Pesticides in house dust from urban and farmworker households in California: an observational measurement study

Predictors of pesticide levels in carpet dust collected from child care centers in Northern California, USA

BACKGROUND

Young children may be exposed to pesticides in child care centers, but little is known about determinants of pesticide contamination in these environments.

OBJECTIVE

Characterize pesticide contamination in early care and education (ECE) centers and identify predictors of pesticide concentrations and loading in dust collected from classroom carpets.

METHODS

Carpet dust samples were collected from 51 licensed child care centers in Northern California and analyzed for 14 structural and agricultural pesticides. Program characteristics were collected through administration of director interviews and observational surveys, including an integrated pest management (IPM) inspection. Pesticide use information for the prior year was obtained from the California Department of Pesticide Regulation to characterize structural applications and nearby agricultural pesticide use.

RESULTS

The most frequently detected pesticides were cis-permethrin (98%), trans-permethrin (98%), bifenthrin (94%), fipronil (94%), and chlorpyrifos (88%). Higher bifenthrin levels were correlated with agricultural applications within 3 kilometers, and higher fipronil levels were correlated with professional pesticide applications in the prior year. In multivariable models, higher IPM Checklist scores were associated with lower loading of chlorpyrifos and permethrin. Placement of the sampled area carpet was also a predictor of chlorpyrifos loading. The strongest predictor of higher pesticide loading for the most frequently detected pesticides was location in California's San Joaquin Valley.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings contribute to the growing understanding that pesticides are ubiquitous in children's environments. Pesticide levels in carpet dust were associated with some factors that ECE directors may have control over, such as IPM practices, and others that are beyond their control, such as geographic location. IPM is an important tool that has the potential to reduce pesticide exposures in ECE environments, even for pesticides no longer in use.

IMPACT

One million children in California under six years old attend child care programs where they may spend up to 40 h per week. Children are uniquely vulnerable to environmental contaminants; however early care settings are under researched in environmental health studies. Little is known about predictors of pesticide levels found in environmental samples from child care facilities. This study aims to identify behavioral and environmental determinants of pesticide contamination in California child care centers. Findings can empower child care providers and consumers and inform decision makers to reduce children's exposures to pesticides and promote lifelong health.

Pesticide Exposure among Latinx Children in Rural Farmworker and Urban Non-Farmworker Communities: Associations with Locality and Season

This study uses repeated measures to document the pesticide exposure of rural and urban Latinx children (age eight at baseline), and to compare these children in terms of the frequency and concentration of their exposure to a large set of pesticides, accounting for season. We used silicone wristbands worn for one week up to ten times at quarterly intervals from 2018 to 2022 to assess pesticide exposure in children from rural farmworker (n = 75) and urban non-farmworker (n = 61) families. We determined the detection and concentrations (ng/g) of 72 pesticides and pesticide degradation products in the wristbands using gas chromatography electron capture detection and gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The most frequently detected pesticide classes were organochlorines, pyrethroids, and organophosphates. Controlling for season, organochlorine or phenylpyrazole detections were less likely for rural children than for urban children. Detections of organochlorines, pyrethroids, or organophosphates were lower in spring and summer versus winter. Controlling for season, urban children had greater concentrations of organochlorines, while rural children had greater concentrations of pyrethroids and Chlorpyrifos. Pesticide concentrations were lower in winter and spring compared with summer and fall. These results further document that pesticides are ubiquitous in the living environment for children in vulnerable, immigrant communities.

The effects of inhaled pollutants on reproduction in marginalized communities: a contemporary review

Important differences in health that are closely linked with social disadvantage exist within and between countries. According to the World Health Organization, life expectancy and good health continue to increase in many parts of the world, but fail to improve in other parts of the world, indicating that differences in life expectancy and health arise due to the circumstances in which people grow, live, work, and age, and the systems put in place to deal with illness. Marginalized communities experience higher rates of certain diseases and more deaths compared to the general population, indicating a profound disparity in health status. Although several factors place marginalized communities at high risk for poor health outcomes, one important factor is exposure to air pollutants. Marginalized communities and minorities are exposed to higher levels of air pollutants than the majority population. Interestingly, a link exists between air pollutant exposure and adverse reproductive outcomes, suggesting that marginalized communities may have increased reproductive disorders due to increased exposure to air pollutants compared to the general population. This review summarizes different studies showing that marginalized communities have higher exposure to air pollutants, the types of air pollutants present in our environment, and the associations between air pollution and adverse reproductive outcomes, focusing on marginalized communities.

Catchment sourcing urban pesticide pollution using constructed wetlands in Melbourne, Australia

A survey of 111 urban constructed stormwater wetlands (median watershed area = 86.8 ha) was conducted to identify the major pesticides present and to determine their major catchment sources (residential, industrial, commercial, sporting ovals) and associations with catchment imperviousness. Melbourne, Australia, has separate stormwater and sewerage systems and these wetlands are designed to treat urban stormwater. To maximise the pesticides that could be detected, three types of passive samplers (POCIS, Chemcatcher® SDB-XC and Chemcatcher® C18) were deployed, along with collection of fine sediments. A total of 231 pesticides were screened using these methods. Pesticides that were detected in >5 % of wetlands were checked to determine their registered use in urban areas using an Australian government database (PubCris). Twenty-five pesticides were detected in >5 % of wetlands: 4 pesticides were associated with non-urban land uses (agriculture and forests), another 4 pesticides had no known registered use in urban areas and 17 were associated with urban areas. The pesticides associated with urban areas were the herbicides simazine, diuron, metolachlor, bromacil, propyzamide and paclobutrazol, the fungicides tebuconazole, propiconazole, metalaxyl, trifloxystrobin, iprodione and carbendazim and the insecticides fipronil, bifenthrin, chlorantraniliprole, thiamethoxam and permethrin. Atrazine was also detected in 59 % of wetlands but has not been registered for urban uses in Australia since 2010. It's presence in Melbourne may be due to legacy issues or aerial transportation from rural areas where it's still widely used in crop cultivation. Generally, the major urban catchment source of pesticides is from residential areas (particularly fipronil and simazine), most likely in wood preservatives, paints and from weed or insect control. Many of these widely used pesticides were correlated with increased catchment imperviousness. Some pesticides (bromacil and imidacloprid) were correlated with commercial premises and chlorantraniliprole was correlated with the presence of sporting ovals in the catchment. No pesticides were specifically correlated with industrial areas. The use of passive samplers and fine sediments, in conjunction with detailed land use mapping of stormwater wetland catchments is very effective and efficient in monitoring and sourcing pesticide contamination in urban environments.

The spatial association between environmental pollution and long-term cancer mortality in Italy

Tumours are nowadays the second world‑leading cause of death after cardiovascular diseases. During the last decades of cancer research, lifestyle and random/genetic factors have been blamed for cancer mortality, with obesity, sedentary habits, alcoholism, and smoking contributing as supposed major causes. However, there is an emerging consensus that environmental pollution should be considered one of the main triggers. Unfortunately, all this preliminary scientific evidence has not always been followed by governments and institutions, which still fail to pursue research on cancer's environmental connections. In this unprecedented national-scale detailed study, we analyzed the links between cancer mortality, socio-economic factors, and sources of environmental pollution in Italy, both at wider regional and finer provincial scales, with an artificial intelligence approach. Overall, we found that cancer mortality does not have a random or spatial distribution and exceeds the national average mainly when environmental pollution is also higher, despite healthier lifestyle habits. Our machine learning analysis of 35 environmental sources of pollution showed that air quality ranks first for importance concerning the average cancer mortality rate, followed by sites to be reclaimed, urban areas, and motor vehicle density. Moreover, other environmental sources of pollution proved to be relevant for the mortality of some specific cancer types. Given these alarming results, we call for a rearrangement of the priority of cancer research and care that sees the reduction and prevention of environmental contamination as a priority action to put in place in the tough struggle against cancer.

Pesticides in the Indoor Environment of Residential Houses: A Case Study in Strasbourg, France

Indoor environmental exposure to pesticides has become one of the major concerns that might adversely affect human health and development. People spend most of their lifetime in enclosed indoor environments where they might inhale harmful toxic chemicals, such as pesticides, dispersed either in particulate or in a gas phase. In this study, an assessment of pesticide contamination in indoor environments was conducted. The study covered nine houses during one year, starting from February 2016 and ending in February 2017, in which both air and dust samples were assessed for their potential contamination with 50 pesticides. The results showed that all the assessed houses were contaminated by several pesticides, especially with the allethrin pesticide (detection frequency (DF) = 100%). The highest pesticide contamination was detected in the spring/summer season when it reached an average of around 185 ng g^-1 and 186.4 ng sampler^-1 in the collected dust and air samples, respectively. The potential contamination of pyrethroid insecticides within all the targeted samples revealed by this study stresses the importance of minimizing the use of such indoor treatments as part of the efficient prevention and control of human exposure to pesticides.

