Whole-exome sequencing identifies a de novo TUBA1A mutation in a patient with sporadic malformations of cortical development: a case report

Lissencephaly caused by a de novo mutation in tubulin TUBA1A: a case report and literature review

Tubulin plays an essential role in cortical development, and TUBA1A encodes a major neuronal α-tubulin. Neonatal mutations in TUBA1A are associated with severe brain malformations, and approximately 70% of patients with reported cases of TUBA1A mutations exhibit lissencephaly. We report the case of a 1-year-old boy with the TUBA1A nascent mutation c.1204C >T, p.Arg402Cys, resulting in lissencephaly, developmental delay, and seizures, with a brain MRI showing normal cortical formation in the bilateral frontal lobes, smooth temporo-parieto-occipital gyri and shallow sulcus. This case has not been described in any previous report; thus, the present case provides new insights into the broad disease phenotype and diagnosis associated with TUBA1A mutations. In addition, we have summarized the gene mutation sites, neuroradiological findings, and clinical details of cases previously described in the literature and discussed the differences that exist between individual cases of TUBA1A mutations through a longitudinal comparative analysis of similar cases. The complexity of the disease is revealed, and the importance of confirming the genetic diagnosis from the beginning of the disease is emphasized, which can effectively shorten the diagnostic delay and help clinicians provide genetic and therapeutic counseling.

Case report: Structural brain abnormalities in TUBA1A-tubulinopathies: a narrative review

Introduction

Tubulin genes have been related to severe neurological complications and the term "tubulinopathy" now refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders involving an extensive family of tubulin genes with TUBA1A being the most common. A review was carried out on the complex and severe brain abnormalities associated with this genetic anomaly.

Methods

A literature review of the cases of TUBA1A-tubulopathy was performed to investigate the molecular findings linked with cerebral anomalies and to describe the clinical and neuroradiological features related to this genetic disorder.

Results

Clinical manifestations of TUBA1A-tubulinopathy patients are heterogeneous and severe ranging from craniofacial dysmorphism, notable developmental delay, and intellectual delay to early-onset seizures, neuroradiologically associated with complex abnormalities. TUBA1A-tubulinopathy may display various and complex cortical and subcortical malformations.

Discussion

A range of clinical manifestations related to different cerebral structures involved may be observed in patients with TUBA1A-tubulinopathy. Genotype-phenotype correlations are discussed here. Individuals with cortical and subcortical anomalies should be screened also for pathogenic variants in TUBA1A.

Insights on the Role of α- and β-Tubulin Isotypes in Early Brain Development

Tubulins are the highly conserved subunit of microtubules which involve in various fundamental functions including brain development. Microtubules help in neuronal proliferation, migration, differentiation, cargo transport along the axons, synapse formation, and many more. Tubulin gene family consisting of multiple isotypes, their differential expression and varied post translational modifications create a whole new level of complexity and diversity in accomplishing manifold neuronal functions. The studies on the relation between tubulin genes and brain development opened a new avenue to understand the role of each tubulin isotype in neurodevelopment. Mutations in tubulin genes are reported to cause brain development defects especially cortical malformations, referred as tubulinopathies. There is an increased need to understand the molecular correlation between various tubulin mutations and the associated brain pathology. Recently, mutations in tubulin isotypes (TUBA1A, TUBB, TUBB1, TUBB2A, TUBB2B, TUBB3, and TUBG1) have been linked to cause various neurodevelopmental defects like lissencephaly, microcephaly, cortical dysplasia, polymicrogyria, schizencephaly, subcortical band heterotopia, periventricular heterotopia, corpus callosum agenesis, and cerebellar hypoplasia. This review summarizes on the microtubule dynamics, their role in neurodevelopment, tubulin isotypes, post translational modifications, and the role of tubulin mutations in causing specific neurodevelopmental defects. A comprehensive list containing all the reported tubulin pathogenic variants associated with brain developmental defects has been prepared to give a bird's eye view on the broad range of tubulin functions.

