Mutations in many genes affect aggressive behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

Genetic screening reveals cone cell-specific factors as common genetic targets modulating rival-induced prolonged mating in male Drosophila melanogaster

Male-male social interactions exert a substantial impact on the transcriptional regulation of genes associated with aggression and mating behavior in male Drosophila melanogaster. Throughout our comprehensive genetic screening of aggression-related genes, we identified that the majority of mutants for these genes are associated with rival-induced and visually oriented mating behavior, longer-mating duration (LMD). The majority of mutants with upregulated genes in single-housed males significantly altered LMD behavior but not copulation latency, suggesting a primary regulation of mating duration. Single-cell RNA-sequencing revealed that LMD-related genes are predominantly co-expressed with male-specific genes like dsx and Cyp6a20 in specific cell populations, especially in cone cells. Functional validation confirmed the roles of these genes in mediating LMD. Expression of LMD genes like Cyp6a20, Cyp4d21, and CrzR was enriched in cone cells, with disruptions in cone cell-specific expression of CrzR and Cyp4d21 leading to disrupted LMD. We also identified a novel gene, CG10026/Macewindu, that reversed LMD when overexpressed in cone cells. These findings underscore the critical role of cone cells as a pivotal site for the expression of genes involved in the regulation of LMD behavior. This study provides valuable insights into the intricate mechanisms underlying complex sexual behaviors in Drosophila.

NMDAR-CaMKII Pathway as a Central Regulator of Aggressiveness: Evidence from Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analysis in Swimming Crabs Portunus trituberculatus

Aggressiveness is one of the personality traits of crustaceans, playing a crucial role in their growth, life history, and adaptability by influencing resource acquisition. However, the neuroregulatory mechanisms of aggressiveness in crustaceans remain poorly understood. The thoracic ganglion offers valuable insights into complementary aspects of aggression control. This study identified the aggressiveness of swimming crabs Portunus trituberculatus, conducted transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of the thoracic ganglia, and confirmed the neural regulatory effects on aggressiveness. Behavioral analyses showed that highly aggressive individuals exhibited increased frequency and duration of chela extension, more frequent attacks, approaches and retreats, as well as extended movement distances. Omics analysis revealed 11 key candidate genes and three metabolites associated with aggressiveness, which were primarily enriched in pathways related to energy metabolism and neurodegeneration. Injection of an NMDAR activator significantly decreased aggressiveness in highly aggressive crabs, accompanied by a significant increase in NMDAR protein fluorescence intensity and downregulation of NR2B, CaMKII, and CREB genes. Conversely, when lowly aggressive crabs were injected with an NMDAR inhibitor, they showed increased aggressiveness alongside significantly decreased NMDAR protein fluorescence intensity, upregulated NR2B expression, and downregulated CaMKII and CREB genes. These results suggest that NMDAR within the thoracic ganglia serves as a key receptor in modulating aggressiveness in P. trituberculatus, potentially by influencing neural energy state via the NMDAR-CaMKII pathway, which in turn affects oxidative phosphorylation, cAMP, and FoxO pathways.

A gut reaction? The role of the microbiome in aggression

Recent research has unveiled conflicting evidence regarding the link between aggression and the gut microbiome. Here, we compared behavior profiles of control, germ-free (GF), and antibiotic-treated mice, as well as re-colonized GF mice to understand the impact of the gut microbiome on aggression using the resident-intruder paradigm. Our findings revealed a link between gut microbiome depletion and higher aggression, accompanied by notable changes in urine metabolite profiles and brain gene expression. This study extends beyond classical murine models to humanized mice to reveal the clinical relevance of early-life antibiotic use on aggression. Fecal microbiome transplant from infants exposed to antibiotics in early life (and sampled one month later) into mice led to increased aggression compared to mice receiving transplants from unexposed infants. This study sheds light on the role of the gut microbiome in modulating aggression and highlights its potential avenues of action, offering insights for development of therapeutic strategies for aggression-related disorders.

Tumor suppressor miR-317 and lncRNA Peony are expressed from a polycistronic non-coding RNA locus that regulates germline differentiation and testis morphology

This research focuses on investigating the impact of non-coding RNAs on stem cell biology and differentiation processes. We found that miR-317 plays a role in germline stem cell progeny differentiation. miR-317 and its neighbor, the lncRNA Peony, originate and are co-expressed from a singular polycistronic non-coding RNA locus. Alternative polyadenylation is implicated in regulation of their differential expression. While the increased expression of the lncRNA Peony results in the disruption of the muscle sheath covering the testis, the absence of miR-317 leads to the emergence of germline tumors in young flies. The deficiency of miR-317 increases Notch signaling activity in the somatic cyst cells, which drives germline tumorigenesis. Germline tumors also arise from upregulation of several predicted targets of miR-317, among which are regulators of the Notch pathway. This implicates miR-317 as a novel tumor suppressor that modulates Notch signaling strength.

The Chromosome-level Genome Provides Insights into the Evolution and Adaptation of Extreme Aggression

Extremely aggressive behavior, as the special pattern, is rare in most species and characteristic as contestants severely injured or killed ending the combat. Current studies of extreme aggression are mainly from the perspectives of behavioral ecology and evolution, while lacked the aspects of molecular evolutionary biology. Here, a high-quality chromosome-level genome of the parasitoid Anastatus disparis was provided, in which the males exhibit extreme mate-competition aggression. The integrated multiomics analysis highlighted that neurotransmitter dopamine overexpression, energy metabolism (especially from lipid), and antibacterial activity are likely major aspects of evolutionary formation and adaptation for extreme aggression in A. disparis. Conclusively, our study provided new perspectives for molecular evolutionary studies of extreme aggression as well as a valuable genomic resource in Hymenoptera.

Fire-driven animal evolution in the Pyrocene

Fire regimes are a major agent of evolution in terrestrial animals. Changing fire regimes and the capacity for rapid evolution in wild animal populations suggests the potential for rapid, fire-driven adaptive animal evolution in the Pyrocene. Fire drives multiple modes of evolutionary change, including stabilizing, directional, disruptive, and fluctuating selection, and can strongly influence gene flow and genetic drift. Ongoing and future research in fire-driven animal evolution will benefit from further development of generalizable hypotheses, studies conducted in highly responsive taxa, and linking fire-adapted phenotypes to their underlying genetic basis. A better understanding of evolutionary responses to fire has the potential to positively influence conservation strategies that embrace evolutionary resilience to fire in the Pyrocene.