Human Exposure to Pesticides in Dust from Two Agricultural Sites in South Africa

Over the last decades, concern has arisen worldwide about the negative impacts of pesticides on the environment and human health. Exposure via dust ingestion is important for many chemicals but poorly characterized for pesticides, particularly in Africa. We investigated the spatial and temporal variations of 30 pesticides in dust and estimated the human exposure via dust ingestion, which was compared to inhalation and soil ingestion. Indoor dust samples were collected from thirty-eight households and two schools located in two agricultural regions in South Africa and were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. We found 10 pesticides in dust, with chlorpyrifos, terbuthylazine, carbaryl, diazinon, carbendazim, and tebuconazole quantified in >50% of the samples. Over seven days, no significant temporal variations in the dust levels of individual pesticides were found. Significant spatial variations were observed for some pesticides, highlighting the importance of proximity to agricultural fields or of indoor pesticide use. For five out of the nineteen pesticides quantified in dust, air, or soil (i.e., carbendazim, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, diuron and propiconazole), human intake via dust ingestion was important (>10%) compared to inhalation or soil ingestion. Dust ingestion should therefore be considered in future human exposure assessment to pesticides.

Occurrence of azole and strobilurin fungicides in indoor dust from three cities of China

Widespread use of fungicides has raised the concern of exposure to them among the general population. However, there are extremely limited studies reporting the occurrence of fungicides in indoor dust in China. This study aimed to determine ten agricultural fungicides in indoor dust samples collected in three cities of China from 2016 to 2019, assess spatial and seasonal variations, and estimate the related exposure via dust ingestion. Six out of ten fungicides including difenoconazole, prochloraz, tebuconazole, tricyclazole, azoxystrobin, and pyraclostrobin were frequently detected in the dust samples (ranged 65.8-97.7%) and the concentrations of some fungicides showed a strong correlation with each other. Difenoconazole was the most abundant one among the selected fungicides. The highest level of the selected fungicides was observed in the indoor dust collected from Wuhan in summer 2019 (median cumulative concentration of the fungicides: 62.6 ng/g), while the relatively low concentrations of fungicides were found in the dust from Taiyuan (2.08 ng/g). Heavier fungicide contamination was observed in urban districts compared to that in rural districts. Seasonal variations in the fungicide residuals were also identified. The exposure assessment suggested that intake of the selected fungicides via dust ingestion was much lower than dietary intake reported in other studies. This study filled the data gap of fungicide residuals in the indoor dust in China and further studies are needed to identify the sources and determinants of indoor fungicide contamination.

Pesticides in doormat and floor dust from homes close to treated fields: Spatio-temporal variance and determinants of occurrence and concentrations

Indoor dust has been postulated as an important matrix for residential pesticide exposure. However, there is a lack of information on presence, concentrations and determinants of multiple pesticides in dust in residential homes close to treated fields. Our objective was to characterize the spatial and temporal variance of pesticides in house dust, study the use of doormats and floors as proxies for pesticides in indoor dust and identify determinants of occurrence and concentrations. Homes within 250 m from selected bulb fields were invited to participate. Homes within 20 km from these fields but not having agricultural fields within 500 m were selected as controls. House dust was vacuumed in all homes from floors (VFD) and from newly placed clean doormats (DDM). Sampling was done during two periods, when pesticides are used and not-used. For determination of 46 prioritized pesticides, a multi-residue extraction method was used. Most statistical analyses are focused on the 12 and 14 pesticides that were detected in >40% of DDM and VFD samples, respectively. Mixed models were used to evaluate relationships between possible determinants and pesticides occurrence and concentrations in DDM and VFD. 17 pesticides were detected in more than 50% of the homes in both matrixes. Concentrations differed by about a factor five between use and non-use periods among homes within 250 m of fields and between these homes and controls. For 7 pesticides there was a moderate to strong correlation (Spearman rho 0.30-0.75) between concentrations in DDM and VFD. Distance to agricultural fields and air concentrations were among the most relevant predictors for occurrence and levels of a given pesticide in DDM. Concentrations in dust are overall higher during application periods and closer to fields (<250 m) than further away. The omnipresence of pesticides in dust lead to residents being exposed all year round.

Pesticide residues on children's hands, home indoor surfaces, and drinking water among conventional and organic farmers in Thailand

This study measured pesticide levels on children's hands, home indoor surfaces, and drinking water among Thai conventional and organic farm families in three provinces. Farm families in Nakhonsawan and Phitsanulok provinces were the conventional farmers and those in Yasothon province were the organic farmers. Samples were collected in the dry and wet seasons over 2 years (2017 and 2018). All samples were analyzed for organophosphates (OPs), carbamate, pyrethroid, triazines, glyphosate, and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA). On children's hands, the highest concentrations for the 2 palmar surfaces were found for cypermethrin (7.46 μg) and fipronil (2.88 μg). On home surfaces of approximately 1000 cm2, the highest concentrations were found for cypermethrin (27.94 μg) and fipronil 49.76 μg)/1000 cm2. For the conventional farmers, the most common pesticides on children's hand wipes were cypermethrin and fipronil, which are used as in-home pesticides as well as agricultural pesticides. However, home surface wipes showed other pesticides associated with agriculture were presented in the home during the seasons when they were used, suggesting spray drift or carry home sources for these pesticides. During the wet season, pesticides were found in the drinking water of all provinces. Most common were fenitrothion, profenofos, fenthion, atrazine, and AMPA. Profenofos was found at levels above the health guidelines. During 2017, there was extensive flooding in Thailand which may have contributed to the drinking water contamination, even though most farmers report using tap water or bottled drinking water. Future work is needed to assess the risk of all sources of pesticide exposures in children and to repeat the drinking water pesticide contamination analysis.

Household pesticide exposures and infant gross motor development in the MADRES cohort

BACKGROUND

The development of motor skills in infancy is a vital neurodevelopmental milestone. Although previous studies have explored the neurotoxic effects of agricultural pesticides on infants' motor development, limited research has examined early postnatal household pesticide use on infants' motor development, particularly among urban communities.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the association between early postnatal household pesticide use and infants' gross and fine motor development at 6 months of age.

METHODS

Questionnaires were administered via telephone to 296 mother-infant dyads in the Maternal and Developmental Risks from Environmental and Social Stressors (MADRES) pregnancy cohort. Early life household pesticide use was assessed via questionnaire administered when infants turned 3 months old and gross and fine motor development was assessed by the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ-3) at 6 months old. Infant gross motor scores were reverse coded so that higher scores indicated lower gross motor performance. Negative binomial regressions were performed to assess the relationship between household pesticide use and infant gross motor development.

RESULTS

Infants were predominantly Hispanic (78.7%) and full term (gestational age at birth: 39.0 ± 1.9 weeks), with 22.3% of maternal participants reporting household use of rodent and insect pesticides. Adjusting for recruitment site, maternal age, ethnicity, household income, education, infant corrected age, infant sex, and home type, infants with maternal-reported household use of rodent and insect pesticides had 1.30 times higher expected gross motor scores (95% confiidence interval 1.05, 1.61) than infants with no reported use of household pesticides, with higher scores indicating reduced gross motor performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest household use of rodent and insect pesticides may harm infants' gross motor development in early childhood. Future research should evaluate the impact of specific household chemicals in infant biospecimens and their associations with infant motor development to confirm these findings.

Role of land use and land cover in residential exposures to agricultural pesticide models

Exposure of the general population to pesticides, especially in agricultural areas, is a major public health concern. This review analyses the role of Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) in Residential Exposure to Agricultural Pesticides (REAP) and how it is measured and modelled. Some epidemiological studies have shown that basic LULC variables, such as distance to a crop and field size, are relevant for explaining REAP. However, the potential of LULC mitigation elements, such as vegetation barriers, grassy strips and buffer zones, to mitigate REAP has been poorly studied. The availability of recent low-cost and high-quality geospatial data enables REAP models to include alternative and more precise LULC variables. This review also highlights the need for (i) generic environmental sampling protocols, (ii) exposure and spraying datasets and (iii) assessment of the mitigation capacity of LULC to improve REAP modelling significantly.

