efficacy and significant side effects, warranting research on alternative strategies for pain management. One approach involves using small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) to transport beneficial biomolecular cargo to aid pain resolution. Exosomes are 30-150 nm sEVs that can carry RNAs, proteins, and lipid mediators to recipient cells via circulation. Exosomes can be beneficial or harmful depending on their source and contents. To investigate the short and long-term effects of mouse serum-derived sEVs in pain modulation, sEVs from naïve control or spared nerve injury (SNI) model donor mice were injected intrathecally into naïve recipient mice. Basal mechanical thresholds transiently increased in recipient mice. This effect was mediated by opioid signaling as this outcome was blocked by naltrexone. Mass Spectrometry of sEVs detected endogenous opioid peptide leu-enkephalin. A single prophylactic intrathecal injection of sEVs two weeks prior to induction of the pain model in recipient mice delayed mechanical allodynia in SNI model mice and accelerated recovery from inflammatory pain after complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) injection. ChipCytometry of spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) from sEV treated mice showed that prophylactic sEV treatment reduced the number of natural killer (NK) and NKT cells in spinal cord and increased CD206+ anti-inflammatory macrophages in (DRG) after CFA injection. Further characterization of sEVs showed the presence of immune markers suggesting that sEVs can exert immunomodulatory effects in recipient mice to promote the resolution of inflammatory pain. Collectively, these studies demonstrate multiple mechanisms by which sEVs can attenuate pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhucheng Lin
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Xuan Luo
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Jason R Wickman
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Deepa Reddy
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Richa Pande
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Yuzhen Tian
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | | | - Jingyun Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Cristina M Furdui
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Desmond Pink
- Nanostics Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, T5J 4P6, Canada
| | - Ahmet Sacan
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science & Health Systems, Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Seena K Ajit
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 North 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
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2
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Dedek C, Azadgoleh MA, Prescott SA. Reproducible and fully automated testing of nocifensive behavior in mice. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2023; 3:100650. [PMID: 37992707 PMCID: PMC10783627 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2023.100650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Pain in rodents is often inferred from their withdrawal from noxious stimulation. Threshold stimulus intensity or response latency is used to quantify pain sensitivity. This usually involves applying stimuli by hand and measuring responses by eye, which limits reproducibility and throughput. We describe a device that standardizes and automates pain testing by providing computer-controlled aiming, stimulation, and response measurement. Optogenetic and thermal stimuli are applied using blue and infrared light, respectively. Precise mechanical stimulation is also demonstrated. Reflectance of red light is used to measure paw withdrawal with millisecond precision. We show that consistent stimulus delivery is crucial for resolving stimulus-dependent variations in withdrawal and for testing with sustained stimuli. Moreover, substage video reveals "spontaneous" behaviors for consideration alongside withdrawal metrics to better assess the pain experience. The entire process was automated using machine learning. RAMalgo (reproducible automated multimodal algometry) improves the standardization, comprehensiveness, and throughput of preclinical pain testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Dedek
- Neurosciences and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Mehdi A Azadgoleh
- Neurosciences and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Steven A Prescott
- Neurosciences and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada; Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.
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3
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Morgan MM, Hilgendorf TN, Kandasamy R. Continuous fentanyl administration and spontaneous withdrawal decreases home cage wheel running in rats with and without hindpaw inflammation. Physiol Behav 2023; 272:114376. [PMID: 37820887 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Fentanyl is a potent analgesic with a rapid onset and short half-life that make it a useful treatment for pain and a lethal drug of abuse. The present study used voluntary home cage wheel running to assess the effect of hindpaw inflammation, fentanyl administration, and spontaneous fentanyl withdrawal. Fentanyl (0.32 or 1.0 mg/kg/day) or placebo osmotic pumps were implanted subcutaneously and rats received an intraplantar injection of Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) or saline. Rats with hindpaw inflammation caused by CFA administration were less active than rats injected with saline into the hindpaw. The antinociceptive effect of 0.32 mg/kg/day of fentanyl was evident as a recovery of wheel running in these rats. Administration of 1 mg/kg/day of fentanyl almost completely inhibited wheel running during the first day in rats with and without hindpaw inflammation. Wheel running increased each subsequent day until the pumps were surgically removed after day 3. Withdrawal from 0.32 or 1 mg/kg/day of fentanyl caused a decrease in wheel running that lasted 2 days in rats without hindpaw inflammation. In contrast, withdrawal was only evident following termination of 1 mg/kg/day of fentanyl in rats with hindpaw inflammation. This decrease in running seemed to persist beyond the 3 days of assessment. These data demonstrate that fentanyl can either depress or restore activity depending on the dose and pain condition. Moreover, termination of 3 days of continuous fentanyl administration resulted in a dose and time dependent decrease in wheel running consistent with opioid withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael M Morgan
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University Vancouver, 14204 NE Salmon Creek Ave. Vancouver, WA 98686, USA.
| | - Tammy N Hilgendorf
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University Vancouver, 14204 NE Salmon Creek Ave. Vancouver, WA 98686, USA
| | - Ram Kandasamy
- Department of Psychology, California State University, East Bay 25800 Carlos Bee Blvd. Hayward, CA 94542, USA
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4
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Plum T, Binzberger R, Thiele R, Shang F, Postrach D, Fung C, Fortea M, Stakenborg N, Wang Z, Tappe-Theodor A, Poth T, MacLaren DAA, Boeckxstaens G, Kuner R, Pitzer C, Monyer H, Xin C, Bonventre JV, Tanaka S, Voehringer D, Vanden Berghe P, Strid J, Feyerabend TB, Rodewald HR. Mast cells link immune sensing to antigen-avoidance behaviour. Nature 2023; 620:634-642. [PMID: 37438525 PMCID: PMC10432277 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06188-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
The physiological functions of mast cells remain largely an enigma. In the context of barrier damage, mast cells are integrated in type 2 immunity and, together with immunoglobulin E (IgE), promote allergic diseases. Allergic symptoms may, however, facilitate expulsion of allergens, toxins and parasites and trigger future antigen avoidance1-3. Here, we show that antigen-specific avoidance behaviour in inbred mice4,5 is critically dependent on mast cells; hence, we identify the immunological sensor cell linking antigen recognition to avoidance behaviour. Avoidance prevented antigen-driven adaptive, innate and mucosal immune activation and inflammation in the stomach and small intestine. Avoidance was IgE dependent, promoted by Th2 cytokines in the immunization phase and by IgE in the execution phase. Mucosal mast cells lining the stomach and small intestine rapidly sensed antigen ingestion. We interrogated potential signalling routes between mast cells and the brain using mutant mice, pharmacological inhibition, neural activity recordings and vagotomy. Inhibition of leukotriene synthesis impaired avoidance, but overall no single pathway interruption completely abrogated avoidance, indicating complex regulation. Collectively, the stage for antigen avoidance is set when adaptive immunity equips mast cells with IgE as a telltale of past immune responses. On subsequent antigen ingestion, mast cells signal termination of antigen intake. Prevention of immunopathology-causing, continuous and futile responses against per se innocuous antigens or of repeated ingestion of toxins through mast-cell-mediated antigen-avoidance behaviour may be an important arm of immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Plum
- Division for Cellular Immunology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Rebecca Binzberger
- Division for Cellular Immunology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Robin Thiele
- Division for Cellular Immunology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Fuwei Shang
- Division for Cellular Immunology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Daniel Postrach
- Division for Cellular Immunology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Candice Fung
- Laboratory for Enteric NeuroScience Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marina Fortea
- Laboratory for Enteric NeuroScience Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nathalie Stakenborg
- Laboratory for Intestinal Neuroimmune Interactions, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Zheng Wang
- Laboratory for Intestinal Neuroimmune Interactions, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Tanja Poth
- Center for Model System and Comparative Pathology, Institute of Pathology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Duncan A A MacLaren
- Department of Clinical Neurobiology of the Medical Faculty of Heidelberg University and German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Guy Boeckxstaens
- Laboratory for Intestinal Neuroimmune Interactions, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rohini Kuner
- Pharmacology Institute, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Claudia Pitzer
- Interdisciplinary Neurobehavioral Core, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hannah Monyer
- Department of Clinical Neurobiology of the Medical Faculty of Heidelberg University and German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Cuiyan Xin
- Division of Renal Medicine and Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Joseph V Bonventre
- Division of Renal Medicine and Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Satoshi Tanaka
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Division of Pathological Sciences, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - David Voehringer
- Department of Infection Biology, University Hospital Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Pieter Vanden Berghe
- Laboratory for Enteric NeuroScience Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jessica Strid
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Thorsten B Feyerabend
- Division for Cellular Immunology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hans-Reimer Rodewald
- Division for Cellular Immunology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany.
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Behavioral Voluntary and Social Bioassays Enabling Identification of Complex and Sex-Dependent Pain-(-Related) Phenotypes in Rats with Bone Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15051565. [PMID: 36900357 PMCID: PMC10000428 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15051565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer-induced bone pain (CIBP) is a common and devastating symptom with limited treatment options in patients, significantly affecting their quality of life. The use of rodent models is the most common approach to uncovering the mechanisms underlying CIBP; however, the translation of results to the clinic may be hindered because the assessment of pain-related behavior is often based exclusively on reflexive-based methods, which are only partially indicative of relevant pain in patients. To improve the accuracy and strength of the preclinical, experimental model of CIBP in rodents, we used a battery of multimodal behavioral tests that were also aimed at identifying rodent-specific behavioral components by using a home-cage monitoring assay (HCM). Rats of all sexes received an injection with either heat-deactivated (sham-group) or potent mammary gland carcinoma Walker 256 cells into the tibia. By integrating multimodal datasets, we assessed pain-related behavioral trajectories of the CIBP-phenotype, including evoked and non-evoked based assays and HCM. Using principal component analysis (PCA), we discovered sex-specific differences in establishing the CIBP-phenotype, which occurred earlier (and differently) in males. Additionally, HCM phenotyping revealed the occurrence of sensory-affective states manifested by mechanical hypersensitivity in sham when housed with a tumor-bearing cagemate (CIBP) of the same sex. This multimodal battery allows for an in-depth characterization of the CIBP-phenotype under social aspects in rats. The detailed, sex-specific, and rat-specific social phenotyping of CIBP enabled by PCA provides the basis for mechanism-driven studies to ensure robustness and generalizability of results and provide information for targeted drug development in the future.