Genetic correlation between aggressive signals and fighting

Theoretical analyses indicate that aggressive signals should positively correlate with the signallers' willingness and abilities to fight. Few experimental studies, however, have tested this prediction. In two experiments employing distinct, ecologically realistic protocols, we quantified the association between aggressive signals and fighting in fruit fly genotypes and found high positive genetic correlations between threat and fighting (rG = 0.80 and 0.74). Our results add to the growing body of experimental work indicating that aggressive signals have relatively high informational value.

Identification of sex-biased and neurodevelopment genes via brain transcriptome in Ostrinia furnacalis

Insect brains play important roles in the regulation of sex-biased behaviors such as mating and oviposition. The neural structure and function of brain differences between males and females have been identified, in which the antenna lobes (AL) showed the most discrepancy, however, the whole repertoire of the genes expressed in the brains and the molecular mechanism of neural signaling and structural development are still unclear. In this study, high-throughput transcriptome analysis of male and female brains was carried on in the Asia corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis, and a total of 39.23 Gb data and 34,092 unigenes were obtained. Among them, 276 genes displayed sex-biased expression by DEG analysis, of which 125 genes were highly expressed in the males and 151 genes were highly expressed in the females. Besides, by homology analysis against genes that have been confirmed to be related to brain neurodevelopment, a total of 24 candidate genes were identified in O. furnacalis. In addition, to further screen the core genes that may be important for sex-biased nerve signaling and neurodevelopment, protein-protein interaction networks were constructed for the sex-biased genes and neurodevelopment genes. We identified 10 (Mhc, Mlc1, Mlc2, Prm, Mf, wupA, TpnC25D, fln, l(2)efl, and Act5C), 11 (PPO2, GNBP3, Spn77Ba, Ppn, yellow-d2, PGRP-LB, PGRP-SD, PGRP-SC2, Hml, Cg25C, and vkg) and 8 (dac, wg, hh, ci, run, Lim1, Rbp9, and Bx) core hub genes that may be related to brain neural development from male-biased, female-biased, and neurodevelopment gene groups. Our results provide a reference for further analysis of the dimorphism of male and female brain structures in agricultural pests.

Antibiotics increase aggression behavior and aggression-related pheromones and receptors in Drosophila melanogaster

Aggression is a behavior common in most species; it is controlled by internal and external drivers, including hormones, environmental cues, and social interactions, and underlying pathways are understood in a broad range of species. To date, though, effects of gut microbiota on aggression in the context of gut-brain communication and social behavior have not been completely elucidated. We examine how manipulation of Drosophila melanogaster microbiota affects aggression as well as the pathways that underlie the behavior in this species. Male flies treated with antibiotics exhibited significantly more aggressive behaviors. Furthermore, they had higher levels of cVA and (Z)-9 Tricosene, pheromones associated with aggression in flies, as well as higher expression of the relevant pheromone receptors and transporters OR67d, OR83b, GR32a, and LUSH. These findings suggest that aggressive behavior is, at least in part, mediated by bacterial species in flies.

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Aggression increases in flies that lack a microbiome

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Monocolonization with specific bacteria can mediate this effect

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We observed differences in aggression-related pheromone expression levels

Non-adaptive complexity and biochemical function

Intricate biochemical structures are usually thought to be useful, because natural selection preserves them from degradation by a constant hail of destructive mutations. Biochemists therefore often deliberately disrupt them to understand how complexity improves protein function or fitness. However, evolutionary theory suggests that even useless complexity that never improved fitness can become completely essential if a simple set of evolutionary conditions is fulfilled. We review evidence that stable protein complexes, protein-chaperone interactions, and complexes consisting of several paralogs all fulfill these conditions. This makes reverse genetics or destructive mutagenesis unsuitable for assigning functions to these kinds of complexity. Instead, we advocate that incorporating evolutionary approaches into biochemistry overcomes this difficulty and allows us to distinguish useless from useful biochemical complexity.

Epistasis for head morphology in Drosophila melanogaster

Epistasis-gene-gene interaction-is common for mutations with large phenotypic effects in humans and model organisms. Epistasis impacts quantitative genetic models of speciation, response to natural and artificial selection, genetic mapping, and personalized medicine. However, the existence and magnitude of epistasis between alleles with small quantitative phenotypic effects are controversial and difficult to assess. Here, we use the Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel of sequenced inbred lines to evaluate the magnitude of naturally occurring epistasis modifying the effects of mutations in jing and inv, two transcription factors that have subtle quantitative effects on head morphology as homozygotes. We find significant epistasis for both mutations and performed single marker genome-wide association analyses to map candidate modifier variants and loci affecting head morphology. A subset of these loci was significantly enriched for a known genetic interaction network, and mutations of the candidate epistatic modifier loci also affect head morphology.

The gut-microbiota-brain axis in autism: what Drosophila models can offer?

The idea that alterations in gut-microbiome-brain axis (GUMBA)-mediated communication play a crucial role in human brain disorders like autism remains a topic of intensive research in various labs. Gastrointestinal issues are a common comorbidity in patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although gut microbiome and microbial metabolites have been implicated in the etiology of ASD, the underlying molecular mechanism remains largely unknown. In this review, we have summarized recent findings in human and animal models highlighting the role of the gut-brain axis in ASD. We have discussed genetic and neurobehavioral characteristics of Drosophila as an animal model to study the role of GUMBA in ASD. The utility of Drosophila fruit flies as an amenable genetic tool, combined with axenic and gnotobiotic approaches, and availability of transgenic flies may reveal mechanistic insight into gut-microbiota-brain interactions and the impact of its alteration on behaviors relevant to neurological disorders like ASD.

Alcohol-induced aggression in Drosophila

Alcohol-induced aggression is a destructive and widespread phenomenon associated with violence and sexual assault. However, little is understood concerning its mechanistic origin. We have developed a Drosophila melanogaster model to genetically dissect and understand the phenomenon of sexually dimorphic alcohol-induced aggression. Males with blood alcohol levels of 0.04-mg/ml BAC were less aggressive than alcohol-naive males, but when the BAC had dropped to ~0.015 mg/ml, the alcohol-treated males showed an increase in aggression toward other males. This aggression-promoting treatment is referred to as the post-ethanol aggression (PEA) treatment. Females do not show increased aggression after the same treatment. PEA-treated males also spend less time courting and attempt to copulate earlier than alcohol-naive flies. PEA treatment induces expression of the FruM transcription factor (encoded by a male-specific transcript from the fruitless gene), whereas sedating doses of alcohol reduce FruM expression and reduce male aggression. Transgenic suppression of FruM induction also prevents alcohol-induced aggression. In male flies, alcohol-induced aggression is dependent on the male isoform of the fruitless transcription factor (FruM). Low-dose alcohol induces FruM expression and promotes aggression, whereas higher doses of alcohol suppress FruM and suppress aggression.