Area-Based Geocoding: An Approach to Exposure Assessment Incorporating Positional Uncertainty

While the spatial resolution of exposure surfaces has greatly improved, our ability to locate people in space remains a limiting factor in accurate exposure assessment. In this case-control study, two approaches to geocoding participant locations were used to study the impact of geocoding uncertainty on the estimation of ambient pesticide exposure and breast cancer risk among women living in California's Central Valley. Residential and occupational histories were collected and geocoded using a traditional point-based method along with a novel area-based method. The standard approach to geocoding uses centroid points to represent all geocoded locations, and is unable to adapt exposure areas based on geocode quality, except through the exclusion of low-certainty locations. In contrast, area-based geocoding retains the complete area to which an address matched (the same area from which the centroid is returned), and therefore maintains the appropriate level of precision when it comes to assessing exposure by geography. Incorporating the total potential exposure area for each geocoded location resulted in different exposure classifications and resulting odds ratio estimates than estimates derived from the centroids of those same areas (using a traditional point-based geocoder). The direction and magnitude of these differences varied by pesticide, but in all cases odds ratios differed by at least 6% and up to 35%. These findings demonstrate the importance of geocoding in exposure estimation and suggest it is important to consider geocode certainty and quality throughout exposure assessment, rather than simply using the best available point geocodes.

Pesticide residues in drinking water, their potential risk to human health and removal options

The application of pesticides in agricultural and public health sectors has resulted in substantially contaminated water resources with residues in many countries. Almost no reviews have addressed pesticide residues in drinking water globally; calculated hazard indices for adults, children, and infants; or discussed the potential health risk of pesticides to the human population. The objectives of this article were to summarize advances in research related to pesticide residues in drinking water; conduct health risk assessments by estimating the daily intake of pesticide residues consumed only from drinking water by adults, children, and infants; and summarize options for pesticide removal from water systems. Approximately 113 pesticide residues were found in drinking water samples from 31 countries worldwide. There were 61, 31, and 21 insecticide, herbicide, and fungicide residues, respectively. Four residues were in toxicity class IA, 14 residues were in toxicity class IB, 55 residues were in toxicity class II, 17 residues were in toxicity class III, and 23 residues were in toxicity class IV. The calculated hazard indices (HIs) exceeded the value of one in many cases. The lowest HI value (0.0001) for children was found in Canada, and the highest HI value (30.97) was found in Egypt, suggesting a high potential health risk to adults, children, and infants. The application of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) showed efficient removal of many pesticide classes. The combination of adsorption followed by biodegradation was shown to be an effective and efficient purification option. In conclusion, the consumption of water contaminated with pesticide residues may pose risks to human health in exposed populations.

Whose Jurisdiction Is Home Contamination? Para-Occupational 'Take-Home' Herbicide Residue Exposure Risks among Forestry Workers' Families in South Africa

Para-occupational “take-home” exposure risks among forestry workers and their families in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) have not been well characterized. This is a concern because research shows an association between chronic low-dose herbicide exposure and adverse health effects. This study explored take-home herbicide residue exposure risks among forestry workers in the Western Cape, South Africa, through the community-based participatory research approach of photovoice. A key finding of the study was the absence of provisions related to take-home exposure in the national legislation and workplace policies, which largely contributed to poor adherence to risk reduction practices at worksites, in addition to workers transporting residues to their homes. This study demonstrated evidence of the key omissions regarding take-home exposure at the policy level (e.g., recommendations for employers to reduce take-home risks among employees, and training of workers and their families on take-home exposure) and take-home herbicide residue exposure among worker’s families, including children.

ATR-FTIR and LC-Q-ToF-MS analysis of indoor dust from different micro-environments located in a tropical metropolitan area

Indoor dust is an important matrix that exposes humans to a broad spectrum of chemicals. The information on the occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), their metabolites, and re-emerging contaminants in indoor dust is rather limited. As the indoor environment is exposed to various chemicals from personal care products, furniture, building materials, machineries and cooking/cleaning products, there is a high chance of the presence of hazardous contaminants in indoor dust. In the present study, dust samples were collected from four different micro indoor environments (photocopying centres, residential houses, classrooms, and ATM cabins) located in an urban environment located in India's southwestern part. The collected samples were subjected to ATR - FTIR and LC-Q-ToF-MS analyses. The ATR - FTIR analysis indicated the presence of aldehydes, anhydrides, carboxylic acids, esters, sulphonic acids, and asbestos - a re-emerging contaminant. A total of 19 compounds were identified from the LC-Q-ToF-MS analysis. These compounds belonged to various classes such as plasticisers, plasticiser metabolites, photoinitiators, personal care products, pharmaceutical intermediates, surfactants, and pesticides. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report regarding the presence of CECs in indoor environments in Kerala and also the suspected occurrence of pesticides (metaldehyde and ethofumesate) in classroom dust in India. Another important highlight of this work is the demonstration of ATR-FTIR as a complementary technique for LC-Q-ToF-MS in the analysis of indoor pollution while dealing with totally unknown pollutants. These results further highlight the occurrence of probable chemically modified metabolites in the tropical climatic conditions in a microenvironment.

Personal exposure assessment of pesticides in residents: The association between hand wipes and urinary biomarkers

BACKGROUND

Residential exposure to pesticides may occur via inhalation of airborne pesticides, direct skin contacts with pesticide-contaminated surfaces, and consumption of food containing pesticide residues. The aim was to study the association of dermal exposure to pesticides between the use and non-use periods, between farmer and non-farmer families and between dermal exposure and the excretion of metabolites from urine in residents living close to treated agricultural fields.

METHODS

In total, 112 hand wipes and 206 spot urine samples were collected from 16 farmer and 38 non-farmer participants living within 50 m from an agricultural field in the Netherlands. The study took place from May 2016 to December 2017 during the use as well as the non-use periods of pesticides. Hand wipes were analysed for the parent compound and urines samples for the corresponding urinary metabolite of five applied pesticides: asulam, carbendazim (applied as thiophanate-methyl), chlorpropham, prochloraz and tebuconazole. Questionnaire data was used to study potential determinants of occurrence and levels of pesticides in hand wipes according to univariate and multivariate analysis.

RESULTS

Carbendazim and tebuconazole concentrations in hand wipes were statistically significantly higher in the pesticide-use period compared to the non-use period. In addition, especially during the use periods, concentrations were statistically significantly higher in farmer families compared to non-farmer families. For asulam, chlorpropham and prochloraz, the frequency of non-detects was too high (57-85%) to be included in this analysis. The carbendazim contents in urine samples and hand wipes were correlated on the first and second day after taking the hand wipe, whereas chlorpropham was only observed to be related on the second day following the spray event.

CONCLUSIONS

Concentrations in hand wipes were overall higher in pesticide use periods compared to non-use periods and higher in farmer families compared to non-farmer families. Only for carbendazim a strong correlation between concentrations in hand wipes and its main metabolite in urine was observed, indicating dermal exposure via contaminated indoor surfaces. We expect this to be related to the lower vapour pressure and longer environmental lifetime of carbendazim compared to the other pesticides studies.

Association between Pesticides in House Dust and Residential Proximity to Farmland in a Rural Region of Taiwan

Pesticide drift was reported in many international studies, but rarely studied in Taiwan. We conducted a study in a rural region of Taiwan to examine the associations between pesticides in house dust and nearby agricultural areas using geographic information system (GIS). A questionnaire regarding home characteristics and pesticide use, and indoor and outdoor dust samples were collected from 47 rural homes. Dust samples were analyzed for six pesticides, and agricultural land data for GIS analysis were retrieved from a national website. All but prallethrin were frequently detected from indoor dust samples (>50%), and the maximum concentrations were all below 1000 ng/g. Detection frequencies and concentrations of pesticides in outdoor dust samples were even lower than that in indoor dust samples. Only "work involving pesticides" in the questionnaire was significantly associated with four pesticides in house dust (p < 0.05). Carbofuran and tetramethrin in house dust were significantly correlated with rice cultivation area at certain buffer distances (ρ > 0.33, p < 0.05), and chlorpyrifos was found to be associated with abandoned cultivation area, suggesting the occurrence of pesticide drift. Despite the low levels of pesticides in house dust, residents in the rural region should be cautious of pesticide drift from nearby active or abandoned farmlands.

Why We Will Continue to Lose Our Battle with Cancers If We Do Not Stop Their Triggers from Environmental Pollution

Besides our current health concerns due to COVID-19, cancer is a longer-lasting and even more dramatic pandemic that affects almost a third of the human population worldwide. Most of the emphasis on its causes has been posed on genetic predisposition, chance, and wrong lifestyles (mainly, obesity and smoking). Moreover, our medical weapons against cancers have not improved too much during the last century, although research is in progress. Once diagnosed with a malignant tumour, we still rely on surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. The main problem is that we have focused on fighting a difficult battle instead of preventing it by controlling its triggers. Quite the opposite, our knowledge of the links between environmental pollution and cancer has surged from the 1980s. Carcinogens in water, air, and soil have continued to accumulate disproportionally and grow in number and dose, bringing us to today's carnage. Here, a synthesis and critical review of the state of the knowledge of the links between cancer and environmental pollution in the three environmental compartments is provided, research gaps are briefly discussed, and some future directions are indicated. New evidence suggests that it is relevant to take into account not only the dose but also the time when we are exposed to carcinogens. The review ends by stressing that more dedication should be put into studying the environmental causes of cancers to prevent and avoid curing them, that the precautionary approach towards environmental pollutants must be much more reactionary, and that there is an urgent need to leave behind the outdated petrochemical-based industry and goods production.