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6
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Experimenter familiarization is a crucial prerequisite for assessing behavioral outcomes and reduces stress in mice not only under chronic pain conditions. Sci Rep 2023; 13:2289. [PMID: 36759654 PMCID: PMC9911644 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-29052-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Rodent behavior is affected by different environmental conditions. These do not only comprise experimental and housing conditions but also familiarization with the experimenter. However, specific effects on pain-related behavior and chronic pain conditions have not been examined. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the impact of different housing conditions, using individually ventilated and standard open top cages, inverted day-night cycles, and experimenter familiarization on male mice following peripheral neuropathy using the spared nerve injury (SNI) model. Using a multimodal approach, we evaluated evoked pain-related- using von Frey hair filaments, measured gait pattern with the CatWalk system, assessed anxiety- and depression-like behavior with the Elevated plus maze and tail suspension test, measured corticosterone metabolite levels in feces and utilized an integrative approach for relative-severity-assessment. Mechanical sensitivity differed between the cage systems and experimenter familiarization and was affected in both sham and SNI mice. Experimenter familiarization and an inverted day-night cycle reduced mechanical hypersensitivity in SNI and sham mice. SNI mice of the inverted day-night group displayed the slightest pronounced alterations in gait pattern in the Catwalk test. Anxiety-related behavior was only found in SNI mice of experimenter-familiarized mice compared to the sham controls. In addition, familiarization reduced the stress level measured by fecal corticosteroid metabolites caused by the pain and the behavioral tests. Although no environmental condition significantly modulated the severity in SNI mice, it influenced pain-affected phenotypes and is, therefore, crucial for designing and interpreting preclinical pain studies. Moreover, environmental conditions should be considered more in the reporting guidelines, described in more detail, and discussed as a potential influence on pain phenotypes.
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7
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Damo E, Agarwal A, Simonetti M. Activation of β2-Adrenergic Receptors in Microglia Alleviates Neuropathic Hypersensitivity in Mice. Cells 2023; 12:cells12020284. [PMID: 36672219 PMCID: PMC9856373 DOI: 10.3390/cells12020284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Drugs enhancing the availability of noradrenaline are gaining prominence in the therapy of chronic neuropathic pain. However, underlying mechanisms are not well understood, and research has thus far focused on α2-adrenergic receptors and neuronal excitability. Adrenergic receptors are also expressed on glial cells, but their roles toward antinociception are not well deciphered. This study addresses the contribution of β2-adrenergic receptors (β2-ARs) to the therapeutic modulation of neuropathic pain in mice. We report that selective activation of β2-ARs with Formoterol inhibits pro-inflammatory signaling in microglia ex vivo and nerve injury-induced structural remodeling and functional activation of microglia in vivo. Systemic delivery of Formoterol inhibits behaviors related to neuropathic pain, such as mechanical hypersensitivity, cold allodynia as well as the aversive component of pain, and reverses chronically established neuropathic pain. Using conditional gene targeting for microglia-specific deletion of β2-ARs, we demonstrate that the anti-allodynic effects of Formoterol are primarily mediated by microglia. Although Formoterol also reduces astrogliosis at late stages of neuropathic pain, these functions are unrelated to β2-AR signaling in microglia. Our results underline the value of developing microglial β2-AR agonists for relief from neuropathic pain and clarify mechanistic underpinnings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Damo
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 366, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Amit Agarwal
- The Chica and Heinz Schaller Research Group, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 307, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 366, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Manuela Simonetti
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 366, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Correspondence:
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Huo BB, Zheng MX, Hua XY, Wu JJ, Xing XX, Ma J, Fang M, Xu JG. Effect of aging on the cerebral metabolic mechanism of electroacupuncture treatment in rats with traumatic brain injury. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1081515. [PMID: 37113153 PMCID: PMC10128857 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1081515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Aging has great influence on the clinical treatment effect of cerebrovascular diseases, and evidence suggests that the effect may be associated with age-related brain plasticity. Electroacupuncture is an effective alternative treatment for traumatic brain injury (TBI). In the present study, we aimed to explore the effect of aging on the cerebral metabolic mechanism of electroacupuncture to provide new evidence for developing age-specific rehabilitation strategies. Methods Both aged (18 months) and young (8 weeks) rats with TBI were analyzed. Thirty-two aged rats were randomly divided into four groups: aged model, aged electroacupuncture, aged sham electroacupuncture, and aged control group. Similarly, 32 young rats were also divided into four groups: young model, young electroacupuncture, young sham electroacupuncture, and young control group. Electroacupuncture was applied to "Bai hui" (GV20) and "Qu chi" (LI11) for 8 weeks. CatWalk gait analysis was then performed at 3 days pre- and post-TBI, and at 1, 2, 4, and 8 weeks after intervention to observe motor function recovery. Positron emission computed tomography (PET/CT) was performed at 3 days pre- and post-TBI, and at 2, 4, and 8 weeks after intervention to detect cerebral metabolism. Results Gait analysis showed that electroacupuncture improved the forepaw mean intensity in aged rats after 8 weeks of intervention, but after 4 weeks of intervention in young rats. PET/CT revealed increased metabolism in the left (the injured ipsilateral hemisphere) sensorimotor brain areas of aged rats during the electroacupuncture intervention, and increased metabolism in the right (contralateral to injury hemisphere) sensorimotor brain areas of young rats. Results This study demonstrated that aged rats required a longer electroacupuncture intervention duration to improve motor function than that of young rats. The influence of aging on the cerebral metabolism of electroacupuncture treatment was mainly focused on a particular hemisphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei-Bei Huo
- School of Rehabilitation Science, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Mou-Xiong Zheng
- Engineering Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine Intelligent Rehabilitation, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China
- Department of Traumatology and Orthopedics, Yueyang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xu-Yun Hua
- Engineering Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine Intelligent Rehabilitation, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China
- Department of Traumatology and Orthopedics, Yueyang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jia-Jia Wu
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yueyang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiang-Xin Xing
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yueyang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Ma
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yueyang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Min Fang
- Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian-Guang Xu
- School of Rehabilitation Science, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Engineering Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine Intelligent Rehabilitation, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Jian-Guang Xu,
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9
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Santos EJ, Giddings AN, Kandil FA, Negus SS. Climbing behavior by mice as an endpoint for preclinical assessment of drug effects in the absence and presence of pain. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2023; 4:1150236. [PMID: 37139343 PMCID: PMC10149664 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2023.1150236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated climbing in mice as a tool to assess the expression and treatment of pain-related behavioral depression in male and female ICR mice. Mice were videotaped during 10-min sessions in a vertical plexiglass cylinder with wire mesh walls, and "Time Climbing" was scored by observers blind to treatments. Initial validation studies demonstrated that baseline climbing was stable across repeated days of testing and depressed by intraperitoneal injection of dilute lactic acid (IP acid) as an acute pain stimulus. Additionally, IP acid-induced depression of climbing was blocked by the positive-control non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ketoprofen but not by the negative control kappa opioid receptor agonist U69593. Subsequent studies examined effects of single-molecule opioids (fentanyl, buprenorphine, naltrexone) and of fixed-proportion fentanyl/naltrexone mixtures (10:1, 3.2:1, and 1:1) that vary in their efficacy at the mu opioid receptor (MOR). Opioids administered alone produced a dose- and efficacy-dependent decrease in climbing, and fentanyl/naltrexone-mixture data indicated that climbing in mice is especially sensitive to disruption by even low-efficacy MOR activation. Opioids administered as a pretreatment to IP acid failed to block IP acid-induced depression of climbing. Taken together, these findings support the utility of climbing in mice as an endpoint to evaluate candidate-analgesic effectiveness both to (a) produce undesirable behavioral disruption when the test drug is administered alone, and (b) produce a therapeutic blockade of pain-related behavioral depression. The failure of MOR agonists to block IP acid-induced depression of climbing likely reflects the high sensitivity of climbing to disruption by MOR agonists.
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10
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Gan Z, Gangadharan V, Liu S, Körber C, Tan LL, Li H, Oswald MJ, Kang J, Martin-Cortecero J, Männich D, Groh A, Kuner T, Wieland S, Kuner R. Layer-specific pain relief pathways originating from primary motor cortex. Science 2022; 378:1336-1343. [PMID: 36548429 DOI: 10.1126/science.add4391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The primary motor cortex (M1) is involved in the control of voluntary movements and is extensively mapped in this capacity. Although the M1 is implicated in modulation of pain, the underlying circuitry and causal underpinnings remain elusive. We unexpectedly unraveled a connection from the M1 to the nucleus accumbens reward circuitry through a M1 layer 6-mediodorsal thalamus pathway, which specifically suppresses negative emotional valence and associated coping behaviors in neuropathic pain. By contrast, layer 5 M1 neurons connect with specific cell populations in zona incerta and periaqueductal gray to suppress sensory hypersensitivity without altering pain affect. Thus, the M1 employs distinct, layer-specific pathways to attune sensory and aversive-emotional components of neuropathic pain, which can be exploited for purposes of pain relief.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Gan
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Vijayan Gangadharan
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sheng Liu
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christoph Körber
- Department of Functional Neuroanatomy, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Linette Liqi Tan
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Han Li
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Manfred Josef Oswald
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Juhyun Kang
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jesus Martin-Cortecero
- Institute for Physiology and Pathophysiology, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Deepitha Männich
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alexander Groh
- Institute for Physiology and Pathophysiology, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Thomas Kuner
- Department of Functional Neuroanatomy, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Wieland
- Department of Functional Neuroanatomy, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of General Internal Medicine and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty Heidelberg and University Clinic Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rohini Kuner
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
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11
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Coexistence of chronic hyperalgesia and multilevel neuroinflammatory responses after experimental SCI: a systematic approach to profiling neuropathic pain. J Neuroinflammation 2022; 19:264. [PMID: 36309729 PMCID: PMC9617391 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02628-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background People with spinal cord injury (SCI) frequently develop neuropathic pain (NP) that worsens disability and diminishes rehabilitation efficacy. Chronic NP is presently incurable due to poor understanding of underlying mechanisms. We hypothesized that multilocus neuroinflammation (NIF) might be a driver of SCI NP, and tested it by investigating whether NP coexisted with central NIF, neurotransmission (NTM), neuromodulation (NML) and neuroplasticity (NPL) changes post-SCI. Methods Female Sprague–Dawley rats (230–250 g) with T10 compression or laminectomy were evaluated for physical conditions, coordinated hindlimb functions, neurological reflexes, and mechanical/thermal sensitivity thresholds at 1 day post-injury (p.i.) and weekly thereafter. Eight weeks p.i., central nervous system tissues were histochemically and immunohistochemically characterized for parameters/markers of histopathology and NIF/NTM/NML/NPL. Also analyzed was the correlative relationship between levels of selected biomarkers and thermosensitivity thresholds via statistical linear regression. Results SCI impaired sensorimotor functions, altered reflexes, and produced spontaneous pain signs and hypersensitivity to evoked nociceptive, mechanical, and thermal inputs. Only injured spinal cords exhibited neural lesion, microglia/astrocyte activation, and abnormal expression of proinflammatory cytokines, as well as NIF/NTM/NML/NPL markers. Brains of SCI animals displayed similar pathophysiological signs in the gracile and parabrachial nuclei (GrN and PBN: sensory relay), raphe magnus nucleus and periaqueduct gray (RMN and PAG: pain modulation), basolateral amygdala (BLA: emotional-affective dimension of pain), and hippocampus (HPC: memory/mood/neurogenesis). SCI augmented sensory NTM/NPL (GrN and PBN); increased GAD67 (PAG) level; reduced serotonin (RMN) and fear-off neuronal NTR2 (BLA) expressions; and perturbed neurogenesis (HPC). Conclusion T10 compression caused chronic hyperalgesia that coexisted with NIF/NTM/NML/NPL responses at multilevel neuroaxis centers. The data have provided multidimensional biomarkers as new mechanistic leads to profile SCI NP for therapeutic/therapy development. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-022-02628-2.