A genetic screen for Drosophila social isolation mutants and analysis of sex pistol

Prolonged periods of forced social isolation is detrimental to well-being, yet we know little about which genes regulate susceptibility to its effects. In the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, social isolation induces stark changes in behavior including increased aggression, locomotor activity, and resistance to ethanol sedation. To identify genes regulating sensitivity to isolation, I screened a collection of sixteen hundred P-element insertion lines for mutants with abnormal levels of all three isolation-induced behaviors. The screen identified three mutants whose affected genes are likely central to regulating the effects of isolation in flies. One mutant, sex pistol (sxp), became extremely aggressive and resistant to ethanol sedation when socially isolated. sxp also had a high level of male–male courtship. The mutation in sxp reduced the expression of two minor isoforms of the actin regulator hts (adducin), as well as mildly reducing expression of CalpA, a calcium-dependent protease. As a consequence, sxp also had increased expression of the insulin-like peptide, dILP5. Analysis of the social behavior of sxp suggests that these minor hts isoforms function to limit isolation-induced aggression, while chronically high levels of dILP5 increase male–male courtship.

The tweety Gene Family: From Embryo to Disease

The tweety genes encode gated chloride channels that are found in animals, plants, and even simple eukaryotes, signifying their deep evolutionary origin. In vertebrates, the tweety gene family is highly conserved and consists of three members—ttyh1, ttyh2, and ttyh3—that are important for the regulation of cell volume. While research has elucidated potential physiological functions of ttyh1 in neural stem cell maintenance, proliferation, and filopodia formation during neural development, the roles of ttyh2 and ttyh3 are less characterized, though their expression patterns during embryonic and fetal development suggest potential roles in the development of a wide range of tissues including a role in the immune system in response to pathogen-associated molecules. Additionally, members of the tweety gene family have been implicated in various pathologies including cancers, particularly pediatric brain tumors, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Here, we review the current state of research using information from published articles and open-source databases on the tweety gene family with regard to its structure, evolution, expression during development and adulthood, biochemical and cellular functions, and role in human disease. We also identify promising areas for further research to advance our understanding of this important, yet still understudied, family of genes.

Transcriptome Analyses Provide Insights into the Aggressive Behavior toward Conspecific and Heterospecific in Thitarodes xiaojinensis (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae)

Simple Summary

Aggression is an evolutionarily conserved, complex behavior, essential for survival, reproduction, and the organization of social hierarchies. It is well studied in adult insects, such as flies, ants, honey bees, and crickets. However, the study of aggressive behavior in the larval stage is still lacking. T. xiaojinensis is a common species found in mountainous regions of the Tibetan Plateau, the larvae of which are highly aggressive toward conspecifics. High-throughput RNA-seq with a reference genome provides opportunities for in-depth analysis when T. xiaojinensis is aggressive toward conspecifics and heterospecifics. This study provided a set of important pathways and DEGs associated with aggressive behavior. We also constructed the weighted gene co-expression network for traits, and the central and hub genes involved in aggressive behavior were obtained. The results revealed the molecular responses when T. xiaojinensis showed aggressiveness toward conspecifics and heterospecifics. These data are important for better understanding the aggressive behavior of Lepidopteran larvae at the transcriptional level and provide a theoretical basis for the further analysis of the genetic mechanism of the insect’s aggression.

Abstract

Aggressive behavior in animals is important for survival and reproduction. It is well studied in adult insects, such as flies, ants, honey bees, and crickets. However, the larvae of Lepidopteran insects are also aggressive, studies of which are still lacking. Here, RNA-seq was used to generate a high-quality database for the aggressive behavior of Thitarodes xiaojinensis toward conspecifics and heterospecifics. Although there was similar aggressive behavior between the conspecific group and heterospecific group, significant differences were identified at the transcriptional level. When there was aggressive behavior toward conspecifics, T. xiaojinensis trended toward higher expression at the respiratory chain, while cuticle development and metabolism may have interfered. On the other hand, when there was aggressive behavior toward H. armigera, genes related to neuron and cuticle development, cellular processes, and its regulated signaling pathways were significantly upregulated, while the genes associated with oxidation-reduction and metabolism were downregulated. Weighted gene co-expression networks analysis (WGCNA) was performed, and two modules with properties correlating to the aggressive behavior of T. xiaojinensis were identified. Several hub genes were predicted and confirmed by qRT-PCR, such as CLTC, MYH, IGF2BP1, and EMC. This study provides a global view and potential key genes for the aggressive behavior of T. xiaojinensis toward conspecifics and heterospecifics. Further investigation of the hub genes would help us to better understand the aggressive behavior of insects.

Masculinized Drosophila females adapt their fighting strategies to their opponent

Many animal species show aggression to gain mating partners and to protect territories and other resources from competitors. Both male and female fruit flies of the species Drosophila melanogaster exhibit aggression in same-sex pairings, but the strategies used are sexually dimorphic. We have begun to explore the biological basis for the differing aggression strategies, and the cues promoting one form of aggression over the other. Here, we describe a line of genetically masculinized females that switch between male and female aggression patterns based on the sexual identity of their opponents. When these masculinized females are paired with more aggressive opponents, they increase the amount of male-like aggression they use, but do not alter the level of female aggression. This suggests that male aggression may be more highly responsive to behavioral cues than female aggression. Although the masculinized females of this line show opponent-dependent changes in aggression and courtship behavior, locomotor activity and sleep are unaffected. Thus, the driver line used may specifically masculinize neurons involved in social behavior. A discussion of possible different roles of male and female aggression in fruit flies is included here. These results can serve as precursors to future experiments aimed at elucidating the circuitry and triggering cues underlying sexually dimorphic aggressive behavior.