COVID-19 and children's health in the United States: Consideration of physical and social environments during the pandemic

Public health measures necessary to counteract the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have resulted in dramatic changes in the physical and social environments within which children grow and develop. As our understanding of the pathways for viral exposure and associated health outcomes in children evolves, it is critical to consider how changes in the social, cultural, economic, and physical environments resulting from the pandemic could affect the development of children. This review article considers the environments and settings that create the backdrop for children's health in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic, including current threats to child development that stem from: A) change in exposures to environmental contaminants such as heavy metals, pesticides, disinfectants, air pollution and the built environment; B) changes in food environments resulting from adverse economic repercussion of the pandemic and limited reach of existing safety nets; C) limited access to children's educational and developmental resources; D) changes in the social environments at the individual and household levels, and their interplay with family stressors and mental health; E) social injustice and racism. The environmental changes due to COVID-19 are overlaid onto existing environmental and social disparities. This results in disproportionate effects among children in low-income settings and among populations experiencing the effects of structural racism. This article draws attention to many environments that should be considered in current and future policy responses to protect children's health amid pandemics.

Cumulative Pesticides Exposure of Children and Their Parents Living near Vineyards by Hair Analysis

The aim of the present work was the application of hair biomonitoring to investigate exposure to pesticides in children and their parents residing in a vineyard area. Thirty-three children and 16 parents were involved in the study. Hair samples were self-collected before and after the application season (PRE- and POST-EXP samples). Information on study subjects and the use of pesticides in the area were obtained. Thirty-nine pesticides were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, and thirty-one pesticides were quantifiable in at least one hair sample. Most frequently detected pesticides were chlorpyrifos, cycloxidim, dimethomorph, metalaxyl, spiroxamine, and tetraconazole. From PRE-EXP to POST-EXP the percentage of quantification and/or the concentration of pesticides increased; the concentration was typically in the low pg/mg hair range with comparable levels in children and parents. An inverse correlation was found between the total exposure to pesticides in POST-EXP hair samples and the distance between home and the treated fields (Spearman ρ = -0.380, p = 0.01). The results of this study show that the majority of the study pesticides were measured in the hair of subjects living in the close proximity of treated vineyards, supporting the determination of pesticides in hair for the purpose of biomonitoring cumulative exposure in the general population.

Pesticide exposure among Latinx children: Comparison of children in rural, farmworker and urban, non-farmworker communities

Personal pesticide exposure is not well characterized among children in vulnerable, immigrant communities. We used silicone wristbands in 2018-2019 to assess pesticide exposure in 8 year old Latinx boys and girls in rural, farmworker families (n = 73) and urban, non-farmworker families (n = 60) living in North Carolina who were enrolled in the PACE5 Study, a community-based participatory research study. We determined the detection and concentrations (ng/g) of 75 pesticides and pesticide degradation products in the silicone wristbands worn for one week using gas chromatography electron capture detection and employed gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Differences by personal and family characteristics were tested using analysis of variance or Wilcoxon Rank Sum tests when necessary. Pesticide concentrations above the limit of detection were analyzed, and reported as geometric means and 95% confidence intervals (CI). The most frequently detected pesticide classes were organochlorines (85.7%), pyrethroids (65.4%), and organophosphates (59.4%), with the most frequently detected specific pesticides being alpha-chlordane (69.2%), trans-nonachlor (67.7%), gamma-chlordane (66.2%), chlorpyrifos (54.9%), cypermethrin (49.6%), and trans-permethrin (39.1%). More of those children in urban, non-farmworker families had detections of organochlorines (93.3% vs. 79.5, p = 0.0228) and pyrethroids (75.0% vs. 57.5%, p = 0.0351) than did those in rural, farmworker families; more children in rural, farmworker families had detections for organophosphates (71.2% vs. 45.0%, p= 0.0022). Children in urban, non-farmworker families had greater concentrations of alpha-chlordane (geometric mean (GM) 18.98, 95% CI 14.14, 25.47 vs. 10.25, 95% CI 7.49, 14.03; p= 0.0055) and dieldrin (GM 17.38, 95% CI 12.78 23.62 vs. 8.10, 95% CI 5.47, 12.00; p= 0.0034) than did children in rural, farmworker families. These results support the position that pesticides are ubiquitous in the living environment for children in vulnerable, immigrant communities, and argue for greater effort in documenting the widespread nature of pesticide exposure among children, with greater effort to reduce pesticide exposure.

Prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure in association with PPARγ H3K4me3 and DNA methylation levels and child development

BACKGROUND

Chlorpyrifos, one of the most widely used pesticides, can penetrate the placenta and affect fetal growth and neurodevelopment. Epigenetic regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), such as DNA methylation and trimethylation of lysine 4 of H3 (H3K4me3), may provide a potential mechanism for how fetal growth and development are impacted by chlorpyrifos exposure. The aims of the study were to investigate whether prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure was associated with H3K4me3 and DNA methylation levels of the PPARγ gene in the placenta and the related effects on birth outcomes and neurodevelopment.

METHODS

Among 425 mother-infant pairs from the Taiwan Birth Panel Study, chlorpyrifos levels were measured in cord blood by using online SPE-LC/HESI/MS/MS; placental PPARγ H3K4me3 and DNA methylation levels were measured by ChIP-qPCR and pyrosequencing, respectively; the neonates' health outcomes were extracted from the medical records; and childhood neurodevelopment was evaluated by using the Comprehensive Developmental Inventory for Infants and Toddlers in 2-year-old children. Multivariable regression models were used to adjust for potential confounders.

RESULTS

After controlling for potential confounders, each unit increase in the natural log-transformed prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure level was associated with an increase in the PPARγ DNA methylation level (adjusted β (aβ) = 0.77, p = 0.032) and poorer performance in the cognitive and language domains at 2 years old, especially in boys (aβ = -1.66, p = 0.016, and aβ = -1.79, p = 0.023, respectively). PPARγ H3K4me3 levels were positively associated with gestational age (aβ = 0.16, p = 0.011), birth weight (aβ = 30.52, p = 0.013), birth length (aβ = 0.18, p = 0.003 and aβ = 0.15, p = 0.042), and gross-motor performance (aβ = 1.67, p = 0.036).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested that prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure affected PPARγ DNA methylation levels and performance in the cognitive and language domains.

Organic pollutants in indoor dust from Ecuadorian Amazonia areas affected by oil extractivism

Fifty-five household dust samples collected within six settlements surrounding oil production complexes along the Ecuadorian Amazonia were analysed to evaluate the occurrence and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, alkylphenols (APs), bisphenol A (BPA), nicotine, organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), legacy organochlorine pesticides (OCs) and organophosphorus pesticides. Studied areas are mainly affected by gas flares emissions and oil spilling coming from extractivist operations and pesticides used in agriculture. Median ΣPAHs values ranged from 739 to 1182 ng g^-1 and up to 52% of the PAH dust concentrations were associated to petrogenic activities from crude oil extraction, according to diagnostic ratios. ΣPAHs and toxic equivalents based on benzo[a]pyrene concentration (ΣTEQ_BaP, ng g^-1) suggested similar toxicities among the different areas. Individual lifetime cancer risk (ILCR_dust) was calculated for ingestion and dermal contact exposure routes and a non-acceptable total carcinogenic risk of up to 10^-4 (one case per ten thousand people) was found for newborns from 0 to 3 years-old in Pimampiro area. Plasticisers and OPFRs were present in dust at maximum median concentrations of 332,507 ng g^-1 (DEHP), 5,249 ng g^-1 (DBP), 1,885 ng g^-1 (BPA), 871 ng g^-1 (TBOEP) and 122 ng g^-1 (TEHP). Some dust samples from Ecuadorian houses had high maximum levels of legacy and modern pesticides such as chlorpyrifos (up to 44,176 ng g^-1), 4,4'-DDT (12,958 ng g^-1), malathion (34,748 ng g^-1) and α+β-endosulfan (10,660 ng g^-1) attributed to inappropriate use and storage of the pesticides. Finally, nicotine was seldom detected (36 ng g^-1). The sources and risks of these compounds are discussed based on the activities carried out in the study areas and attending to an additional non-cancer risk assessment which showed high hazard quotients (HQ) and hazard indexes (HI) for DEHP, DBP, 4,4'-DDT, malathion, chlorpyrifos, naphthalene and benzo[a]pyrene in newborns and children up to 16 years-old.