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Dallazen JL, da Luz BB, Maria-Ferreira D, Nascimento AM, Cipriani TR, de Souza LM, Geppetti P, de Paula Werner MF. Local effects of natural alkylamides from Acmella oleracea and synthetic isobutylalkyl amide on neuropathic and postoperative pain models in mice. Fitoterapia 2022; 160:105224. [PMID: 35659524 DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2022.105224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Neuropathic and postoperative pain are clinical conditions that impair the patient's quality of life. The current pharmacotherapy of both painful states is ineffective and accompanied by several side effects. In order to develop new therapeutics targets, the secondary metabolites of plants have been extensively studied. Acmella oleracea ("jambu") is a native plant from the Amazon region and rich in alkylamides, bioactive compounds responsible for inducing anesthetic and chemesthetic sensations. We previously demonstrated that the intraplantar administration of an hexanic fraction (HF) rich in alkylamides from jambu and the synthetic isobutylalkyl amide (IBA) at 0.1 μg/20 μL can promote antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the local effect of HF and IBA (0.1 μg/20 μL) on neuropathic (partial sciatic nerve ligation, PSNL) and postoperative pain (plantar incision surgery, PIS) models in mice. Seven days after the PSNL, the mechanical (von Frey test) and cold (acetone-evoked evaporative cooling) allodynia, and digital gait parameters were analyzed. The intraplantar HF and IBA treatments attenuated the mechanical and cold allodynia as well as the static (max. Contact and print area) and dynamic (stand duration) parameters of digital gait analyses. On the day after PIS, the mechanical allodynia, heat hyperalgesia (hot plate, 52 ± 0.1°C), and spontaneous nociception scores were evaluated. Topical treatment with HF reduced the mechanical allodynia, heat hyperalgesia, and spontaneous nociception scores. In contrast, IBA treatment only partially reduced the mechanical allodynia. In summary, the local treatment with HF was effective on both neuropathic and postoperative pain, as opposed to IBA, which only had an effect on neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Daniele Maria-Ferreira
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Brazil; Instituto de Pesquisa Pelé Pequeno Príncipe, Faculdades Pequeno Príncipe, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Adamara Machado Nascimento
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Brazil; Multidisciplinary Center, Federal University of Acre, Cruzeiro do Sul, Brazil
| | - Thales Ricardo Cipriani
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Lauro Mera de Souza
- Instituto de Pesquisa Pelé Pequeno Príncipe, Faculdades Pequeno Príncipe, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Pierangelo Geppetti
- Department of Health Sciences, Section of Clinical Pharmacology and Oncology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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de la Puente B, Zamanillo D, Romero L, Carceller A, Vela JM, Merlos M, Portillo-Salido E. Comprehensive Preclinical Assessment of Sensory, Functional, Motivational-Affective, and Neurochemical Outcomes in Neuropathic Pain: The Case of the Sigma-1 Receptor. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2022; 5:240-254. [PMID: 35434530 PMCID: PMC9003638 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.2c00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Chronic pain remains a major health problem and is currently facing slow drug innovation. New drug treatments should address not only the sensory-discriminative but also functional and motivational-affective components of chronic pain. In a mouse model of neuropathic pain induced by partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL), we analyzed sensory and functional-like outcomes by hindpaw mechanical stimulation and automated gait analysis (CatWalk). We characterized over time a reward-seeking task based on diminished motivation for natural reinforcers (anhedonic-like behavior). To differentiate the appetitive ("wanting") and consummatory ("liking") aspects of motivational behavior, we quantified the latency and number of approaches to eat white chocolate, as well as the eating duration and amount consumed. We explored a putative chronic pain-induced dysregulation of monoamine function by measuring monoamine levels in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a well-known brain reward area. Finally, we investigated the role of sigma-1 receptor (σ1R) modulation, a nonopioid target, in these multiple dimensions by genetic deletion and pharmacological dose-response studies. After 6 weeks, PSNL increased the approach latency and reduced the consumption of white chocolate in 20-25% of the mice, while around 50-60% had one or the other parameter affected independently. After 10 weeks, sham-operated mice also displayed anhedonic-like behavior. PSNL was associated with reduced extracellular baseline dopamine and increased norepinephrine in the NAc and with a suppression of increased dopamine and serotonin efflux in response to the rewarding stimulus. Genetic and pharmacological blockade of σ1R relieved these multiple alterations in nerve-injured mice. We comprehensively describe sensory, functional, and depression-like impairment of key components of motivated behavior associated with nerve injury. We provide a neurochemical substrate for the depressed mesocorticolimbic reward processing in chronic pain, with a potentially increased translational value. Our results also highlight σ1R for the therapeutic intervention of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Zamanillo
- Welab Barcelona, Parc Científic de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Luz Romero
- Welab Barcelona, Parc Científic de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alicia Carceller
- Welab Barcelona, Parc Científic de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Miguel Vela
- Welab Barcelona, Parc Científic de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manuel Merlos
- Welab Barcelona, Parc Científic de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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Tappe-Theodor A, Pitzer C, Lewejohann L, Jirkof P, Siegeler K, Segelcke A, Drude N, Pradier B, Pogatzki-Zahn E, Hollinderbäumer B, Segelcke D. The “WWHow” Concept for Prospective Categorization of Post-operative Severity Assessment in Mice and Rats. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:841431. [PMID: 35372532 PMCID: PMC8964947 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.841431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The prospective severity assessment in animal experiments in the categories' non-recovery, mild, moderate, and severe is part of each approval process and serves to estimate the harm/benefit. Harms are essential for evaluating ethical justifiability, and on the other hand, they may represent confounders and effect modifiers within an experiment. Catalogs and guidelines provide a way to assess the experimental severity prospectively but are limited in adaptation due to their nature of representing particular examples without clear explanations of the assessment strategies. To provide more flexibility for current and future practices, we developed the modular Where-What-How (WWHow) concept, which applies findings from pre-clinical studies using surgical-induced pain models in mice and rats to provide a prospective severity assessment. The WWHow concept integrates intra-operative characteristics for predicting the maximum expected severity of surgical procedures. The assessed severity categorization is mainly congruent with examples in established catalogs; however, because the WWHow concept is based on anatomical location, detailed analysis of the tissue trauma and other intra-operative characteristics, it enables refinement actions, provides the basis for a fact-based dialogue with authority officials and other stakeholders, and helps to identify confounder factors of study findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke Tappe-Theodor
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Claudia Pitzer
- Interdisciplinary Neurobehavioral Core, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lars Lewejohann
- Institute of Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), German Center for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Berlin, Germany
| | - Paulin Jirkof
- Office for Animal Welfare and 3Rs, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katja Siegeler
- Department of Work and Environmental Protection, Westphalian Wilhelms University Muenster, Münster, Germany
| | | | - Natascha Drude
- Berlin Institute of Health (BIH) at Charité, QUEST Center for Responsible Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bruno Pradier
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Münster, Germany
| | - Esther Pogatzki-Zahn
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Münster, Germany
| | | | - Daniel Segelcke
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Münster, Germany
- *Correspondence: Daniel Segelcke
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Green-Fulgham SM, Ball JB, Maier SF, Rice KC, Watkins LR, Grace PM. Suppression of active phase voluntary wheel running in male rats by unilateral chronic constriction injury: Enduring therapeutic effects of a brief treatment of morphine combined with TLR4 or P2X7 antagonists. J Neurosci Res 2022; 100:265-277. [PMID: 32533604 PMCID: PMC8377614 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The present series of studies examine the impact of systemically administered therapeutics on peripheral nerve injury (males; unilateral sciatic chronic constriction injury [CCI])-induced suppression of voluntary wheel running, across weeks after dosing cessation. Following CCI, active phase running distance and speed are suppressed throughout the 7-week observation period. A brief course of morphine, however, increased active phase running distance and speed throughout this same period, an effect apparent only in sham rats. For CCI rats, systemic co-administration of morphine with antagonists of either P2X7 (A438079) or TLR4 ((+)-naloxone) (receptors critical to the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes and consequent inflammatory cascades) returned running behavior of CCI rats to that of shams through 5+ weeks after dosing ceased. This is a striking difference in effect compared to our prior CCI allodynia results using systemic morphine plus intrathecal delivery of these same antagonists, wherein a sustained albeit partial suppression of neuropathic pain was observed. This may point to actions of the systemic drugs at multiple sites along the neuraxis, modulating injury-induced, inflammasome-mediated effects at the injured sciatic nerve and/or dorsal root ganglia, spinal cord, and potentially higher levels. Given that our data to date point to morphine amplifying neuroinflammatory processes put into motion by nerve injury, it is intriguing to speculate that co-administration of TLR4 and/or P2X7 antagonists can intervene in these inflammatory processes in a beneficial way. That is, that systemic administration of such compounds may suppress inflammatory damage at multiple sites, rapidly and persistently returning neuropathic animals to sham levels of response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne M. Green-Fulgham
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Jayson B. Ball
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Steven F. Maier
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Kenner C. Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism and National Institute on Drug Abuse, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Linda R. Watkins
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Peter M. Grace
- Laboratories of Neuroimmunology, Department of Symptom Research, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
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16
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Pitzer C, Kurpiers B, Eltokhi A. Gait performance of adolescent mice assessed by the CatWalk XT depends on age, strain and sex and correlates with speed and body weight. Sci Rep 2021; 11:21372. [PMID: 34725364 PMCID: PMC8560926 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00625-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The automatization of behavioral tests assessing motor activity in rodent models is important for providing robust and reproducible results and evaluating new therapeutics. The CatWalk system is an observer-independent, automated and computerized technique for the assessment of gait performance in rodents. This method has previously been used in adult rodent models of CNS-based movement disorders such as Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. As motor and gait abnormalities in neuropsychiatric disorders are observed during infancy and adolescence, it became important to validate the CatWalk XT in the gait analysis of adolescent mice and unravel factors that may cause variations in gait performance. Three adolescent wild-type inbred mouse strains, C57BL/6N, DBA/2 and FVB/N, were tested using the CatWalk XT (Version 10.6) for suitable detection settings to characterize several gait parameters at P32 and P42. The same detection settings being suitable for C57BL/6N and DBA/2 mice allowed a direct comparison between the two strains. On the other hand, due to their increased body weight and size, FVB/N mice required different detection settings. The CatWalk XT reliably measured the temporal, spatial, and interlimb coordination parameters in the investigated strains during adolescence. Additionally, significant effects of sex, development, speed and body weight within each strain confirmed the sensitivity of motor and gait functions to these factors. The CatWalk gait analysis of rodents during adolescence, taking the effect of age, strain, sex, speed and body weight into consideration, will decrease intra-laboratory discrepancies and increase the face validity of rodent models of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Pitzer
- Interdisciplinary Neurobehavioral Core, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Barbara Kurpiers
- Interdisciplinary Neurobehavioral Core, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ahmed Eltokhi
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, USA.