Testing Implications of the Omnigenic Model for the Genetic Analysis of Loci Identified through Genome-wide Association

Organismal phenotypes usually have a quantitative distribution, and their genetic architecture can be studied by genome-wide association (GWA) mapping approaches. In most of such studies, it has become clear that many genes of moderate or small effects contribute to the phenotype.^1-4 Hence, the attention has turned toward the loci falling below the GWA cut-off, which may contribute to the phenotype through modifier interactions with a set of core genes, as proposed in the omnigenic model.⁵ One can thus predict that both moderate effect GWA-derived candidate genes and randomly chosen genes should have a similar likelihood to affect a given phenotype when they are analyzed via gene disruption assays. We have tested this hypothesis by using an automated phenotyping system for Drosophila pupal phenotypes.^6,7 We first identified candidate genes for pupal length in a GWA based on the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP)^8,9 and showed that most of these candidate genes are indeed involved in the phenotype. We then randomly chose genes below a GWA significance threshold and found that three-quarters of them had also an effect on the trait with comparable effect sizes as the GWA candidate genes. We further tested the effects of these knockout lines on an independent behavioral pupal trait (pupation site choice) and found that a similar fraction had a significant effect as well. Our data thus confirm the implication that a large number of genes can influence independent quantitative traits.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 in genome-wide expression control in Drosophila

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) is a nuclear enzyme involved in DNA repair and transcription regulation, among other processes. Malignant transformations, tumor progression, the onset of some neuropathies and other disorders have been linked to misregulation of PARP-1 activity. Despite intensive studies during the last few decades, the role of PARP-1 in transcription regulation is still not well understood. In this study, a transcriptomic analysis in Drosophila melanogaster third instar larvae was carried out. A total of 602 genes were identified, showing large-scale changes in their expression levels in the absence of PARP-1 in vivo. Among these genes, several functional gene groups were present, including transcription factors and cytochrome family members. The transcription levels of genes from the same functional group were affected by the absence of PARP-1 in a similar manner. In the absence of PARP-1, all misregulated genes coding for transcription factors were downregulated, whereas all genes coding for members of the cytochrome P450 family were upregulated. The cytochrome P450 proteins contain heme as a cofactor and are involved in oxidoreduction. Significant changes were also observed in the expression of several mobile elements in the absence of PARP-1, suggesting that PARP-1 may be involved in regulating the expression of mobile elements.

Sexual dimorphism and sex-biased gene expression in an egg parasitoid species, Anastatus disparis

Background

Differences in the expression of genes present in both sexes are assumed to contribute to sex differences including behavioural, physiological and morphological dimorphisms. For enriching our knowledge of gender differences in an important egg parasitoid wasp, Anastatus disparis (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae), sex-biased differences in gene expression were investigated using Illumina-based transcriptomic analysis.

Results

A total of 15,812 resulting unigenes were annotated, and a large set of genes accounting for 50.09% of the total showed sex-biased expression and included 630 sex-specific genes. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analyses showed that the functional categories associated with sex-biased genes were mainly related to reproduction. In addition, the transcriptome data provided evidence that sex pheromones in A. disparis are produced by the female, and activity of Δ12-desaturases appear to have been replaced by Δ9-desaturases playing roles in sex pheromone production. The large set of sex-biased genes identified in this study provide a molecular background for sexually dimorphic traits such as flyability, longevity, and aggression in this species and suggests candidate venom proteins expressed only in females that could be used for biological control.

Conclusions

This study provides comprehensive insight into sexually dimorphic traits of a parasitoid wasp and can inform future research into the molecular mechanisms underlying such traits and the application of parasitoids to the biological control of pest species.

Evolution of Epistatic Networks and the Genetic Basis of Innate Behaviors

Instinctive behaviors are genetically programmed behaviors that occur independent of experience. How genetic programs that give rise to the manifestation of such behaviors evolve remains an unresolved question. I propose that evolution of species-specific innate behaviors is accomplished through progressive modifications of pre-existing genetic networks composed of allelic variants. I hypothesize that changes in frequencies of one or more constituent allelic variants within the network leads to changes in gene network connectivity and the emergence of a reorganized network that can support the emergence of a novel behavioral phenotype and becomes stabilized when key allelic variants are driven to fixation.

Carry-over effects of resource competition and social environment on aggression

Aggressive behavior is common in many species and is often adaptive because it enables individuals to gain access to limited resources. However, aggression is also highly plastic and the degree of plasticity could be influenced by factors such as resource limitation and the social environment. In this study, we examined how the effects of social experience and resource limitation could persist to affect future aggressive interactions. Using naturally inbred strains of Drosophila melanogaster that differ in aggressiveness, we manipulated the level of available resources by varying fly density (two treatments: high and low per capita resources) and group composition by varying strain frequency (five treatments: homogeneous strains, or mixed at 1:3, 1:1 or 3:1 ratios of the more aggressive to less-aggressive strain). For each treatment group, we measured aggression before and after flies were placed through a 4-day period of fixed resources. There was no consistent effect of resource competition on aggression. Instead, changes in aggression depended on resource availability in combination with group composition. In homogeneous groups made up of only one strain, all males became more aggressive following the fixed-resource period, regardless of fly density. In mixed-strain treatments at high density, we observed plastic shifts in aggression of males from both strains, but the direction of plastic responses depended on social composition. Our results show that aggression may not only be influenced by the intensity of previous competitive experiences caused by resource limitation, but also through social effects caused by the composition of the group.

Recent advances in population and quantitative genomics of honey bees

The increase in the availability of individual Apis mellifera genomes has resulted in significant progress toward understanding the evolution and adaptation of the honey bee. These efforts have identified new subspecies, evolutionary lineages, and a significant number of genes involved with adaptations and colony-level quantitative traits. Many studies have also developed genetic assays that are being used to monitor the movement and admixture of honey bee populations. These resources are valuable for conservation and breeding programs that seek to improve the economic value of colonies or preserve locally adapted populations and subspecies. This review provides a brief discussion on how population and quantitative genomic studies has improved our understanding of the honey bee.