Pyrethroid Insecticides in Households from Urban Areas: An Association of the 3-PBA Metabolite and Hand Wipes

Background

Pyrethroid exposure in the household environment affects children directly via inhalation or dermal exposure. Hand wipes can effectively predict pyrethroid exposure to young children along with the children's activities. The main purpose of this study is to identify the relationship between 3-PBA metabolites, hand wipe sample concentrations and multiple exposure factors, within the population of households with young children in urban Bangkok, Thailand.

Methods

Interviews were conducted with the parents of 80 children (aged 2-3 years). Urine was collected to analyze for 3-PBA metabolites and hand wipe samples were collected to analyze for cypermethrin. Both were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC/MS).

Results

A Spearmen's correlation test of the increase of 3-PBA metabolites was significantly associated with an increase in hand wipe samples (cypermethrin) in children (r_s = 0.226-0.274, p-value < 0.05). The binary logistic regression test presented an association between exposure factors with 3-PBA metabolite concentration. Gender presented a significant association with 3-PBA metabolites (p-value = 0.035, OR = 0.326, 95% CI 0.115-0.926), and frequency of bare feet inside the household presented a significant association with 3-PBA metabolites (p-value < 0.01, OR = 7.072, 95% CI 1.707-29.291). In addition, exposure factors were not significantly associated with wipe sample concentration (cypermethrin) but showed high risk of exposure to young children.

Conclusions

Suggestions to reduce the risk from long-term pyrethroid insecticide exposure to children living in households include increased education, awareness, and management.

Persistence of indoor permethrin and estimation of dermal and non-dietary exposure

Pesticides applied indoors may persist longer than they would in outdoor environments, making people more vulnerable to the risk of exposure. Permethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide used in agricultural, residential, and public health sites, and is commonly detected in indoor environments. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the persistence of permethrin indoors and to estimate the levels of possible dermal and non-dietary exposure to this insecticide. Permethrin was applied on aluminum foil and kept in a glass chamber and a test house for 112 days; its concentration was measured at application and after 28, 56, and 112 days. Permethrin persisted for the entire 112 days in concentrations equal to a maximum of 89.6% of the initial concentration. We observed low levels of human dermal and non-dietary exposure to permethrin.

Eliminating Take-Home Exposures: Recognizing the Role of Occupational Health and Safety in Broader Community Health

Toxic contaminants inadvertently brought from the workplace to the home, known as take-home or paraoccupational exposures, have often been framed as a problem that arises due to unsanitary worker behavior. This review article conceptualizes take-home exposures as a public health hazard by (i) investigating the history of take-home contaminants and how they have been studied, (ii) arguing that an ecosocial view of the problem is essential for effective prevention, (iii) summarizing key structural vulnerabilities that lead populations to be at risk, and (iv) discussing future research and prevention effort needs. This article reframes take-home exposures as one of many chronic pathways that contributes to persistent health disparities among workers, their families, and communities. Including the role of work in community health will increase the comprehensiveness of prevention efforts for contaminants such as lead and pesticides that contribute to environmental disparities.

Toxic compounds in a cutlery microenterprise: A case study

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to characterize solid particulate aerosol derived from a cutlery microenterprise and to investigate substances associated with activities performed within the work environment.

OBJECTIVE

Suspended particulate matter (SPM) was collected at different locations in the cutlery workshop and near machines used by workers, using passive sampling devices fitted with polytetrafluoroethylene filters, onto which total particulate material was deposited. The substances present in the SPM were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

RESULTS

Identification of the substances was performed using the National Institute of Standards (NIST) library and automated mass spectral deconvolution and identification system. (AMDIS) software, considering at least 70% probability. The concentration of total dust, obtained using a gravimetric method, was approximately 1 mg.m-3.

CONCLUSION

The toxic substances found in the SPM included halogenated hydrocarbons (containing chlorine, fluorine, and iodine) and aromatic hydrocarbons. The toxic substances included naphthalene, which is classified as carcinogenic.

Characteristics of neonicotinoid imidacloprid in urine following exposure of humans to orchards in China

Imidacloprid (IMI) is a typical neonicotinoid with the largest usage in agricultural orchards in China. The long-term repeated use and the lack of proper protective measures may result in rural farmers and people living near orchards to be inevitably exposed to IMI. Excessive exposure may cause potential adverse effects on human health. To explore the characteristics of human exposure to IMI in urine, different groups of people, including pesticide applicators and their family members, and kindergarten children near IMI-applied orchards were investigated. The IMI and metabolite, 6-chloronicotinic acid (6-CNA), concentrations in urine were creatinine-adjusted to compensate for a possible dilution effect. Target analytes were detected in 100% of 1926 urine samples. The results showed that the IMI concentration in the 1-d urine from the rural residents significantly increased after a spraying event (p < 0.05) and reached the highest concentration (Geomean: 16.42 μg/g creatinine for IMI; 7.33 μg/g creatinine for 6-CNA) in the 2-d urine samples. The pesticide applicators of different genders had almost the same exposure environment (IMI Geomean of 13.25 μg/g creatinine for males and 14.71 μg/g creatinine for females) (p > 0.05). Females had higher exposure concentrations than that of males. People from different villages demonstrated diverse exposure levels with Geomean differences of 1.13-3.28 fold. For 3-6 years-old children, urinary concentrations from the rural group (Geomean: 3.73 μg/g creatinine for IMI; 3.95 μg/g creatinine for 6-CNA) were significantly higher than that of the urban group (Geomean: 1.13 μg/g creatinine for IMI; 0.88 μg/g creatinine for 6-CNA) (p = 0.00001), and the younger children tended to have higher exposure risk. Our findings showed that people in the Henan orchard areas were likely exposed to IMI to varying degrees. Further research on the health risk evaluation of IMI and controlling the exposure risks is needed.

A case-control study of breast cancer risk and ambient exposure to pesticides

Background:

While the estrogenic properties of certain pesticides have been established, associations between pesticide exposure and risk of breast cancer have been inconsistently observed. We investigated the relation between pesticide exposure and breast cancer risk using methods capable of objectively assessing exposure to specific pesticides occurring decades before diagnosis.

Methods:

A case–control study was conducted to evaluate the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer associated with historic pesticide exposure in California’s Central Valley, the most agriculturally productive region in the United States where pesticide drift poses a major source of nonoccupational exposure. Residential and occupational histories were linked to commercial pesticide reports and land use data to determine exposure to specific chemicals. Cases (N = 155) were recruited from a population-based cancer registry, and controls (N = 150) were obtained from tax assessor and Medicare list mailings.

Results:

There was no association between breast cancer and exposure to a selected group of organochlorine pesticides thought to have synergistic endocrine-disrupting potential; however, breast cancer was three times as likely to occur among women exposed to chlorpyrifos compared with those not exposed, after adjusting for exposure to other pesticides including organochlorines (OR = 3.22; 95% CI = 1.38, 7.53).

Conclusions:

Organophosphate pesticides, such as chlorpyrifos, have rarely been evaluated in studies of breast cancer risk. Additional research is needed to confirm these findings and to better understand the underlying mechanisms given that chlorpyrifos has been detected in local air monitoring at levels of concern for residents living in the agricultural regions where it is used.

Agricultural and domestic pesticides in house dust from different agricultural areas in France

Pesticides have been associated with various pathologies, and there is growing evidence of pesticide presence in domestic environments. However, most available studies focused on a limited number of pesticides or households, and few have been conducted in Europe. We aimed to assess indoor pesticide contamination by screening the prevalence of 276 pesticides and ten pesticide metabolites, in French households from different agricultural and urban areas. We sampled indoor dust from 239 households in 2012, proximate to orchards (n = 69), cereals (n = 66) and vineyard (n = 68) crops, or from urban area (n = 36). we used cellulose wipes moistened with isopropanol and polypropylene dust traps to collect recent (7 and 30 days, respectively) and settled dust (> 6 months). Overall, 125 pesticides and piperonyl butoxide were detected at least once in households, mostly at low prevalence: 97 in recent dust, and 111 in settled dust. In recent dust, the most prevalent compounds were o-phenylphenol (168 households, 70%), pentachlorophenol (86, 36%), and piperonyl butoxide (82, 34%). In addition to agricultural pesticides, we found a high proportion of domestic and banned compounds in recent and settled house dust. Several pesticides were identified in house dust, from different pesticide groups and sources. Our results suggest that domestic usage and persistence of banned pesticides may contribute substantially to indoor pesticide contamination. Graphical abstract 97 pesticides detected in households' recent indoor dust.

Systematic Literature Review of the Take-Home Route of Pesticide Exposure via Biomonitoring and Environmental Monitoring

BACKGROUND

Exposure to pesticides via take-home can be an important pathway for farmworkers' families.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this review was to summarize and analyze the literature published during the last decade of exposure to pesticides via take-home pathway in farmworkers' families.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review to identify peer-reviewed articles of interest; only articles related to take-home pathway that included some sort of pesticide monitoring were considered for inclusion. Systematic reviews, literature reviews, and meta-analyses were excluded, resulting in a total of 39 articles elected for analysis. The articles were summarized based on the location of the study, population (sample size), pesticide analyzed, and type of sample.