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17
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Neurogenesis in the adult brain functionally contributes to the maintenance of chronic neuropathic pain. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18549. [PMID: 34535707 PMCID: PMC8448753 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97093-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Maladaptive adult neurogenesis in the mammalian brain has been associated with diverse behaviors including disrupted learning, negative mood disorders and psychiatric conditions. However, its functional role in the generation and maintenance of chronic pathological pain has not yet been elucidated. Using an inducible genetic deletion in vivo mouse model, different behavioural paradigms and home cage monitoring systems, we show that an absence of adult neurogenesis does not impact the development of neuropathic injury-induced peripheral nociceptive hypersensitivity, but rather promotes the recovery of pathological pain as well as improves parameters associated with the state of well-being of the injured mice. These results provide a mechanistic insight into the mechanisms of chronic pain and implicate neurogenic processes as a potential therapeutic target for reducing pain and improving the quality of life for patients.
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Segelcke D, Pradier B, Reichl S, Schäfer LC, Pogatzki-Zahn EM. Investigating the Role of Ly6G+ Neutrophils in Incisional and Inflammatory Pain by Multidimensional Pain-Related Behavioral Assessments: Bridging the Translational Gap. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2021; 2:735838. [PMID: 35295496 PMCID: PMC8915677 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2021.735838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, preclinical pain research has failed to develop genuinely new analgesics for clinical use. This fact is reflected by a high number of patients, limited drug efficacy accompanied by side effects, and a long-term opioid intake. Two main aspects have been addressed, which hinder translation: the use of non-relevant pain models and a mismatch between pain-related outcomes in preclinical and clinical studies. Conversely, disease-specific pain models that mirror more closely the clinical situation and multidimensional behavioral outcome measures that objectively and reproducibly assess relevant pain-related symptoms in a preclinical setting could improve translation. Mechanistically, a matter of debate is the role of Ly6G+ neutrophil granulocytes (NGs) for pain. NGs are essential to eliminate pathogens and promote the wound healing process. For this purpose, there is a need to release various pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators, some of which could ameliorate or enhance pain. However, the contribution of NGs to different pain entities is contradictory for reflex-based tests, and completely unknown in the context of non-evoked pain (NEP) and movement-evoked pain (MEP). First, we combined withdrawal reflex-based assays with novel video-based assessments for NEP- and MEP-related behavior in two mouse pain models. The pain models utilized in this study were incision (INC) and pathogen/adjuvant-induced inflammation (CFA), translating well to postsurgical and inflammatory pain entities. Second, we depleted NGs and applied a set of behavioral assessments to investigate the role of NG migration in different pain modalities. Our comprehensive behavioral approach identified pain-related behaviors in mice that resemble (NEP) or differentiate (MEP) behavioral trajectories in comparison to mechanical and heat hypersensitivity, thereby indicating modality-dependent mechanisms. Further, we show that injury-induced accumulation of NGs minimally affects pain-related behaviors in both pain models. In conclusion, we report a novel assessment to detect NEP in mice after unilateral injuries using a more unbiased approach. Additionally, we are capable of detecting an antalgic gait for both pain entities with unique trajectories. The different trajectories between MEP and other pain modalities suggest that the underlying mechanisms differ. We further conclude that NGs play a subordinate role in pain-related behaviors in incisional and inflammatory pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Segelcke
- Department for Anesthesiology, Operative Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Muenster, Germany
| | - Bruno Pradier
- Department for Anesthesiology, Operative Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Muenster, Germany
| | - Sylvia Reichl
- Department for Anesthesiology, Operative Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Muenster, Germany
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Lukas C. Schäfer
- Department for Anesthesiology, Operative Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Muenster, Germany
| | - Esther M. Pogatzki-Zahn
- Department for Anesthesiology, Operative Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Muenster, Germany
- *Correspondence: Esther M. Pogatzki-Zahn
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Dunford J, Lee AT, Morgan MM. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) Exacerbates Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Adolescent and Adult Female Rats. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2021; 22:1040-1047. [PMID: 33727159 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2021.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is a life-long disorder that often begins between the ages of 15 and 30. Anecdotal reports suggest cannabinoids may be an effective treatment. This study sought to determine whether home cage wheel running is an effective method to assess IBD, and whether Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive compound in cannabis, can restore wheel running depressed by IBD. Adolescent and adult female Sprague-Dawley rats were individually housed in a cage with a running wheel. Rats were injected with trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS) into the rectum to induce IBD-like symptoms. One day later, both vehicle and TNBS treated rats were injected with a low dose of THC (0.32 mg/kg, s.c.) or vehicle. Administration of TNBS depressed wheel running in adolescent and adult rats. No antinociceptive effect of THC was evident when administered 1 day after TNBS. In fact, administration of THC prolonged TNBS-induced depression of wheel running for over 5 days in adolescent and adult rats. These results show that home cage wheel running is depressed by TNBS-induced IBD, making it a useful tool to evaluate the behavioral consequences of IBD, and that administration of THC, instead of producing antinociception, exacerbates TNBS-induced IBD. PERSPECTIVE: This article advances research on inflammatory bowel disease in two important ways: 1) Home cage wheel running is a new and sensitive tool to assess the behavioral consequences of IBD in adolescent and adult rats; and 2) Administration of the cannabinoid THC exacerbates the negative behavioral effects of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Dunford
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, WA
| | - Andrea T Lee
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, WA
| | - Michael M Morgan
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, WA.
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Automated home-cage monitoring as a potential measure of sickness behaviors and pain-like behaviors in LPS-treated mice. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0256706. [PMID: 34449819 PMCID: PMC8396795 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of endotoxin, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as a model of sickness behavior, has attracted recent attention. To objectively investigate sickness behavior along with its pain-like behaviors in LPS-treated mice, the behavioral measurement requires accurate methods, which reflects clinical relevance. While reflexive pain response tests have been used for decades for pain assessment, its accuracy and clinical relevance remain problematic. Hence, we used automated home-cage monitoring LABORAS to evaluate spontaneous locomotive behaviors in LPS-induced mice. LPS-treated mice displayed sickness behaviors including pain-like behaviors in automated home-cage monitoring characterized by decreased mobile behaviors (climbing, locomotion, rearing) and increased immobility compared to that of the control group in both short- and long-term locomotive assessments. Here, in short-term measurement, both in the open-field test and automated home-cage monitoring, mice demonstrated impaired locomotive behaviors. We also assessed 24 h long-term locomotor activity in the home-cage system, which profiled the diurnal behaviors of LPS-stimulated mice. The results demonstrated significant behavioral impairment in LPS-stimulated mice compared to the control mice in both light and dark phases. However, the difference is more evident in the dark phase compared to the light phase owing to the nocturnal activity of mice. In addition, the administration of indomethacin as a pharmacological intervention improved sickness behaviors in the open-field test as well as automated home-cage monitoring, confirming that automated home-cage monitoring could be potentially useful in pharmacological screening. Together, our results demonstrate that automated home-cage monitoring could be a feasible alternative to conventional methods, such as the open-field test and combining several behavioral assessments may provide a better understanding of sickness behavior and pain-like behaviors in LPS-treated mice.
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21
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Villaluz M, Dunning L, Goodyear CS, Ferrell WR, Lockhart JC, MacKenzie A. Losartan protects endothelium-dependent relaxation in vivo in a murine model of rheumatoid arthritis. Eur J Pharmacol 2021; 904:174133. [PMID: 33984299 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Angiotensin II-type 1 receptor stimulation is recognised to promote inflammation, a state central to the development and maintenance of rheumatoid arthritis. Herein we examined the use of losartan, an angiotensin II-type 1 receptor antagonist, on vascular reactivity, knee joint diameter and behavioural assessment of pain in a Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA) mouse model of joint inflammation. Monoarthritis was induced via FCA in the presence or absence of losartan with naive mice serving as controls. Knee joint swelling, joint pain (assessed by dynamic weight bearing of limb use), knee joint artery reactivity (assessed ex vivo) and blood perfusion of the knee joint (assessed in vivo) were determined. FCA mediated a significant increase in knee joint diameter and reduced weight-bearing (a surrogate for pain sensation) of the affected limb. Notably, these phenomena were substantially reduced when mice were prophylactically treated with losartan. Assessment of arterial relaxation and blood perfusion with acetylcholine stimulation revealed that FCA resulted in significant vascular dysfunction, which was resolved to naïve levels with losartan treatment. Through the actions of losartan, these findings indicate that the angiotensin II-type 1 receptor is a likely therapeutic target of importance in the development of the physical changes, pain sensation and vascular dysfunction found in inflammatory arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moanna Villaluz
- Centre of Musculoskeletal Science, Institute for Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | - Lynette Dunning
- Centre of Musculoskeletal Science, Institute for Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | - Carl S Goodyear
- Centre of Immunobiology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - William R Ferrell
- Centre of Immunobiology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - John C Lockhart
- Centre of Musculoskeletal Science, Institute for Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew MacKenzie
- Centre of Musculoskeletal Science, Institute for Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom.