Repeated Evolution of Asexuality Involves Convergent Gene Expression Changes

Asexual reproduction has evolved repeatedly from sexual ancestors across a wide range of taxa. Whereas the costs and benefits associated with asexuality have received considerable attention, the molecular changes underpinning the evolution of asexual reproduction remain relatively unexplored. In particular, it is completely unknown whether the repeated evolution of asexual phenotypes involves similar molecular changes, as previous studies have focused on changes occurring in single lineages. Here, we investigate the extent of convergent gene expression changes across five independent transitions to asexuality in stick insects. We compared gene expression of asexual females to females of close sexual relatives in whole-bodies, reproductive tracts, and legs. We identified a striking amount of convergent gene expression change (up to 8% of genes), greatly exceeding that expected by chance. Convergent changes were also tissue-specific, and most likely driven by selection for functional changes. Genes showing convergent changes in the reproductive tract were associated with meiotic spindle formation and centrosome organization. These genes are particularly interesting as they can influence the production of unreduced eggs, a key barrier to asexual reproduction. Changes in legs and whole-bodies were likely involved in female sexual trait decay, with enrichment in terms such as sperm-storage and pigmentation. By identifying changes occurring across multiple independent transitions to asexuality, our results provide a rare insight into the molecular basis of asexual phenotypes and suggest that the evolutionary path to asexuality is highly constrained, requiring repeated changes to the same key genes.

The Role of miRNAs in Drosophila melanogaster Male Courtship Behavior

Drosophila melanogaster courtship, although stereotypical, continually changes based on cues received from the courtship subject. Such adaptive responses are mediated via rapid and widespread transcriptomic reprogramming, a characteristic now widely attributed to microRNAs (miRNAs), along with other players. Here, we conducted a large-scale miRNA knockout screen to identify miRNAs that affect various parameters of male courtship behavior. Apart from identifying miRNAs that impact male-female courtship, we observed that miR-957 mutants performed significantly increased male-male courtship and "chaining" behavior, whereby groups of males court one another. We tested the effect of miR-957 reduction in specific neuronal cell clusters, identifying miR-957 activity in Doublesex (DSX)-expressing and mushroom body clusters as an important regulator of male-male courtship interactions. We further characterized the behavior of miR-957 mutants and found that these males court male subjects vigorously, but do not elicit courtship. Moreover, they fail to lower courtship efforts toward females with higher levels of antiaphrodisiac pheromones. At the level of individual pheromones, miR-957 males show a reduced inhibitory response to both 7-Tricosene (7-T) and cis-vaccenyl acetate, with the effect being more pronounced in the case of 7-T. Overall, our results indicate that a single miRNA can contribute to the regulation of complex behaviors, including detection or processing of chemicals that control important survival strategies such as chemical mate-guarding, and the maintenance of sex- and species-specific courtship barriers.

Charting the genotype-phenotype map: lessons from the Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel

Understanding the genetic architecture (causal molecular variants, their effects, and frequencies) of quantitative traits is important for precision agriculture and medicine and predicting adaptive evolution, but is challenging in most species. The Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) is a collection of 205 inbred strains with whole genome sequences derived from a single wild population in Raleigh, NC, USA. The large amount of quantitative genetic variation, lack of population structure, and rapid local decay of linkage disequilibrium in the DGRP and outbred populations derived from DGRP lines present a favorable scenario for performing genome-wide association (GWA) mapping analyses to identify candidate causal genes, polymorphisms, and pathways affecting quantitative traits. The many GWA studies utilizing the DGRP have revealed substantial natural genetic variation for all reported traits, little evidence for variants with large effects but enrichment for variants with low P-values, and a tendency for lower frequency variants to have larger effects than more common variants. The variants detected in the GWA analyses rarely overlap those discovered using mutagenesis, and often are the first functional annotations of computationally predicted genes. Variants implicated in GWA analyses typically have sex-specific and genetic background-specific (epistatic) effects, as well as pleiotropic effects on other quantitative traits. Studies in the DGRP reveal substantial genetic control of environmental variation. Taking account of genetic architecture can greatly improve genomic prediction in the DGRP. These features of the genetic architecture of quantitative traits are likely to apply to other species, including humans. WIREs Dev Biol 2018, 7:e289. doi: 10.1002/wdev.289 This article is categorized under: Invertebrate Organogenesis > Flies.

Charting the genotype-phenotype map: lessons from the Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel

Understanding the genetic architecture (causal molecular variants, their effects, and frequencies) of quantitative traits is important for precision agriculture and medicine and predicting adaptive evolution, but is challenging in most species. The Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) is a collection of 205 inbred strains with whole genome sequences derived from a single wild population in Raleigh, NC, USA. The large amount of quantitative genetic variation, lack of population structure, and rapid local decay of linkage disequilibrium in the DGRP and outbred populations derived from DGRP lines present a favorable scenario for performing genome-wide association (GWA) mapping analyses to identify candidate causal genes, polymorphisms, and pathways affecting quantitative traits. The many GWA studies utilizing the DGRP have revealed substantial natural genetic variation for all reported traits, little evidence for variants with large effects but enrichment for variants with low P-values, and a tendency for lower frequency variants to have larger effects than more common variants. The variants detected in the GWA analyses rarely overlap those discovered using mutagenesis, and often are the first functional annotations of computationally predicted genes. Variants implicated in GWA analyses typically have sex-specific and genetic background-specific (epistatic) effects, as well as pleiotropic effects on other quantitative traits. Studies in the DGRP reveal substantial genetic control of environmental variation. Taking account of genetic architecture can greatly improve genomic prediction in the DGRP. These features of the genetic architecture of quantitative traits are likely to apply to other species, including humans. WIREs Dev Biol 2018, 7:e289. doi: 10.1002/wdev.289 This article is categorized under: Invertebrate Organogenesis > Flies.

Charting the genotype-phenotype map: lessons from the Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel

Understanding the genetic architecture (causal molecular variants, their effects, and frequencies) of quantitative traits is important for precision agriculture and medicine and predicting adaptive evolution, but is challenging in most species. The Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) is a collection of 205 inbred strains with whole genome sequences derived from a single wild population in Raleigh, NC, USA. The large amount of quantitative genetic variation, lack of population structure, and rapid local decay of linkage disequilibrium in the DGRP and outbred populations derived from DGRP lines present a favorable scenario for performing genome-wide association (GWA) mapping analyses to identify candidate causal genes, polymorphisms, and pathways affecting quantitative traits. The many GWA studies utilizing the DGRP have revealed substantial natural genetic variation for all reported traits, little evidence for variants with large effects but enrichment for variants with low P-values, and a tendency for lower frequency variants to have larger effects than more common variants. The variants detected in the GWA analyses rarely overlap those discovered using mutagenesis, and often are the first functional annotations of computationally predicted genes. Variants implicated in GWA analyses typically have sex-specific and genetic background-specific (epistatic) effects, as well as pleiotropic effects on other quantitative traits. Studies in the DGRP reveal substantial genetic control of environmental variation. Taking account of genetic architecture can greatly improve genomic prediction in the DGRP. These features of the genetic architecture of quantitative traits are likely to apply to other species, including humans. WIREs Dev Biol 2018, 7:e289. doi: 10.1002/wdev.289 This article is categorized under: Invertebrate Organogenesis > Flies.