RESULTS

The majority of the reviewed studies were conducted in the U.S., but there seems to be an increase in literature on pesticide take-home pathway in developing countries. Most of the articles provided evidence that farmworkers' families are exposed to pesticides at higher levels than non-farmworkers' families. The levels may depend on several factors such as seasonality, parental occupation, cohabitation with a farmworker, behavior at work/home, age, and gender. Community-based interventions disrupting the take-home pathway seem to be effective at reducing pesticide exposure.

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION

The take-home pathway is an important contributor to overall residential exposures, but other pathways such as pesticide drift, indoor-residential applications, and dietary intake need to be considered. A more comprehensive exposure assessment approach is necessary to better understand exposures to pesticides.

Pyrethroid levels in toddlers' breathing zone following a simulated indoor pesticide spray

Application of pyrethroid insecticides in residential settings may result in children's exposures to these chemicals and possible adverse health effects. Household dust is a recognized reservoir for pyrethroids and a potential medium for multi-route pyrethroid exposure. Young children move and play in a manner that resuspends dust, and since their breathing zone is close to the floor, they will have higher inhalation exposure to pesticide-laden dust than other age groups. Directly measuring a toddler's exposure to household dust presents many logistic challenges. We simulated the dust resuspension induced by a toddler using a robot, which also served as a platform to collect air samples at the toddler's breathing zone height. We performed simulated pyrethroid residential spray and dust resuspension experiments on vinyl and carpeted floors. The mean pyrethroid airborne concentrations in the stationary and mobile samples were 0.065 μg/m³ and 0.143 μg/m³ for the vinyl floor with 1 g/m² dust loading, and 0.034 μg/m³ and 0.061 μg/m³ for the carpeted floor with 10 g/m² dust loading, respectively. Pyrethroids concentrations in the settled dust samples were significantly lower than that measured in the stationary and mobile samples in the carpeted floor experiments. Thus, the use of stationary samples and settled dust samples may underestimate a toddler's personal inhalation exposure to pyrethroids in residential houses.

Prenatal and infant exposure to ambient pesticides and autism spectrum disorder in children: population based case-control study

OBJECTIVE

To examine associations between early developmental exposure to ambient pesticides and autism spectrum disorder.

DESIGN

Population based case-control study.

SETTING

California's main agricultural region, Central Valley, using 1998-2010 birth data from the Office of Vital Statistics.

POPULATION

2961 individuals with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, revised (up to 31 December 2013), including 445 with intellectual disability comorbidity, were identified through records maintained at the California Department of Developmental Services and linked to their birth records. Controls derived from birth records were matched to cases 10:1 by sex and birth year.

EXPOSURE

Data from California state mandated Pesticide Use Reporting were integrated into a geographic information system tool to estimate prenatal and infant exposures to pesticides (measured as pounds of pesticides applied per acre/month within 2000 m from the maternal residence). 11 high use pesticides were selected for examination a priori according to previous evidence of neurodevelopmental toxicity in vivo or in vitro (exposure defined as ever v never for each pesticide during specific developmental periods).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals using multivariable logistic regression were used to assess associations between pesticide exposure and autism spectrum disorder (with or without intellectual disabilities) in offspring, adjusting for confounders.

RESULTS

Risk of autism spectrum disorder was associated with prenatal exposure to glyphosate (odds ratio 1.16, 95% confidence interval 1.06 to 1.27), chlorpyrifos (1.13, 1.05 to 1.23), diazinon (1.11, 1.01 to 1.21), malathion (1.11, 1.01 to 1.22), avermectin (1.12, 1.04 to 1.22), and permethrin (1.10, 1.01 to 1.20). For autism spectrum disorder with intellectual disability, estimated odds ratios were higher (by about 30%) for prenatal exposure to glyphosate (1.33, 1.05 to 1.69), chlorpyrifos (1.27, 1.04 to 1.56), diazinon (1.41, 1.15 to 1.73), permethrin (1.46, 1.20 to 1.78), methyl bromide (1.33, 1.07 to 1.64), and myclobutanil (1.32, 1.09 to 1.60); exposure in the first year of life increased the odds for the disorder with comorbid intellectual disability by up to 50% for some pesticide substances.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that an offspring's risk of autism spectrum disorder increases following prenatal exposure to ambient pesticides within 2000 m of their mother's residence during pregnancy, compared with offspring of women from the same agricultural region without such exposure. Infant exposure could further increase risks for autism spectrum disorder with comorbid intellectual disability.

Effects of piperonyl butoxide on exploratory behaviour in female mice

Previous studies reported that piperonyl butoxide (PBO) induces adverse effects on exploratory behaviour in male mice. However, no consistent effects of PBO treatment were observed in female mice. This study aimed to evaluate PBO’s neurobehavioral effects in female mice. Female mice were exposed to PBO through diet to provide levels of 0 (control), 0.025%, 0.1%, and 0.4% from 5 to 12 weeks of age, and selected behavioural parameters were measured. The average female body weight showed no significant effect from PBO treatment through the experimental periods. Regarding multiple-T water maze performance at 10 weeks of age, no significant effect caused by PBO treatment was observed. Exploratory behaviour examination of 8-week-old female mice indicated that the average speed declined in a significant dose-related manner, and the longitudinal pattern indicated a significant difference between the control and high-dose groups. For exploratory behaviour examination at 11 weeks of age, the total exploration distance shortened in a significant dose-related manner, and the average speed declined similarly. These longitudinal patterns showed significant differences between the control and high-dose groups. The PBO dose levels in this study produced several adverse effects on exploratory behaviour in female mice.

Determinants of pesticide concentrations in silicone wristbands worn by Latina adolescent girls in a California farmworker community: The COSECHA youth participatory action study

Personal exposure to pesticides has not been well characterized, especially among adolescents. We used silicone wristbands to assess pesticide exposure in 14 to 16 year old Latina girls (N = 97) living in the agricultural Salinas Valley, California, USA and enrolled in the COSECHA (CHAMACOS of Salinas Examining Chemicals in Homes and Agriculture) Study, a youth participatory action study in an agricultural region of California. We determined pesticide concentrations (ng/g/day) in silicone wristbands worn for one week using gas chromatography electron capture detection and employed gas chromatography mass spectrometry to determine the presence or absence of over 1500 chemicals. Predictors of pesticide detections and concentrations were identified using logistic regression, Wilcoxon rank sum tests, and Tobit regression models. The most frequently detected pesticides in wristbands were fipronil sulfide (87%), cypermethrin (56%), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) (56%), dacthal (53%), and trans-permethrin (52%). Living within 100 m of active agricultural fields, having carpeting in the home, and having an exterminator treat the home in the past six months were associated with higher odds of detecting certain pesticides. Permethrin concentrations were lower for participants who cleaned their homes daily (GM: 1.9 vs. 6.8 ng/g/day, p = 0.01). In multivariable regression models, participants with doormats in the entryway of their home had lower concentrations (p < 0.05) of cypermethrin (87%), permethrin (99%), fipronil sulfide (69%) and DDE (75%). The results suggest that both nearby agricultural pesticide use and individual behaviors are associated with pesticide exposures.

Determinants of Exposure to Pyrethroid Insecticides in the VHEMBE Cohort, South Africa

Exposure to pyrethroid insecticides has been linked to adverse health effects, and can originate from several sources, including indoor residual spraying (IRS) for malaria control, home pest control, food contamination, and occupational exposure. We aimed to explore the determinants of urinary pyrethroid metabolite concentrations in a rural population with high pesticide use. The Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE) is a birth cohort of 752 mother-child pairs in Limpopo, South Africa. We measured pyrethroid metabolites in maternal urine and collected information on several factors possibly related to pesticide exposure, including IRS, home pesticide use, and maternal factors (e.g., dietary habits and body composition). We performed statistical analysis using both conventional bivariate regressions and Bayesian variable selection methods. Urinary pyrethroid metabolites are consistently associated with pesticide factors around homes, including pesticide application in yards and food stocks, and IRS in the home during pregnancy, while more distant factors such as village spraying are not. High fat intake is associated with higher metabolite concentrations, and women from homes drawing water from wells or springs had marginally higher levels. Home pesticide use is the most consistent correlate of pyrethroid metabolite concentrations, but IRS, dietary habits, and household water source may also be important exposure determinants.