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22
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Hasriadi, Wasana PWD, Vajragupta O, Rojsitthisak P, Towiwat P. Automated home-cage for the evaluation of innate non-reflexive pain behaviors in a mouse model of inflammatory pain. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12240. [PMID: 34112846 PMCID: PMC8192791 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91444-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The failure to develop analgesic drugs is attributed not only to the complex and diverse pathophysiology of pain in humans but also to the poor experimental design and poor preclinical assessment of pain. Although considerable efforts have been devoted to overcoming the relevant problems, many features of the behavioral pain assessment remain to be characterized. For example, a decreased locomotor activity as a common presentation of pain-like behavior has yet to be described. Studies on mice experimentally induced with carrageenan have provided opportunities to explore pain-related behaviors in automated home-cage monitoring. Through this approach, the locomotor activities of mice with carrageenan-induced inflammatory pain can be precisely and objectively captured. Here, we found that the mobile behaviors of mice reduced, and their immobility increased, indicating that carrageenan induction in mice caused a significant decrease in locomotor activity. These non-reflexive pain behaviors were strongly correlated with the reflexive pain behaviors measured via von Frey and plantar tests. Furthermore, the pharmacological intervention using indomethacin improved the locomotor activity of mice with carrageenan-induced pain. Thus, the analysis of the locomotor activity in automated home-cage monitoring is useful for studying the behavioral analgesia and the pharmacological screening of analgesic drugs. The combined evaluation of reflexive and non-reflexive pain behaviors enhances the translational utility of preclinical pain research in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hasriadi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology Program, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Peththa Wadu Dasuni Wasana
- Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology Program, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Opa Vajragupta
- Research Affairs, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Pornchai Rojsitthisak
- Department of Food and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
- Natural Products for Ageing and Chronic Diseases Research Unit, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Pasarapa Towiwat
- Natural Products for Ageing and Chronic Diseases Research Unit, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
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Abstract
Chronic pain affects approximately one-third of the population worldwide. The primary goal of animal research is to understand the neural mechanisms underlying pain so better treatments can be developed. Despite an enormous investment in time and money, almost no novel treatments for pain have been developed. There are many factors that contribute to this lack of translation in drug development. The mismatch between the goals of drug development in animals (inhibition of pain-evoked responses) and treatment in humans (restoration of function) is a major problem. To solve this problem, a number of pain-depressed behavioral tests have been developed to assess changes in normal behavior in laboratory animals. The use of home cage wheel running as a pain assessment tool is especially useful in that it is easy to use, provides an objective measurement of the magnitude and duration of pain, and is a clinically relevant method to screen novel drugs. Pain depresses activity in humans and animals, and effective analgesic treatments restore activity. Unlike traditional pain-evoked tests (e.g., hot plate, tail flick, von Frey test), restoration of home cage wheel running evaluates treatments for both antinociceptive efficacy and the absence of disruptive side effects (e.g., sedation, paralysis, nausea). This article reviews the literature using wheel running to assess pain and makes the case for home cage wheel running as an effective and clinically relevant method to screen novel analgesics for therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ram Kandasamy
- Department of Psychology, California State University, East Bay, Hayward, CA, USA
| | - Michael M. Morgan
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, WA, USA
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24
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Comprehensive characterization of motor and coordination functions in three adolescent wild-type mouse strains. Sci Rep 2021; 11:6497. [PMID: 33753800 PMCID: PMC7985312 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85858-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropsychiatric disorders are often associated with motor and coordination abnormalities that have important implications on the etiology, pathophysiology, and management of these disorders. Although the onset of many neuropsychiatric disorders including autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder emerges mainly during infancy and adolescence, most of the behavioral studies in mice modeling neuropsychiatric phenotypes are performed in adult animals, possibly missing valuable phenotypic information related to the effect of synaptic maturation during development. Here, we examined which behavioral tests assessing both motor and coordination functions can be performed in mice at two different adolescent stages. As strain and sex affect mouse behavior, our experiments covered both male and female mice of three inbred wild-type strains, C57BL/6N, DBA/2, and FVB/N. Adolescent mice of both postnatal days (P)22-30 and P32-40 developmental stages were capable of mastering common motor and coordination tests. However, results differed significantly between strains and sexes. Moreover, the 10-day interval between the two tested cohorts uncovered a strong difference in the behavioral results, confirming the significant impact of maturation on behavioral patterns. Interestingly, the results of distinct behavioral experiments were directly correlated with the weight of mice, which may explain the lack of reproducibility of some behavioral results in genetically-modified mice. Our study paves the way for better reproducibility of behavioral tests by addressing the effect of the developmental stage, strain, sex, and weight of mice on achieving the face validity of neuropsychiatric disorder-associated motor dysfunctions.
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25
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Pernold K, Rullman E, Ulfhake B. Major oscillations in spontaneous home-cage activity in C57BL/6 mice housed under constant conditions. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4961. [PMID: 33654141 PMCID: PMC7925671 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84141-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The mouse is the most important mammalian model in life science research and the behavior of the mouse is a key read-out of experimental interventions and genetic manipulations. To serve this purpose a solid understanding of the mouse normal behavior is a prerequisite. Using 14-19 months of cumulative 24/7 home-cage activity recorded with a non-intrusive technique, evidence is here provided for a highly significant circannual oscillation in spontaneous activity (1-2 SD of the mean, on average 65% higher during peak of highs than lows; P = 7E-50) of male and female C57BL/6 mice held under constant conditions. The periodicity of this hitherto not recognized oscillation is in the range of 2-4 months (average estimate was 97 days across cohorts of cages). It off-sets responses to environmental stimuli and co-varies with the feeding behavior but does not significantly alter the preference for being active during the dark hours. The absence of coordination of this rhythmicity between cages with mice or seasons of the year suggest that the oscillation of physical activity is generated by a free-running intrinsic oscillator devoid of external timer. Due to the magnitude of this rhythmic variation it may be a serious confounder in experiments on mice if left unrecognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Pernold
- grid.465198.7Division Clinical Physiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Eric Rullman
- grid.465198.7Division Clinical Physiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Brun Ulfhake
- grid.465198.7Division Clinical Physiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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26
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Fisher AS, Lanigan MT, Upton N, Lione LA. Preclinical Neuropathic Pain Assessment; the Importance of Translatability and Bidirectional Research. Front Pharmacol 2021; 11:614990. [PMID: 33628181 PMCID: PMC7897667 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.614990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
For patients suffering with chronic neuropathic pain the need for suitable novel therapies is imperative. Over recent years a contributing factor for the lack of development of new analgesics for neuropathic pain has been the mismatch of primary neuropathic pain assessment endpoints in preclinical vs. clinical trials. Despite continuous forward translation failures across diverse mechanisms, reflexive quantitative sensory testing remains the primary assessment endpoint for neuropathic pain and analgesia in animals. Restricting preclinical evaluation of pain and analgesia to exclusively reflexive outcomes is over simplified and can be argued not clinically relevant due to the continued lack of forward translation and failures in the clinic. The key to developing new analgesic treatments for neuropathic pain therefore lies in the development of clinically relevant endpoints that can translate preclinical animal results to human clinical trials. In this review we discuss this mismatch of primary neuropathic pain assessment endpoints, together with clinical and preclinical evidence that supports how bidirectional research is helping to validate new clinically relevant neuropathic pain assessment endpoints. Ethological behavioral endpoints such as burrowing and facial grimacing and objective measures such as electroencephalography provide improved translatability potential together with currently used quantitative sensory testing endpoints. By tailoring objective and subjective measures of neuropathic pain the translatability of new medicines for patients suffering with neuropathic pain will hopefully be improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy S Fisher
- Transpharmation Ltd., The London Bioscience Innovation Centre, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael T Lanigan
- Transpharmation Ltd., The London Bioscience Innovation Centre, London, United Kingdom.,School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Upton
- Transpharmation Ltd., The London Bioscience Innovation Centre, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lisa A Lione
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
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Functional Coupling of Slack Channels and P2X3 Receptors Contributes to Neuropathic Pain Processing. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22010405. [PMID: 33401689 PMCID: PMC7795269 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The sodium-activated potassium channel Slack (KNa1.1, Slo2.2, or Kcnt1) is highly expressed in populations of sensory neurons, where it mediates the sodium-activated potassium current (IKNa) and modulates neuronal activity. Previous studies suggest that Slack is involved in the processing of neuropathic pain. However, mechanisms underlying the regulation of Slack activity in this context are poorly understood. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings we found that Slack-mediated IKNa in sensory neurons of mice is reduced after peripheral nerve injury, thereby contributing to neuropathic pain hypersensitivity. Interestingly, Slack is closely associated with ATP-sensitive P2X3 receptors in a population of sensory neurons. In vitro experiments revealed that Slack-mediated IKNa may be bidirectionally modulated in response to P2X3 activation. Moreover, mice lacking Slack show altered nocifensive responses to P2X3 stimulation. Our study identifies P2X3/Slack signaling as a mechanism contributing to hypersensitivity after peripheral nerve injury and proposes a potential novel strategy for treatment of neuropathic pain.
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28
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Chronic pain impact on rodents’ behavioral repertoire. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 119:101-127. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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29
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The influence of rat strain on the development of neuropathic pain and comorbid anxio-depressive behaviour after nerve injury. Sci Rep 2020; 10:20981. [PMID: 33262364 PMCID: PMC7708988 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77640-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Back-translating the clinical manifestations of human disease burden into animal models is increasingly recognized as an important facet of preclinical drug discovery. We hypothesized that inbred rat strains possessing stress hyper-reactive-, depressive- or anxiety-like phenotypes may possess more translational value than common outbred strains for modeling neuropathic pain. Rats (inbred: LEW, WKY, F344/ICO and F344/DU, outbred: Crl:SD) were exposed to Spared Nerve Injury (SNI) and evaluated routinely for 6 months on behaviours related to pain (von Frey stimulation and CatWalk-gait analysis), anxiety (elevated plus maze, EPM) and depression (sucrose preference test, SPT). Markers of stress reactivity together with spinal/brain opioid receptor expression were also measured. All strains variously developed mechanical allodynia after SNI with the exception of stress-hyporesponsive LEW rats, despite all strains displaying similar functional gait-deficits after injury. However, affective changes reflective of anxiety- and depressive-like behaviour were only observed for F344/DU in the EPM, and for Crl:SD in SPT. Although differences in stress reactivity and opioid receptor expression occurred, overall they were relatively unaffected by SNI. Thus, anxio-depressive behaviours did not develop in all strains after nerve injury, and correlated only modestly with degree of pain sensitivity or with genetic predisposition to stress and/or affective disturbances.