cAMP signaling mediates behavioral flexibility and consolidation of social status in Drosophila aggression

Social rituals, such as male-male aggression in Drosophila, are often stereotyped and the component behavioral patterns modular. The likelihood of transition from one behavioral pattern to another is malleable by experience and confers flexibility to the behavioral repertoire. Experience-dependent modification of innate aggressive behavior in flies alters fighting strategies during fights and establishes dominant-subordinate relationships. Dominance hierarchies resulting from agonistic encounters are consolidated to longer-lasting, social-status-dependent behavioral modifications, resulting in a robust loser effect. We showed that cAMP dynamics regulated by the calcium-calmodulin-dependent adenylyl cyclase, Rut, and the cAMP phosphodiesterase, Dnc, but not the Amn gene product, in specific neuronal groups of the mushroom body and central complex, mediate behavioral plasticity necessary to establish dominant-subordinate relationships. rut and dnc mutant flies were unable to alter fighting strategies and establish dominance relationships during agonistic interactions. This real-time flexibility during a fight was independent of changes in aggression levels. Longer-term consolidation of social status in the form of a loser effect, however, required additional Amn-dependent inputs to cAMP signaling and involved a circuit-level association between the α/β and γ neurons of the mushroom body. Our findings implicate cAMP signaling in mediating the plasticity of behavioral patterns in aggressive behavior and in the generation of a temporally stable memory trace that manifests as a loser effect.

Genomic Analysis of Genotype-by-Social Environment Interaction for Drosophila melanogaster Aggressive Behavior

Human psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder often include adverse behaviors including increased aggressiveness. Individuals with psychiatric disorders often exhibit social withdrawal, which can further increase the probability of conducting a violent act. Here, we used the inbred, sequenced lines of the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) to investigate the genetic basis of variation in male aggressive behavior for flies reared in a socialized and socially isolated environment. We identified genetic variation for aggressive behavior, as well as significant genotype-by-social environmental interaction (GSEI); i.e., variation among DGRP genotypes in the degree to which social isolation affected aggression. We performed genome-wide association (GWA) analyses to identify genetic variants associated with aggression within each environment. We used genomic prediction to partition genetic variants into gene ontology (GO) terms and constituent genes, and identified GO terms and genes with high prediction accuracies in both social environments and for GSEI. The top predictive GO terms significantly increased the proportion of variance explained, compared to prediction models based on all segregating variants. We performed genomic prediction across environments, and identified genes in common between the social environments that turned out to be enriched for genome-wide associated variants. A large proportion of the associated genes have previously been associated with aggressive behavior in Drosophila and mice. Further, many of these genes have human orthologs that have been associated with neurological disorders, indicating partially shared genetic mechanisms underlying aggression in animal models and human psychiatric disorders.

SlgA, encoded by the homolog of the human schizophrenia-associated gene PRODH, acts in clock neurons to regulate Drosophila aggression

Mutations in the proline dehydrogenase gene PRODH are linked to behavioral alterations in schizophrenia and as part of DiGeorge and velo-cardio-facial syndromes, but the role of PRODH in their etiology remains unclear. Here, we establish a Drosophila model to study the role of PRODH in behavioral disorders. We determine the distribution of the Drosophila PRODH homolog slgA in the brain and show that knockdown and overexpression of human PRODH and slgA in the lateral neurons ventral (LNv) lead to altered aggressive behavior. SlgA acts in an isoform-specific manner and is regulated by casein kinase II (CkII). Our data suggest that these effects are, at least partially, due to effects on mitochondrial function. We thus show that precise regulation of proline metabolism is essential to drive normal behavior and we identify Drosophila aggression as a model behavior relevant for the study of the mechanisms that are impaired in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Editors' choice: A Drosophila model to study the role of PRODH, a schizophrenia-associated gene, in behavioral disorders.

A Hidden Markov Model Approach for Simultaneously Estimating Local Ancestry and Admixture Time Using Next Generation Sequence Data in Samples of Arbitrary Ploidy

Admixture-the mixing of genomes from divergent populations-is increasingly appreciated as a central process in evolution. To characterize and quantify patterns of admixture across the genome, a number of methods have been developed for local ancestry inference. However, existing approaches have a number of shortcomings. First, all local ancestry inference methods require some prior assumption about the expected ancestry tract lengths. Second, existing methods generally require genotypes, which is not feasible to obtain for many next-generation sequencing projects. Third, many methods assume samples are diploid, however a wide variety of sequencing applications will fail to meet this assumption. To address these issues, we introduce a novel hidden Markov model for estimating local ancestry that models the read pileup data, rather than genotypes, is generalized to arbitrary ploidy, and can estimate the time since admixture during local ancestry inference. We demonstrate that our method can simultaneously estimate the time since admixture and local ancestry with good accuracy, and that it performs well on samples of high ploidy-i.e. 100 or more chromosomes. As this method is very general, we expect it will be useful for local ancestry inference in a wider variety of populations than what previously has been possible. We then applied our method to pooled sequencing data derived from populations of Drosophila melanogaster on an ancestry cline on the east coast of North America. We find that regions of local recombination rates are negatively correlated with the proportion of African ancestry, suggesting that selection against foreign ancestry is the least efficient in low recombination regions. Finally we show that clinal outlier loci are enriched for genes associated with gene regulatory functions, consistent with a role of regulatory evolution in ecological adaptation of admixed D. melanogaster populations. Our results illustrate the potential of local ancestry inference for elucidating fundamental evolutionary processes.

Axon Branch-Specific Semaphorin-1a Signaling in Drosophila Mushroom Body Development

Correct wiring of the mushroom body (MB) neuropil in the Drosophila brain involves appropriate positioning of different axonal lobes, as well as the sister branches that develop from individual axons. This positioning requires the integration of various guidance cues provided by different cell types, which help the axons find their final positions within the neuropil. Semaphorins are well-known for their conserved roles in neuronal development and axon guidance. We investigated the role of Sema-1a in MB development more closely. We show that Sema-1a is expressed in the MBs as well as surrounding structures, including the glial transient interhemispheric fibrous ring, throughout development. By loss- and gain-of-function experiments, we show that the MB axons display lobe and sister branch-specific Sema-1a signaling, which controls different aspects of axon outgrowth and guidance. Furthermore, we demonstrate that these effects are modulated by the integration of MB intrinsic and extrinsic Sema-1a signaling pathways involving PlexA and PlexB. Finally, we also show a role for neuronal- glial interaction in Sema-1a dependent β-lobe outgrowth.