In vitro assessment of pyrethroid bioaccessibility via particle ingestion

Due to their intensive use in agricultural and residential pest control, human exposure to residues of multiple pyrethroids frequently occurs. Pyrethroids have exceptionally high affinity for solid particles, highlighting the need to understand human exposure through oral ingestion of contaminated soil or dust particles. In this study, we used artificial gastrointestinal fluids to measure the desorption or bioaccessibility of eight current-use pyrethroids in soil and dust samples. Tenax was further included as a sink in parallel treatments to simulate the effect of removal due to transfer of pyrethroids to lipid membranes. The use of 0.4 g of Tenax in 20 mL digestive fluids resulted in rapid and efficient trapping of pyrethroids, and further, greatly increased bioaccessibility. In the artificial digestive fluids without Tenax, 6.0-48.0% of pyrethroids were desorbed over 21 h, and the fractions increased by 1.6-4.1 folds to 21.5-79.3% with the Tenax sink. Therefore, 6.0-79.3% of soil or dust-borne pyrethroids may be considered bioavailable upon ingestion. While protein and sucrose increased the estimated bioaccessibility, co-presence of lipid (vegetable oil) decreased the bioaccessibility of pyrethroids, likely due to competitive phase partition. Pyrethroids were also found to be unstable in the artificial intestinal fluid containing pancreatin, further decreasing the potential bioaccessibility of pyrethroids on soil or dust particles. The limited bioaccessibility should be considered to refine the prediction of human exposure and risk through oral ingestion of pyrethroid residues.

Pesticides in indoor and outdoor residential dust: a pilot study in a rural county of Taiwan

We conducted a pilot study to examine pesticides in dust of homes in a rural county of Taiwan. A total of 56 homes of pregnant women were included in the study. Indoor and outdoor dust was collected by a vacuum sampler and a dustpan/brush set, respectively. Nine pesticides were selected for analysis on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with the detection limits being 0.088 ng/g or lower. The most detected pesticides were cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos, which appeared in 82.7 and 78.8% of indoor samples and 48.2 and 39.3% of outdoor samples, respectively. The detection of pesticides from indoor and outdoor dust, however, was not consistent, indicating different sources of pesticides. In addition to those two most detected, permethrin, prallethrin, and tetramethrin, which were common ingredients of insecticide products for indoor use, were also frequently found in indoor dust, suggesting that indoor use of such pesticide products may have been a major source. Fewer pesticides were found in outdoor dust, but the outdoor detection of chlorpyrifos was significantly associated with farms present inside the circles with radii of 50 and 100 m surrounding the homes (P = 0.021, 0.016). It is suggested that pesticide drift from agricultural areas to residential environments may have occurred. No seasonal effect on distribution of pesticides in dust was found, indicating that pesticides could be routinely used in Taiwan regardless of season. Compared with other international studies, this study shows relatively high levels of chlorpyrifos but low levels of pyrethroids (i.e., cypermethrin), reflecting a different pattern of pesticide use in Taiwan. Further studies need to be warranted for a better understanding of exposure to pesticides and the associated health effects.

Prenatal Exposure to Ambient Pesticides and Preterm Birth and Term Low Birthweight in Agricultural Regions of California

Findings from studies of prenatal exposure to pesticides and adverse birth outcomes have been equivocal so far. We examined prenatal exposure to agricultural pesticides in relation to preterm birth and term low birthweight, respectively, in children born between 1998 and 2010, randomly selected from California birth records. We estimated residential exposure to agriculturally applied pesticides within 2 km of residential addresses at birth by pregnancy trimester for 17 individual pesticides and three chemical classes (organophosphates, pyrethroids, and carbamates). Among maternal addresses located within 2 km of any agricultural pesticide application, we identified 24,693 preterm and 220,297 term births, and 4412 term low birthweight and 194,732 term normal birthweight infants. First or second trimester exposure to individual pesticides (e.g., glyphosates, paraquat, imidacloprid) or exposure to 2 or more pesticides in the three chemical classes were associated with a small increase (3⁻7%) in risk for preterm birth; associations were stronger for female offspring. We did not find associations between term low birthweight and exposure to pesticides other than myclobutanil (OR: 1.11; 95% CI: 1.04⁻1.20) and possibly the pyrethroids class. Our improved exposure assessment revealed that first and second trimester exposure to pesticides is associated with preterm delivery but is rarely linked with term low birthweight.

Established and Emerging Environmental Contributors to Disparities in Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Multiple respiratory diseases, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), display significant socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities. The objective of this review is to evaluate the evidence supporting a link between disproportionate environmental exposures and these health disparities.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies suggest that various co-occurring factors related to the home environment, neighborhood environment, non-modifiable individual factors, and individual behaviors and attributes can increase or modify the risk of adverse respiratory outcomes among socioeconomically-disadvantaged and racially/ethnically diverse populations. Pollutants in the home environment, including particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, and pesticides, are elevated among lower socioeconomic status populations and have been implicated in the development or exacerbation of respiratory-related conditions. Neighborhood crime and green space are socioeconomically patterned and linked with asthma outcomes through psychosocial pathways. Non-modifiable individual factors such as genetic predisposition cannot explain environmental health disparities but can increase susceptibility to air pollution and other stressors. Individual behaviors and attributes, including obesity and physical activity, contribute to worse outcomes among those with asthma or COPD.

SUMMARY

The root causes of these multifactorial exposures are complex, but many likely stem from economic forces and racial/ethnic and economic segregation that influence the home environment, neighborhood environment, and access to healthy foods and consumer products. Critical research needs include investigations that characterize exposure to and health implications of numerous stressors simultaneously, both to guard against potential confounding in epidemiological investigations and to consider the cumulative impact of multiple elevated environmental exposures and sociodemographic stressors on health disparities.

Low concentrations of permethrin and malathion induce numerical and structural abnormalities in KMT2A and IGH genes in vitro

Pesticides are commonly used worldwide and almost every human is potentially exposed to these chemicals. Exposure to pesticides such as permethrin and malathion has been associated with hematological malignancies in epidemiological studies. However, biological evidence showing if these chemicals induce genetic aberrations involved in the etiology of leukemia and lymphoma is missing. In our previous work, we have shown that a single high exposure (200 μm, 24 hours) of permethrin and malathion induce damage in genes associated with hematological malignancies in peripheral blood mononuclear cells analyzed by interphase fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). In the present study, we assessed by FISH whether exposure to low concentrations (0.1 μm, 72 hours) of permethrin and malathion induce aberrations in KMT2A and IGH genes, which are involved in the etiology of leukemia and lymphoma. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were exposed to the chemicals, and damage in these genes was assessed on interphases and metaphases. We observed that both chemicals at low concentration induced structural aberrations in KMT2A and IGH genes. A higher level of damage was observed in KMT2A gene with malathion treatment and in IGH gene with permethrin exposure. We also observed numerical aberrations induced by these chemicals. The most frequent aberrations detected on interphase FISH were also observed on metaphases. Our results show that permethrin and malathion induce genetic damage in genes associated with hematological cancer, at concentrations biologically relevant. In addition, damage was observed on dividing cells, which suggests that these cells maintain their proliferation capacity in spite of the genetic damage they possess.

Variability of pyrethroid concentrations on hard surface kitchen flooring in occupied housing

Pyrethroids are a class of neurotoxic insecticides, and some studies have used single-time wiping of hard surface flooring to estimate indoor pyrethroid concentrations. Considering that human activities may affect concentrations, knowledge of temporal variability is needed to reduce the uncertainty of exposure estimates that are calculated using wipe sampling of pyrethroids in occupied housing. During weeks one, two, and six of a 6-week study, two wipe samples of hard surface kitchen flooring were collected in each of 50 occupied residences and used to estimate the temporal variability of eight pyrethroids and six pyrethroid degradation products. Beginning 1 month prior to sample collection, the participants kept pesticide use diaries. All pyrethroids were widely distributed among the houses, and co-occurrence of multiple pyrethroids was common structured. Application diaries and detection frequencies appeared unconnected, but the applications were correlated with measurable changes in pyrethroid concentrations. In general, degradation products were detected less frequently and at lower concentrations than their parent pyrethroids. Estimates of the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for individual pyrethroids ranged from 0.55 (bifenthrin) to 0.80 (deltamethrin), and two sampling events at each residence would have been sufficient to estimate the mean concentration of most pyrethroids with an ICC of 0.80.

Cholinesterase research outreach project (CROP): point of care cholinesterase measurement in an Australian agricultural community

BACKGROUND

Australian farmers are routinely exposed to a wide variety of agrichemicals, including herbicides and insecticides. Organophosphate (OP) insecticides are widely used for agricultural production, horticulture and animal husbandry practices. Symptoms of OP toxicity are the results of inhibition of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which is found in many types of conducting tissue in human bodies such as nerve and muscle, central and peripheral tissues, motor and sensory fibres. Cholinesterase can be measured in red blood cells/erythrocytes (AChE) and plasma (PChE). This study aims to explore integration of AChE monitoring into routine health checks for those at risk and also to examine any association between AChE activity and agrichemical use in a Victorian farming community in Australia.