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30
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Kiven S, Wang Y, Aich A, Argueta DA, Lei J, Sagi V, Tennakoon M, Bedros SJ, Lambrecht N, Gupta K. Spatiotemporal Alterations in Gait in Humanized Transgenic Sickle Mice. Front Immunol 2020; 11:561947. [PMID: 33178189 PMCID: PMC7593487 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.561947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a hemoglobinopathy affecting multiple organs and featuring acute and chronic pain. Purkinje cell damage and hyperalgesia have been demonstrated in transgenic sickle mice. Purkinje cells are associated with movement and neural function which may influence pain. We hypothesized that Purkinje cell damage and/or chronic pain burden provoke compensatory gait changes in sickle mice. We found that Purkinje cells undergoe increased apoptosis as shown by caspase-3 activation. Using an automated gait measurement system, MouseWalker, we characterized spatiotemporal gait characteristics of humanized transgenic BERK sickle mice in comparison to control mice. Sickle mice showed alteration in stance instability and dynamic gait parameters (walking speed, stance duration, swing duration and specific swing indices). Differences in stance instability may reflect motor dysfunction due to damaged Purkinje cells. Alterations in diagonal and all stance indices indicative of hesitation during walking may originate from motor dysfunction and/or arise from fear and/or anticipation of movement-evoked pain. We also demonstrate that stance duration, diagonal swing indices and all stance indices correlate with both mechanical and deep tissue hyperalgesia, while stance instability correlates with only deep tissue hyperalgesia. Therefore, objective analysis of gait in SCD may provide insights into neurological impairment and pain states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacy Kiven
- Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States.,Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, Vascular Biology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Anesthesia, Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Anupam Aich
- Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Donovan A Argueta
- Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Jianxun Lei
- Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, Vascular Biology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Varun Sagi
- Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, Vascular Biology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Madhushan Tennakoon
- Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, Vascular Biology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Saad J Bedros
- College of Science & Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Nils Lambrecht
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Long Beach VA Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA, United States
| | - Kalpna Gupta
- Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States.,Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, Vascular Biology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States.,Southern California Institute for Research and Education, Long Beach VA Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA, United States
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31
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Stickney JD, Morgan MM. Social housing promotes recovery of wheel running depressed by inflammatory pain and morphine withdrawal in male rats. Behav Brain Res 2020; 396:112912. [PMID: 32949642 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The increased use of opioids to treat pain has led to a dramatic increase in opioid abuse. Our previous data indicate that pain may facilitate the development of opioid abuse by increasing the magnitude and duration of opioid withdrawal. The present study tested the hypothesis that social housing would facilitate recovery of activity depressed by pain and opioid withdrawal. Male Sprague Dawley rats were housed either in pairs or alone and then moved to a cage with a running wheel for 6 h daily to assess pain- and opioid withdrawal-induced depression of wheel running. Rats were implanted with two morphine (75 mg each) or placebo pellets to induce opioid dependence and were simultaneously injected with Complete Freund's Adjuvant or saline into the right hind paw to induce persistent inflammatory pain. Hind paw inflammation depressed wheel running whether rats were implanted with a morphine or placebo pellet. Pair-housed rats showed greater recovery of wheel running than individually housed rats. Spontaneous morphine withdrawal precipitated by removal of the morphine pellets caused a reduction in wheel running that was greater in rats with hind paw inflammation compared to pain free rats. Social housing facilitated recovery from withdrawal in rats with hind paw inflammation, but slowed recovery in pain free rats. These data suggest that social housing facilitates recovery by reducing pain both before and during opioid withdrawal. Our findings are consistent with previous studies showing that social buffering reduces pain-evoked responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonah D Stickney
- Department of Psychology Washington State University Vancouver, 14204 NE Salmon Creek Ave., Vancouver, WA, 98686-9600, United States.
| | - Michael M Morgan
- Department of Psychology Washington State University Vancouver, 14204 NE Salmon Creek Ave., Vancouver, WA, 98686-9600, United States.
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32
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Vieira WF, Malange KF, de Magalhães SF, dos Santos GG, de Oliveira ALR, da Cruz-Höfling MA, Parada CA. Gait analysis correlates mechanical hyperalgesia in a model of streptozotocin-induced diabetic neuropathy: A CatWalk dynamic motor function study. Neurosci Lett 2020; 736:135253. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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The effect of voluntary wheel running on the antioxidant status is dependent on sociability conditions. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 198:173018. [PMID: 32827504 PMCID: PMC7438373 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.173018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Voluntary wheel running is widely used as a physical activity (PA) model in rodents, but most studies investigate the beneficial effects of this intervention in socially isolated mice. Social isolation stress (SIS) is associated with vulnerability to oxidative stress and reduced mitochondrial activity. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of free access to a running wheel for 21 days on the various markers of the cellular redox/antioxidant status as well as mitochondrial function of mice subjected to SIS or maintained in groups of 3 in the homecage. SIS increased thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) levels in the cerebral cortex, and PA intervention was not able to reverse such alteration. PA reduced TBARS levels in the liver of grouped mice and gastrocnemius of socially isolated mice. PA increased nonprotein thiol (NPSH) levels in the cerebral cortex of grouped mice. Furthermore, socially isolated mice presented lower glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in the cerebellum and gastrocnemius, and glutathione reductase (GR) activity in the cerebral cortex and liver. By contrast, SIS induced higher GPx activity in the cerebral cortex and heart. PA reduced GPx (cerebral cortex) and GR (cerebral cortex and liver) activities of socially isolated mice. SIS caused higher activity of mitochondrial complexes I and II in the cerebral cortex, and the PA paradigm was not able to alter this effect. Interestingly, the PA produced antidepressant-like effect at both SIS and control groups. In conclusion, the results showed the influence of SIS for the effects of PA on the antioxidant status, but not on the mitochondrial function and emotionality. PA intervention produces antioxidant responses dependent on sociability conditions. SIS induces mitochondria function and antioxidant defense abnormalities. Running produces antidepressant-like behavior and does not change the ambulation. The distance travelled on the running wheel is correlated with immobility time in the TST. The lipoperoxidation index is negatively correlated with time spent on the running wheel.
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34
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Hamamura K, Katsuyama S, Komatsu T, Scuteri D, Bagetta G, Aritake K, Sakurada T. Behavioral Effects of Continuously Administered Bergamot Essential Oil on Mice With Partial Sciatic Nerve Ligation. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:1310. [PMID: 32973528 PMCID: PMC7472849 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.01310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is an intractable chronic pain condition that is mainly caused by allodynia. We had previously reported that intra-plantar administration of bergamot essential oil (BEO) containing an aromatic compound significantly suppressed partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL)-induced mechanical allodynia via opioid mu receptors in mice. However, it has also been reported that the inhalation of BEO reduced formalin-induced nociceptive responses. Therefore, we aimed to elucidate whether the analgesic action of BEO is mediated by olfactory stimulation through volatile components. In the current study, BEO was continuously administered with an osmotic pump during PSNL surgery, and the effects on mice behavior were examined pharmacologically using a double activity monitoring system, which can detect two-dimensional planar motion in a cage with an infrared beam sensor as well as active motion with a running wheel. Here, we report that the two-dimensional planar activity significantly increased in mice with PSNL in the light phase (from 8 o’clock to 20 o’clock) but not in the dark phase (from 20 o’clock to 8 o’clock) from the second day after surgery. However, this increase was not observed when BEO was continuously administered. The effect of BEO on the two-dimensional planar counts in mice with PSNL was antagonized by naloxone hydrochloride. Regarding the running wheel activity, the number of rotations decreased by PSNL in the dark phase from the 8th day after surgery. However, this was not apparent with BEO use. The effect of BEO on the number of rotations was also antagonized by naloxone hydrochloride. Furthermore, inhalation of BEO in PSNL mice did not affect mechanical allodynia or the two-dimensional planar motion or running wheel activities. These findings indicate that BEO exhibits an analgesic action, which is mediated by opioid receptors and not by the olfactory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kengo Hamamura
- Laboratory of Chemical Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Daiichi University of Pharmacy, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Soh Katsuyama
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmaceutics, Nihon Pharmaceutical University, Saitama, Japan
| | - Takaaki Komatsu
- Drug Analysis Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Daiichi University of Pharmacy, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Damiana Scuteri
- Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health Science and Nutrition, University of Calabria, Cosenza, Italy
| | - Giacinto Bagetta
- Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health Science and Nutrition, University of Calabria, Cosenza, Italy
| | - Kosuke Aritake
- Laboratory of Chemical Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Daiichi University of Pharmacy, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Tsukasa Sakurada
- Center for Supporting Pharmaceutical Education, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Daiichi University of Pharmacy, Fukuoka, Japan
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35
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Eltokhi A, Kurpiers B, Pitzer C. Behavioral tests assessing neuropsychiatric phenotypes in adolescent mice reveal strain- and sex-specific effects. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11263. [PMID: 32647155 PMCID: PMC7347854 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67758-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, infancy and adolescence are associated with major changes in synaptic functions and ongoing maturation of neural networks, which underlie the major behavioral changes during these periods. Among adult cases with neuropsychiatric disorders including autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity, and bipolar disorders, 50% have developed behavioral symptoms and received a diagnosis before 15 years of age. However, most of the behavioral studies in mice modeling neuropsychiatric phenotypes are performed in adult animals, missing valuable phenotypic information related to the effect of synaptic maturation during development. Here, we explored which behavioral experiments assessing neuropsychiatric phenotypes can be performed during a specific window of development in adolescent male and female C57BL/6N, DBA/2, and FVB/N mice that are typically used as background strains for generating genetically-modified mouse models. The three wild-type strains were evaluated across anxiety, social behaviors, and cognitive functions in order to cover the main behavioral impairments that occur in neuropsychiatric disorders. During adolescence, the three strains displayed significant differences under certain behavioral paradigms. In addition, C57BL/6N and FVB/N, but not DBA/2 mice revealed some sex-related differences. Our results provide new insights into discrete behaviors during development and emphasize the crucial importance of the genetic background, sex, and experimental settings in the age-dependent regulation of different behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Eltokhi
- Department of Neurology and Epileptology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany. .,Interdisciplinary Neurobehavioral Core, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Barbara Kurpiers
- Interdisciplinary Neurobehavioral Core, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Claudia Pitzer
- Interdisciplinary Neurobehavioral Core, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.