Natural Genetic Variation and Candidate Genes for Morphological Traits in Drosophila melanogaster

Body size is a complex character associated to several fitness related traits that vary within and between species as a consequence of environmental and genetic factors. Latitudinal and altitudinal clines for different morphological traits have been described in several species of Drosophila and previous work identified genomic regions associated with such variation in D. melanogaster. However, the genetic factors that orchestrate morphological variation have been barely studied. Here, our main objective was to investigate genetic variation for different morphological traits associated to the second chromosome in natural populations of D. melanogaster along latitudinal and altitudinal gradients in Argentina. Our results revealed weak clinal signals and a strong population effect on morphological variation. Moreover, most pairwise comparisons between populations were significant. Our study also showed important within-population genetic variation, which must be associated to the second chromosome, as the lines are otherwise genetically identical. Next, we examined the contribution of different candidate genes to natural variation for these traits. We performed quantitative complementation tests using a battery of lines bearing mutated alleles at candidate genes located in the second chromosome and six second chromosome substitution lines derived from natural populations which exhibited divergent phenotypes. Results of complementation tests revealed that natural variation at all candidate genes studied, invected, Fasciclin 3, toucan, Reticulon-like1, jing and CG14478, affects the studied characters, suggesting that they are Quantitative Trait Genes for morphological traits. Finally, the phenotypic patterns observed suggest that different alleles of each gene might contribute to natural variation for morphological traits. However, non-additive effects cannot be ruled out, as wild-derived strains differ at myriads of second chromosome loci that may interact epistatically with mutant alleles.

Tailless and Atrophin control Drosophila aggression by regulating neuropeptide signalling in the pars intercerebralis

Aggressive behaviour is widespread throughout the animal kingdom. However, its mechanisms are poorly understood, and the degree of molecular conservation between distantly related species is unknown. Here we show that knockdown of tailless (tll) increases aggression in Drosophila, similar to the effect of its mouse orthologue Nr2e1. Tll localizes to the adult pars intercerebralis (PI), which shows similarity to the mammalian hypothalamus. Knockdown of tll in the PI is sufficient to increase aggression and is rescued by co-expressing human NR2E1. Knockdown of Atrophin, a Tll co-repressor, also increases aggression, and both proteins physically interact in the PI. tll knockdown-induced aggression is fully suppressed by blocking neuropeptide processing or release from the PI. In addition, genetically activating PI neurons increases aggression, mimicking the aggression-inducing effect of hypothalamic stimulation. Together, our results suggest that a transcriptional control module regulates neuropeptide signalling from the neurosecretory cells of the brain to control aggressive behaviour.

The genetic basis of natural variation in mushroom body size in Drosophila melanogaster

Genetic variation in brain size may provide the basis for the evolution of the brain and complex behaviours. The genetic substrate and the selective pressures acting on brain size are poorly understood. Here we use the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel to map polymorphic variants affecting natural variation in mushroom body morphology. We identify 139 genes and 39 transcription factors and confirm effects on development and adult plasticity. We show correlations between morphology and aggression, sleep and lifespan. We propose that natural variation in adult brain size is controlled by interaction of the environment with gene networks controlling development and plasticity.

Identification of Drosophila Mutants Affecting Defense to an Entomopathogenic Fungus

Fungi cause the majority of insect disease. However, to date attempts to model host–fungal interactions with Drosophila have focused on opportunistic human pathogens. Here, we performed a screen of 2,613 mutant Drosophila lines to identify host genes affecting susceptibility to the natural insect pathogen Metarhizium anisopliae (Ma549). Overall, 241 (9.22%) mutant lines had altered resistance to Ma549. Life spans ranged from 3.0 to 6.2 days, with females being more susceptible than males in all lines. Speed of kill correlated with within-host growth and onset of sporulation, but total spore production is decoupled from host genotypes. Results showed that mutations affected the ability of Drosophila to restrain rather than tolerate infections and suggested trade-offs between antifungal and antibacterial genes affecting cuticle and gut structural barriers. Approximately, 13% of mutations where in genes previously associated with host pathogen interactions. These encoded fast-acting immune responses including coagulation, phagocytosis, encapsulation and melanization but not the slow-response induction of anti-fungal peptides. The non-immune genes impact a wide variety of biological functions, including behavioral traits. Many have human orthologs already implicated in human disorders; while others were mutations in protein and non-protein coding genes for which disease resistance was the first biological annotation.

Genetic architecture of natural variation in Drosophila melanogaster aggressive behavior

Aggression is an evolutionarily conserved complex behavior essential for survival and the organization of social hierarchies. With the exception of genetic variants associated with bioamine signaling, which have been implicated in aggression in many species, the genetic basis of natural variation in aggression is largely unknown. Drosophila melanogaster is a favorable model system for exploring the genetic basis of natural variation in aggression. Here, we performed genome-wide association analyses using the inbred, sequenced lines of the Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) and replicate advanced intercross populations derived from the most and least aggressive DGRP lines. We identified genes that have been previously implicated in aggressive behavior as well as many novel loci, including gustatory receptor 63a (Gr63a), which encodes a subunit of the receptor for CO2, and genes associated with development and function of the nervous system. Although genes from the two association analyses were largely nonoverlapping, they mapped onto a genetic interaction network inferred from an analysis of pairwise epistasis in the DGRP. We used mutations and RNAi knock-down alleles to functionally validate 79% of the candidate genes and 75% of the candidate epistatic interactions tested. Epistasis for aggressive behavior causes cryptic genetic variation in the DGRP that is revealed by changing allele frequencies in the outbred populations derived from extreme DGRP lines. This phenomenon may pertain to other fitness traits and species, with implications for evolution, applied breeding, and human genetics.