METHODS

This was a prospective cohort study, where farmers and non-famers were compared on the levels of AChE at four time points of baseline, 3-4 weeks, 6-weeks and at 9-weeks. Study participants (N = 55) were residents from South West Victoria, aged between 18 and 75 years, spoke English, and had not had a previous known acute chemical accident. A total of 41 farming (had been farming for more than 5 years) and a convenience sample of 14 non-farming individuals met the inclusion criteria. Testing of AChE was repeated for all participants with a maximum of three times over 10 weeks.

RESULTS

The integration of AChE monitoring was very well accepted by all participants. There was no significant difference in average AChE activity between farming and non-farming participants (one-way ANOVA p > 0.05) in this study. There was no significant difference between personal use of agricultural chemicals on farm and the levels of AChE at baseline (measurement 1) or any of the follow up periods (p > 0.05). However, the mean activity of AChE was significantly lower within follow up periods [F (2.633, 139.539) = 14.967, p < 0.001]. There was a significant reduction of AChE between the follow up at 3-weeks and 6-weeks period (p = 0.015).

CONCLUSIONS

The routine monitoring of AChE may allow for early recognition of chronic low-level exposure to OPs when they are used by farmers, provided a reasonable estimate of baseline AChE is available. This work provides an evidence for recommending the integration of AChE monitoring into point of care (POC) procedures in rural health clinics and quantifying pesticide exposure and personal protection both on the farm and in the home. Farmer engagement is crucial to the successful integration of AChE monitoring into rural health clinics in Australia.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ACTRN12613001256763 .

Environmental Exposure of the Adult French Population to Permethrin

This work aims to assess the exposure to permethrin of the adult French population from available contamination measurements of outdoor air, indoor air, and settled dust. Priority is given to the assessment of chronic exposure, given the potential of permethrin to induce cancers and/or endocrine disorders. A statistical method was devised to calculate exposure to permethrin by different pathways (inhalation, indirect dust ingestion, and dermal contact). This method considers anthropometric parameters, the population's space-time budget, and recent methods for calculating dermal exposure. Considering the media of interest, our results pointed to house dust as the main environmental source of permethrin exposure, followed by indoor and outdoor air. Dermal contact and indirect dust ingestion may be more important exposure pathways than inhalation. A sensitivity analysis indicated that exposure estimates were mainly affected by variability within contamination data. This study is the first step in aggregated exposure and risk assessment due to pyrethroid exposure. Outdoor air, indoor air, and settled dust may constitute significant exposure sources, in addition to diet, which could be important. The next step entails assessing internal doses and estimating the proportion of each exposure source and pathway relative to internal exposure.

Pyrethroid concentrations and persistence following indoor application

Residential indoor environments are potential sources of exposure to pyrethroids, which have low acute toxicity to humans but are allergenic and suspected endocrine disruptors. The present study evaluated the persistence of the pyrethroids cypermethrin and beta-cyfluthrin on indoor surfaces and in house dust. Cypermethrin and beta-cyfluthrin were applied and maintained on aluminum foils and in dust samples for 112 d under controlled conditions and for 12 mo in a test house; periodically, they were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography. Cypermethrin and beta-cyfluthrin concentrations showed decreases of 10.1% and 7.7% on aluminum foils, and 12.7% and 16.4% in dust, respectively, at 112 d under controlled conditions. In the test house, cypermethrin and beta-cyfluthrin concentrations decreased by 40.3% and 60.2% on aluminum foils, and 29.6% and 56.2% in dust at the end of the study. The results show the considerable persistence of cypermethrin and beta-cyfluthrin indoors and indicate the risk of exposure to these products. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:2895-2898. © 2017 SETAC.

Environmental Health Tracking Improves Pesticide Use Data to Enable Research and Inform Public Health Actions in California

Pesticides have adverse impacts on the environment and public health. In response to growing public concern over these impacts, California implemented the Pesticide Use Reporting (PUR) program in 1990. The PUR program is widely recognized as the world's most comprehensive pesticide reporting system, and its pesticide application records are highly detailed. However, the complexity and volume of PUR data require a level of data skills and resources beyond many government agencies, public health professionals, and community stakeholders. Over the past decade, the California Environmental Health Tracking Program has undertaken multiple strategies to make PUR data more accessible, understandable, and useful to a diversity of data users. Three specific efforts are described in detail-the Pesticide Linkage Service, the Pesticide Mapping Tool, and a policy-relevant analysis on pesticide use near schools-as are their impacts on environmental and public health research, community outreach and education, and policy change.

Review of take-home pesticide exposure pathway in children living in agricultural areas

BACKGROUND

Children of farmworkers may be chronically exposed to pesticides via the take-home exposure pathway.

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this review was to analyze scientific literature evaluating the role of the take-home pesticide exposure pathway in children of agricultural workers.

METHODS

A systematic review was undertaken and inclusion criteria were applied to identify original articles of interest. Of the 30 articles included in this review, some belonged to the same studies, resulting in a total of 23 studies. Eight studies assessed environmental samples, nine collected biological samples, and the remaining six analyzed both. Eleven studies compared pesticide levels between farm and non-farm families.

RESULTS

There is convincing evidence that children of farmworkers are exposed to pesticides at higher levels than "non-agricultural" children, even when residing in the same agricultural communities. These levels were shown to depend on the season, occupation, number of farmworkers per home, and type of crops. Other factors such as age, gender and, sex seem to also influence this pathway. Some studies have shown that pesticides used solely in agriculture are found only in households of farmworkers spraying these pesticides. Moreover, intervention studies have shown that behaviors among farmworkers can significantly lower exposure of people living in the same households as farmworkers.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The evidence presented here raises concerns regarding health effects associated with exposure to pesticides in children living in agricultural communities, and indicates that strategies should be developed to reduce exposures in these populations.

Seasonal and occupational trends of five organophosphate pesticides in house dust

Since 1998, the University of Washington's Center for Child Environmental Health Risks Research has followed a community-based participatory research strategy in the Lower Yakima Valley of Washington State to assess pesticide exposure among families of Hispanic farmworkers. As a part of this longitudinal study, house dust samples were collected from both farmworker and non-farmworker households, across three agricultural seasons (thinning, harvest and non-spray). The household dust samples were analyzed for five organophosphate pesticides: azinphos-methyl, phosmet, malathion, diazinon, and chlorpyrifos. Organophosphate pesticide levels in house dust were generally reflective of annual use rates and varied by occupational status and agricultural season. Overall, organophosphate pesticide concentrations were higher in the thinning and harvest seasons than in the non-spray season. Azinphos-methyl was found in the highest concentrations across all seasons and occupations. Farmworker house dust had between 5- and 9-fold higher concentrations of azinphos-methyl than non-farmworker house dust. Phosmet was found in 5-7-fold higher concentrations in farmworker house dust relative to non-farmworker house dust. Malathion and chlorpyriphos concentrations in farmworker house dust ranged between 1.8- and 9.8-fold higher than non-farmworker house dust. Diazinon showed a defined seasonal pattern that peaked in the harvest season and did not significantly differ between farmworker and non-farmworker house dust. The observed occupational differences in four out of five of the pesticide residues measured provides evidence supporting an occupational take home pathway, in which workers may bring pesticides home on their skin or clothing. Further, these results demonstrate the ability of dust samples to inform the episodic nature of organophosphate pesticide exposures and the need to collect multiple samples for complete characterization of exposure potential.

"Exposure to the insecticides permethrin and malathion induces leukemia and lymphoma-associated gene aberrations in vitro"

Epidemiological studies have associated the exposure to permethrin and malathion with increased risk of leukemia and lymphoma. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether in vitro exposure to permethrin and malathion induces aberrations in genes involved in the etiology of these hematological malignancies. Genetic abnormalities in the IGH, KMT2A (MLL), ETV6 and RUNX1 genes, and aneuploidy induced by the in vitro exposure to permethrin and malathion (200μM, 24h), were analyzed by FISH in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The gene fusions IGH-BCL2, KMT2A-AFF1 and ETV6-RUNX1 were further analyzed with nested RT-PCR in PBMCs, and in K562 cells exposed to acute and chronic treatments (0.1μM, 24h or every third day for two weeks) of insecticides. FISH analysis revealed that permethrin induces aneuploidy and structural alterations in IGH and KMT2A genes, and malathion induces breaks in KMT2A. RT-PCR detected ETV6-RUNX1 fusion in PBMCs acutely exposed to permethrin. Permethrin also induced ETV6-RUNX1 and IGH-BCL2 fusions in K562 cells, and malathion induced KMT2A-AFF1 and ETV6-RUNX1 fusions. Overall, we identified that both insecticides induce breaks and fusions in the studied genes, and permethrin induces aneuploidy. This study presents evidence of damage in cancer genes caused by these insecticides.