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Abstract
Neuropathic pain caused by a lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system is a common chronic pain condition with major impact on quality of life. Examples include trigeminal neuralgia, painful polyneuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia, and central poststroke pain. Most patients complain of an ongoing or intermittent spontaneous pain of, for example, burning, pricking, squeezing quality, which may be accompanied by evoked pain, particular to light touch and cold. Ectopic activity in, for example, nerve-end neuroma, compressed nerves or nerve roots, dorsal root ganglia, and the thalamus may in different conditions underlie the spontaneous pain. Evoked pain may spread to neighboring areas, and the underlying pathophysiology involves peripheral and central sensitization. Maladaptive structural changes and a number of cell-cell interactions and molecular signaling underlie the sensitization of nociceptive pathways. These include alteration in ion channels, activation of immune cells, glial-derived mediators, and epigenetic regulation. The major classes of therapeutics include drugs acting on α2δ subunits of calcium channels, sodium channels, and descending modulatory inhibitory pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanna Brix Finnerup
- Danish Pain Research Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Neurology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark; and Department of Pharmacology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rohini Kuner
- Danish Pain Research Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Neurology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark; and Department of Pharmacology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Troels Staehelin Jensen
- Danish Pain Research Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Neurology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark; and Department of Pharmacology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
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37
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Hill RZ, Bautista DM. Getting in Touch with Mechanical Pain Mechanisms. Trends Neurosci 2020; 43:311-325. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2020.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Shen Y, He D, He L, Bai Y, Wang B, Xue Y, Hou G. Chronic Psychological Stress, but Not Chronic Pain Stress, Influences Sexual Motivation and Induces Testicular Autophagy in Male Rats. Front Psychol 2020; 11:826. [PMID: 32425863 PMCID: PMC7203493 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Spermiogenesis is an important physiological process of mammalian fertilization. The germ cells are susceptible to the harmful effects of either psychological or physiological stress, which could induce male infertility. Our previous studies have found that chronic psychological stress could decrease sexual motivation. However, molecular mechanisms underlying male reproductive toxicity induced by chronic stress remain elusive. Recently, autophagy is proven to be involved in regulating the survival of germ cells, which is related to apoptosis. Herein, we established a chronic psychological stress model and a chronic pain model (physiological stressor) to explore the roles of autophagy in germ cells. Thirty-two male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups, including the control group, the chronic psychological stress group, the SNI-sham group, and the chronic pain stress group. After exposure to stress for 35 days, open field test and the unconditioned sexual motivation test were performed. Following the behavioral experiment, autophagy in the rat testis was detected by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. We found both chronic psychological stress and chronic pain stress reduced total travel distance, the frequency of central crossing and increased the sensitivity to mechanical pain. While chronic psychological stress, but not the chronic pain stress declined sexual motivation. Chronic psychological stress prompt the expression of LC3-II with the decreased expression of p62, indicating that chronic psychological stress induced autophagy in rat testis. However, there was no significant difference between the expression of LC3-II and p62 in male rats under chronic pain stress. Therefore, chronic psychological stress and chronic pain stress have common behavior changes, but due to its unpredictability, chronic psychological stress leads to a decline in sexual motivation in male rats and induced the autophagy in testicular tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunyun Shen
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Psychology, College of Science, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Danni He
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Psychology, College of Science, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Luhong He
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Psychology, College of Science, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yu Bai
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Psychology, College of Science, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bo Wang
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Psychology, College of Science, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yan Xue
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Psychology, College of Science, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Gonglin Hou
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Psychology, College of Science, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
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Lunde CE, Sieberg CB. Walking the Tightrope: A Proposed Model of Chronic Pain and Stress. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:270. [PMID: 32273840 PMCID: PMC7113396 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain and stress are both phenomena that challenge an individual’s homeostasis and have significant overlap in conceptual and physiological processes. Allostasis is the ability to adapt to pain and stress and maintain homeostasis; however, if either process becomes chronic, it may result in negative long-term outcomes. The negative effects of stress on health outcomes on physiology and behavior, including pain, have been well documented; however, the specific mechanisms of how stress and what quantity of stress contributes to the maintenance and exacerbation of pain have not been identified, and thus pharmacological interventions are lacking. The objective of this brief review is to: 1. identify the gaps in the literature on the impact of acute and chronic stress on chronic pain, 2. highlight future directions for stress and chronic pain research; and 3. introduce the Pain-Stress Model in the context of the current literature on stress and chronic pain. A better understanding of the connection between stress and chronic pain could provide greater insight into the neurobiology of these processes and contribute to individualized treatment for pain rehabilitation and drug development for these often comorbid conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire E Lunde
- Department of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.,Biobehavioral Pediatric Pain Lab, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.,Center for Pain and the Brain (P.A.I.N. Group), Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.,Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive Health, Medical Sciences Division, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Christine B Sieberg
- Department of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.,Biobehavioral Pediatric Pain Lab, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.,Center for Pain and the Brain (P.A.I.N. Group), Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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González-Cano R, Montilla-García Á, Ruiz-Cantero MC, Bravo-Caparrós I, Tejada MÁ, Nieto FR, Cobos EJ. The search for translational pain outcomes to refine analgesic development: Where did we come from and where are we going? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 113:238-261. [PMID: 32147529 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Pain measures traditionally used in rodents record mere reflexes evoked by sensory stimuli; the results thus may not fully reflect the human pain phenotype. Alterations in physical and emotional functioning, pain-depressed behaviors and facial pain expressions were recently proposed as additional pain outcomes to provide a more accurate measure of clinical pain in rodents, and hence to potentially enhance analgesic drug development. We aimed to review how preclinical pain assessment has evolved since the development of the tail flick test in 1941, with a particular focus on a critical analysis of some nonstandard pain outcomes, and a consideration of how sex differences may affect the performance of these pain surrogates. We tracked original research articles in Medline for the following periods: 1973-1977, 1983-1987, 1993-1997, 2003-2007, and 2014-2018. We identified 606 research articles about alternative surrogate pain measures, 473 of which were published between 2014 and 2018. This indicates that preclinical pain assessment is moving toward the use of these measures, which may soon become standard procedures in preclinical pain laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael González-Cano
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - Ángeles Montilla-García
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Ruiz-Cantero
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - Inmaculada Bravo-Caparrós
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - Miguel Á Tejada
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain; IMBA, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Francisco R Nieto
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - Enrique J Cobos
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Granada, Spain; Teófilo Hernando Institute for Drug Discovery, Madrid, Spain.
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Bilbao A, Leixner S, Wei S, Cantacorps L, Valverde O, Spanagel R. Reduced sensitivity to ethanol and excessive drinking in a mouse model of neuropathic pain. Addict Biol 2019; 24:1008-1018. [PMID: 31237390 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The co-occurrence of chronic pain and alcohol use disorders (AUDs) involves complex interactions between genetic and neurophysiological aspects, and the research has reported mixed findings when they both co-occur. There is also an indication of a gender-dependent effect; males are more likely to use alcohol to cope with chronic pain problems than females. Recently, a new conceptualization has emerged, proposing that the negative affective component of pain drives and maintains alcohol-related behaviors. We studied in a longitudinal fashion alterations in alcohol drinking patterns and pain thresholds in a mouse model of chronic neuropathic pain in a sex-dependent manner. Following partial denervation (spared nerve injury [SNI]), stimulus-evoked pain responses were measured before chronic alcohol consumption, during drinking, during a deprivation phase, and following an episode of excessive drinking. During the course of alcohol drinking, we observed pronounced sex differences in pain thresholds. Male mice showed a strong increase in pain thresholds, suggesting an analgesic effect induced by alcohol over time, an effect that was not observed in female mice. SNI mice did not differ from sham-operated controls in baseline alcohol consumption. However, following a deprivation phase and the reintroduction of ethanol, male SNI mice but not female mice showed more pronounced excessive drinking than controls. Finally, we observed decreased central ethanol sensitivity in male SNI mice but not in females. Together with our finding, that ethanol is able to decrease a pain-induced negative affective memory we come to following conclusion. We propose that a lower sensitivity to the intoxicating effects of alcohol together with the ability of alcohol to reduce the negative affective component of pain may explain the higher co-occurrence of AUD in male chronic pain patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ainhoa Bilbao
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty of Mannheim; Heidelberg University; Mannheim Germany
| | - Sarah Leixner
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty of Mannheim; Heidelberg University; Mannheim Germany
| | - Shoupeng Wei
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty of Mannheim; Heidelberg University; Mannheim Germany
| | - Lídia Cantacorps
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty of Mannheim; Heidelberg University; Mannheim Germany
- Neurobiology of Behavior Research Group (GReNeC-NeuroBio), Department of Health and Experimental Sciences, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute); Pompeu Fabra University; Barcelona Spain
| | - Olga Valverde
- Neurobiology of Behavior Research Group (GReNeC-NeuroBio), Department of Health and Experimental Sciences, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute); Pompeu Fabra University; Barcelona Spain
| | - Rainer Spanagel
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty of Mannheim; Heidelberg University; Mannheim Germany
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Yu W, Hwa LS, Makhijani VH, Besheer J, Kash TL. Chronic inflammatory pain drives alcohol drinking in a sex-dependent manner for C57BL/6J mice. Alcohol 2019; 77:135-145. [PMID: 30300665 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in chronic pain and alcohol abuse are not well understood. The development of rodent models is imperative for investigating the underlying changes behind these pathological states. In the present study, we investigated whether hind paw treatment with the inflammatory agent Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) could generate hyperalgesia and alter alcohol consumption in male and female C57BL/6J mice. CFA treatment led to greater nociceptive sensitivity for both sexes in the Hargreaves test, and increased alcohol drinking for males in a continuous-access two-bottle choice (CA2BC) paradigm. Regardless of treatment, female mice exhibited greater alcohol drinking than males. Following a 2-h terminal drinking session, CFA treatment failed to produce changes in alcohol drinking, blood ethanol concentration (BEC), and plasma corticosterone (CORT) for both sexes. Two-hour alcohol consumption and CORT was higher in females than males, regardless of CFA treatment. Taken together, these findings have established that male mice are more susceptible to escalations in alcohol drinking when undergoing pain, despite higher levels of total alcohol drinking and CORT in females. Furthermore, the exposure of CFA-treated C57BL/6J mice to the CA2BC drinking paradigm has proven to be a useful model for studying the relationship between chronic pain and alcohol abuse. Future applications of the CFA/CA2BC model should incorporate manipulations of stress signaling and other related biological systems to improve our mechanistic understanding of pain and alcohol interactions.