Dissecting the Genetic Architecture of Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

Variation in behaviors in natural populations arises from complex networks of multiple segregating polymorphic alleles whose expression can be modulated by the environment. Since behaviors reflect dynamic interactions between organisms and their environments, they are central targets for adaptive evolution. Drosophila melanogaster presents a powerful system for dissecting the genetic basis of behavioral phenotypes, since both the genetic background and environmental conditions can be controlled and behaviors accurately quantified. Single gene mutational analyses can identify the roles of individual genes within cellular pathways, whereas systems genetic approaches that exploit natural variation can construct genetic networks that underlie phenotypic variation. Combining these approaches with emerging technologies, such as genome editing, is likely to yield a comprehensive understanding of the neurogenetic underpinnings that orchestrate the manifestation of behaviors.

Epistasis for quantitative traits in Drosophila

The role of gene-gene interactions in the genetic architecture of quantitative traits is controversial, despite the biological plausibility of nonlinear molecular interactions underpinning variation in quantitative traits. In strictly outbreeding populations, genetic architecture is inferred indirectly by estimating variance components; however, failure to detect epistatic variance does not mean lack of epistatic gene action and is even consistent with pervasive epistasis. In Drosophila, more focused approaches to detecting epistatic gene action are possible, based on the ability to create de novo mutations and perform crosses among them; to construct inbred lines, artificial selection lines, and chromosome substitution lines; to map quantitative trait loci affecting complex traits by linkage and association; and to evaluate effects of induced mutations on multiple wild-derived backgrounds. Here, I review evidence for epistasis in Drosophila from the application of these methods, and conclude that additivity is an emergent property of underlying epistatic gene action for Drosophila quantitative traits. Such studies can be used to infer novel, highly interconnected genetic networks that are enriched for gene ontology categories and metabolic and cellular pathways. The consequence of epistasis is that the main effects of each of the interacting loci depend on allele frequency, which negatively impacts the predictive ability of additive models. Finally, epistasis results in hidden quantitative genetic variation in natural populations (genetic canalization) and the potential for rapid evolution of Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities (speciation).

Genetics and genomics of alcohol sensitivity

Alcohol abuse and alcoholism incur a heavy socioeconomic cost in many countries. Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to variation in the inebriating effects of alcohol and alcohol addiction among individuals within and across populations. From a genetics perspective, alcohol sensitivity is a quantitative trait determined by the cumulative effects of multiple segregating genes and their interactions with the environment. This review summarizes insights from model organisms as well as human populations that represent our current understanding of the genetic and genomic underpinnings that govern alcohol metabolism and the sedative and addictive effects of alcohol on the nervous system.

Multigenic natural variation underlies Caenorhabditis elegans olfactory preference for the bacterial pathogen Serratia marcescens

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans can use olfaction to discriminate among different kinds of bacteria, its major food source. We asked how natural genetic variation contributes to choice behavior, focusing on differences in olfactory preference behavior between two wild-type C. elegans strains. The laboratory strain N2 strongly prefers the odor of Serratia marcescens, a soil bacterium that is pathogenic to C. elegans, to the odor of Escherichia coli, a commonly used laboratory food source. The divergent Hawaiian strain CB4856 has a weaker attraction to Serratia than the N2 strain, and this behavioral difference has a complex genetic basis. At least three quantitative trait loci (QTLs) from the CB4856 Hawaii strain (HW) with large effect sizes lead to reduced Serratia preference when introgressed into an N2 genetic background. These loci interact and have epistatic interactions with at least two antagonistic QTLs from HW that increase Serratia preference. The complex genetic architecture of this C. elegans trait is reminiscent of the architecture of mammalian metabolic and behavioral traits.

Sestrins orchestrate cellular metabolism to attenuate aging

The Sestrins constitute a family of evolutionarily conserved stress-inducible proteins that suppress oxidative stress and regulate AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK)-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling. By virtue of these activities, the Sestrins serve as important regulators of metabolic homeostasis. Accordingly, inactivation of Sestrin genes in invertebrates resulted in diverse metabolic pathologies, including oxidative damage, fat accumulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and muscle degeneration, that resemble accelerated tissue aging. Likewise, Sestrin deficiencies in mice led to accelerated diabetic progression upon obesity. Further investigation of Sestrin function and regulation should provide new insights into age-associated metabolic diseases, such as diabetes, myopathies, and cancer.

Design of RNA splicing analysis null models for post hoc filtering of Drosophila head RNA-Seq data with the splicing analysis kit (Spanki)

BACKGROUND

The production of multiple transcript isoforms from one gene is a major source of transcriptome complexity. RNA-Seq experiments, in which transcripts are converted to cDNA and sequenced, allow the resolution and quantification of alternative transcript isoforms. However, methods to analyze splicing are underdeveloped and errors resulting in incorrect splicing calls occur in every experiment.

RESULTS

We used RNA-Seq data to develop sequencing and aligner error models. By applying these error models to known input from simulations, we found that errors result from false alignment to minor splice motifs and antisense stands, shifted junction positions, paralog joining, and repeat induced gaps. By using a series of quantitative and qualitative filters, we eliminated diagnosed errors in the simulation, and applied this to RNA-Seq data from Drosophila melanogaster heads. We used high-confidence junction detections to specifically interrogate local splicing differences between transcripts. This method out-performed commonly used RNA-seq methods to identify known alternative splicing events in the Drosophila sex determination pathway. We describe a flexible software package to perform these tasks called Splicing Analysis Kit (Spanki), available at http://www.cbcb.umd.edu/software/spanki.

CONCLUSIONS

Splice-junction centric analysis of RNA-Seq data provides advantages in specificity for detection of alternative splicing. Our software provides tools to better understand error profiles in RNA-Seq data and improve inference from this new technology. The splice-junction centric approach that this software enables will provide more accurate estimates of differentially regulated splicing than current tools.

Genetic architecture of olfactory behavior in Drosophila melanogaster: differences and similarities across development

In the holometabolous insect Drosophila melanogaster, genetic, physiological and anatomical aspects of olfaction are well known in the adult stage, while larval stages olfactory behavior has received some attention it has been less studied than its adult counterpart. Most of these studies focus on olfactory receptor (Or) genes that produce peripheral odor recognition. In this paper, through a loss-of-function screen using P-element inserted lines and also by means of expression analyses of larval olfaction candidate genes, we extended the uncovering of the genetic underpinnings of D. melanogaster larval olfactory behavior by demonstrating that larval olfactory behavior is, in addition to Or genes, orchestrated by numerous genes with diverse functions. Also, our results point out that the genetic architecture of olfactory behavior in D. melanogaster presents a dynamic and changing organization across environments and ontogeny.