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Feehan AK, Zadina JE. Morphine immunomodulation prolongs inflammatory and postoperative pain while the novel analgesic ZH853 accelerates recovery and protects against latent sensitization. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:100. [PMID: 31109346 PMCID: PMC6528320 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1480-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Numerous studies have identified the proinflammatory, pronociceptive effects of morphine which ultimately exacerbate pain. Our novel endomorphin analog ZH853 does not produce proinflammatory effects on its own and gives potent, long-lasting analgesia. This study investigates whether ZH853’s lack of interaction with the neuroimmune system reduces the risk of prolonged pain. Methods Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to one of two treatment paradigms. Either (1) chronic pain followed by chronic treatment with morphine, ZH853 or vehicle, or (2) chronic drug administered prior to pain induction. Complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) was injected or paw incision surgery was performed on the left hind plantar foot pad. Drugs were administered through Alzet osmotic minipumps at a rate of 1 μl/h for 5 days at appropriate doses based on prior experiments. Animals were tested for mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia using von Frey filaments and the Hargreaves apparatus, respectively. Additionally, several gait parameters were measured using the CatWalk XT. When all animals had recovered from pain, 1 mg/kg of naltrexone was administered to test for development of latent sensitization (LS). A second set of animals was used to investigate dorsal horn inflammation following CFA and drug treatment. ANOVAs were used to assess differences between drug treatment groups. Results As expected, morphine increased and prolonged pain in all experiments compared to vehicle treatment. However, ZH853 treatment reduced the overall time spent in pain and the severity of pain scores compared to morphine. ZH853 not only reduced inflammation versus morphine treatment but also, in some instances, acted as an anti-inflammatory drug compared to vehicle treatment. Finally, ZH853 prevented the development of LS while vehicle- and morphine-treated animals showed robust relapse to pain. Conclusions ZH853 has a favorable side effect profile versus morphine and provides superior analgesia in a number of pain states. We now know that chronic use of this compound reduces time spent in a chronic pain state, the opposite of common opioids like morphine, and reduces the risk of LS, making ZH853 an excellent candidate for clinical development in humans for inflammatory and postoperative pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy K Feehan
- Brain Institute, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - James E Zadina
- SE LA Veterans Health Care System, New Orleans, LA, 70119, USA. .,Dept. of Medicine, Neuroscience Lab #8516, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA.
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Tappe-Theodor A, King T, Morgan MM. Pros and Cons of Clinically Relevant Methods to Assess Pain in Rodents. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 100:335-343. [PMID: 30885811 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The primary objective of preclinical pain research is to improve the treatment of pain. Decades of research using pain-evoked tests has revealed much about mechanisms but failed to deliver new treatments. Evoked pain-tests are often limited because they ignore spontaneous pain and motor or disruptive side effects confound interpretation of results. New tests have been developed to focus more closely on clinical goals such as reducing pathological pain and restoring function. The objective of this review is to describe and discuss several of these tests. We focus on: Grimace Scale, Operant Behavior, Wheel Running, Burrowing, Nesting, Home Cage Monitoring, Gait Analysis and Conditioned Place Preference/ Aversion. A brief description of each method is presented along with an analysis of the advantages and limitations. The pros and cons of each test will help researchers identify the assessment tool most appropriate to meet their particular objective to assess pain in rodents. These tests provide another tool to unravel the mechanisms underlying chronic pain and help overcome the translational gap in drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke Tappe-Theodor
- Pharmacology Institute, Medical Faculty Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Tamara King
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Center for Excellence in the Neurosciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - Michael M Morgan
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA, USA
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Bernardes D, de Oliveira ALR. Regular Exercise Modifies Histopathological Outcomes of Pharmacological Treatment in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis. Front Neurol 2018; 9:950. [PMID: 30524355 PMCID: PMC6256135 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Although it has been suggested that healthier lifestyle may optimize effects of the immunomodulation drugs for treating multiple sclerosis (MS), the knowledge regarding this kind of interactions is limited. Objective: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of treadmill exercise in combination with pharmacological treatment in an animal model for MS. Methods: C57BL/6J female mice were subjected to daily treadmill exercise for 4 weeks before immunization and 6 weeks before clinical presentation of disease. Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) or glatiramer acetate (GA) were administered after the first clinical relapse. Histopathological analyses were carried out in the lumbar spinal cord at peak disease and at 1 or 14 days post-treatment (dpt). Results: Exercised-GA treated animals demonstrated decreased astrocytic response in the spinal dorsal horn with an improvement in the paw print pressure. Exercised-DMF treated animals showed an increased microglial/macrophage response on both ventral and dorsal horn that were associated with clinical improvement and synaptic motoneuron inputs density. Conclusion: The present data suggest that prior regular exercise can modify the effects of pharmacological treatment administered after the first relapse in a murine model for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Bernardes
- Laboratory of Nerve Regeneration, Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
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Pitzer C, La Porta C, Treede RD, Tappe-Theodor A. Inflammatory and neuropathic pain conditions do not primarily evoke anxiety-like behaviours in C57BL/6 mice. Eur J Pain 2018; 23:285-306. [PMID: 30098102 DOI: 10.1002/ejp.1303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic pain is often accompanied by comorbidities like anxiety and depression. The temporal correlations, as well as the underlying mechanisms of these reciprocal correlations, are unclear. Moreover, preclinical studies examining emotional behaviour are very controversial, and a chronological analysis of anxiety-like behaviour in mouse pain models considering both genders has not been performed so far. METHODS We used several behavioural tests to assess and validate anxiety-like behaviour in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) and spared nerve injury (SNI) pain models in C57BL/6 mice. Among these were the elevated plus maze test, open field test, hole-board test and light-dark test. Additionally, we included a late stage analysis of depression-like behaviour using the forced swim test. All tests were applied once for each cohort of mice. Importantly, we used C57BL/6N mice of both genders; we investigated the effect of social isolation, the impact of pain induction to either the right or left hind limb and also investigated C57BL/6J mice. RESULTS The validity of test conditions was confirmed using the anxiogenic drugs Yohimbine and Pentylenetetrazol. Anxiety-like behaviour was analysed throughout the time period when mice exhibited hypersensitivity to mechanical stimuli. We did not observe any consistent alteration in anxiety-like behaviour at any of the investigated time points between 1 and 14 days following CFA-induced inflammation or 3 and 84 days following SNI surgery using different behavioural tests. CONCLUSIONS Inflammatory and neuropathic pain conditions do not primarily evoke anxiety- and depression-like behavioural alterations within the herein investigated time period. SIGNIFICANCE Anxiety-like behaviour is not primarily altered following CFA and SNI in C57BL6 mice, irrespective of the gender, mouse sub-strain, housing conditions or affected body side within the herein investigated time period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Pitzer
- Interdisciplinary Neurobehavioral Core (INBC), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Carmen La Porta
- Pharmacology Institute, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rolf-Detlef Treede
- Department of Neurophysiology, Centre for Biomedicine and Medical Technology Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
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Shepherd AJ, Cloud ME, Cao YQ, Mohapatra DP. Deficits in Burrowing Behaviors Are Associated With Mouse Models of Neuropathic but Not Inflammatory Pain or Migraine. Front Behav Neurosci 2018; 12:124. [PMID: 30002622 PMCID: PMC6031738 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Burrowing, or the removal of material from an enclosed tube, is emerging as a prominent means of testing changes in a voluntary behavior in rodent models of various pain states. Here, we report no significant differences between male and female mice in terms of burrowing performance, in a substantially shorter time frame than previous reports. We found that the color of the burrow tube affects the variability of burrowing performance when tested in a lit room, suggesting that light aversion is at least a partial driver of this behavior. Spared nerve injury (SNI; as a model of neuropathy) impairs burrowing performance and correlates with enhanced mechanical sensitivity as assessed by von Frey filaments, as well as being pharmacologically reversed by an analgesic, gabapentin. Loss of the SNI-induced burrowing deficit was observed with daily testing post-surgery, but not when the testing interval was increased to 5 days, suggesting a confounding effect of daily repeat testing in this paradigm. Intraplantar complete Freund’s adjuvant (as a model of inflammatory pain) and systemic nitroglycerin (as a model of migraine-like symptoms) administration did not induce any burrowing deficit, indicating that assessment of burrowing behavior may not be universally suitable for the detection of behavioral changes across all rodent pain models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Shepherd
- Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States.,Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Megan E Cloud
- Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States.,Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Yu-Qing Cao
- Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States.,Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Durga P Mohapatra
- Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States.,Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
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Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text. Inhibitors of leukocyte elastase inhibit spontaneous and evoked pain behaviors in mouse models of chronic pain of neuropathic, cancer, and diabetic origins. Neuropathic pain is an integral component of several chronic pain conditions and poses a major health problem worldwide. Despite emerging understanding of mechanisms behind neuropathic pain, the available treatment options are still limited in efficacy or associated with side effects, therefore making it necessary to find viable alternatives. In a genetic screen, we recently identified SerpinA3N, a serine protease inhibitor secreted in response to nerve damage by the dorsal root ganglion neurons and we showed that SerpinA3N acts against induction of neuropathic pain by inhibiting the T-cell- and neutrophil-derived protease, leucocyte elastase (LE). In the current study, via detailed in vivo pharmacology combined with analyses of evoked- and spontaneous pain-related behaviors in mice, we report that on systemic delivery, a single dose of 3 independent LE inhibitors can block established nociceptive hypersensitivity in early and late phases in the spared nerve injury model of traumatic neuropathic pain in mice. We further report the strong efficacy of systemic LE inhibitors in reversing ongoing pain in 2 other clinically relevant mouse models—painful diabetic neuropathy and cancer pain. Detailed immunohistochemical analyses on the peripheral tissue samples revealed that both T-Lymphocytes and neutrophils are the sources of LE on peripheral nerve injury, whereas neutrophils are the primary source of LE in diabetic neuropathic conditions. In summary, our results provide compelling evidence for a strong therapeutic potential of generic LE inhibitors for the treatment of neuropathic pain and other chronic pain conditions harboring a neuropathic pain component.
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Neuropathic pain drives anxiety behavior in mice, results consistent with anxiety levels in diabetic neuropathy patients. Pain Rep 2018; 3:e651. [PMID: 29922743 PMCID: PMC5999418 DOI: 10.1097/pr9.0000000000000651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text. Background: Epidemiological studies in patients with neuropathic pain demonstrate a strong association with psychiatric conditions such as anxiety; however, the precipitating pathology between these symptoms remains unclear. To investigate this, we studied the effects of lifelong stress on levels of neuropathic pain–like behavior and conversely, the effects of chronic neuropathic injury on anxiety-like status in male and female mice. In addition, we assayed this link in painful and painless diabetic peripheral neuropathy patients. Methods: Male and female mice were subject to ongoing life-stress or control living conditions. Baseline sensitivity and anxiety tests were measured followed by spared nerve injury (SNI) to the sciatic nerve. Subsequent sensory testing occurred until 3 weeks after SNI followed by anxiety tests between 4 and 6 weeks after SNI. Results: Levels of tactile or cold allodynia did not differ between adult mice subject to lifelong chronic stress, relative to nonstressed controls, for at least 3 weeks after SNI. By contrast, longer-term neuropathic mice of both sexes displayed pronounced anxiety-like behavior, regardless of exposure to stress. If sex differences were present, females usually exhibited more pronounced anxiety-like behavior. These ongoing anxiety behaviors were corroborated with plasma corticosterone levels in distinct animal groups. In addition, data from patients with painful and nonpainful diabetic neuropathy showed a clear relationship between ongoing pain and anxiety, with females generally more affected than males. Discussion: Taken together, these data demonstrate a strong link between chronic neuropathic pain and chronic anxiety, with the driver of this comorbidity being neuropathic pain as opposed to on-going stress.
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