Loss-of-Function Plays a Major Role in Early Neurogenesis of Tubulin α-1 A (TUBA1A) Mutation-Related Brain Malformations

Tubulin α-1 A (TUBA1A) mutations cause a wide spectrum of brain abnormalities. Although many mutations have been identified and functionally verified, there are clearly many more, and the relationship between TUBA1A mutations and brain malformations remains unclear. The aim of this study was to identify a TUBA1A mutation in a fetus with severe brain abnormalities, verify it functionally, and determine the mechanism of the mutation-related pathogenesis. A de novo missense mutation of the TUBA1A gene, c.167C>G p.T56R/P.THR56Arg, was identified by exon sequencing. Computer simulations showed that the mutation results in a disruption of lateral interactions between the microtubules. Transfection of 293T cells with TUBA1A p.T56R showed that the mutated protein is only partially incorporated into the microtubule network, resulting in a decrease in the rate of microtubule re-integration in comparison with the wild-type protein. The mechanism of pathological changes induced by the mutant gene was determined by knockdown and overexpression. It was found that knockdown of TUBA1A reduced the generation of neural progenitor cells, while overexpression of wild-type or mutant TUBA1A promoted neurogenesis. Our identification and functional verification of the novel TUBA1A mutation extends the TUBA1A gene-phenotype database. Loss-of-function of TUBA1A was shown to play an important role in early neurogenesis of TUBA1A mutation-related brain malformations.

Differential requirements of tubulin genes in mammalian forebrain development

Tubulin genes encode a series of homologous proteins used to construct microtubules which are essential for multiple cellular processes. Neural development is particularly reliant on functional microtubule structures. Tubulin genes comprise a large family of genes with very high sequence similarity between multiple family members. Human genetics has demonstrated that a large spectrum of cortical malformations are associated with de novo heterozygous mutations in tubulin genes. However, the absolute requirement for many of these genes in development and disease has not been previously tested in genetic loss of function models. Here we directly test the requirement for Tuba1a, Tubb2a and Tubb2b in the mouse by deleting each gene individually using CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing. We show that loss of Tubb2a or Tubb2b does not impair survival but does lead to relatively mild cortical malformation phenotypes. In contrast, loss of Tuba1a is perinatal lethal and leads to significant forebrain dysmorphology. We also present a novel mouse ENU allele of Tuba1a with phenotypes similar to the null allele. This demonstrates the requirements for each of the tubulin genes and levels of functional redundancy are quite different throughout the gene family. The ability of the mouse to survive in the absence of some tubulin genes known to cause disease in humans suggests future intervention strategies for these devastating tubulinopathy diseases.

Epilepsy in Tubulinopathy: Personal Series and Literature Review

Mutations in tubulin genes are responsible for a large spectrum of brain malformations secondary to abnormal neuronal migration, organization, differentiation and axon guidance and maintenance. Motor impairment, intellectual disability and epilepsy are the main clinical symptoms. In the present study 15 patients from a personal cohort and 75 from 21 published studies carrying mutations in TUBA1A, TUBB2B and TUBB3 tubulin genes were evaluated with the aim to define a clinical and electrophysiological associated pattern. Epilepsy shows a wide range of severity without a specific pattern. Mutations in TUBA1A (60%) and TUBB2B (74%) and TUBB3 (25%) genes are associated with epilepsy. The accurate analysis of the Electroencephalogram (EEG) pattern in wakefulness and sleep in our series allows us to detect significant abnormalities of the background activity in 100% of patients. The involvement of white matter and of the inter-hemispheric connection structures typically observed in tubulinopathies is evidenced by the high percentage of asynchronisms in the organization of sleep activity recorded. In addition to asymmetries of the background activity, excess of slowing, low amplitude and Magnetic Resonance (MR) imaging confirm the presence of extensive brain malformations involving subcortical and midline structures. In conclusion, epilepsy in tubulinopathies when present has a favorable evolution over time suggesting a not particularly aggressive therapeutic approach.

The mutational and phenotypic spectrum of TUBA1A-associated tubulinopathy

BACKGROUND

The TUBA1A-associated tubulinopathy is clinically heterogeneous with brain malformations, microcephaly, developmental delay and epilepsy being the main clinical features. It is an autosomal dominant disorder mostly caused by de novo variants in TUBA1A.

RESULTS

In three individuals with developmental delay we identified heterozygous de novo missense variants in TUBA1A using exome sequencing. While the c.1307G > A, p.(Gly436Asp) variant was novel, the two variants c.518C > T, p.(Pro173Leu) and c.641G > A, p.(Arg214His) were previously described. We compared the variable phenotype observed in these individuals with a carefully conducted review of the current literature and identified 166 individuals, 146 born and 20 fetuses with a TUBA1A variant. In 107 cases with available clinical information we standardized the reported phenotypes according to the Human Phenotype Ontology. The most commonly reported features were developmental delay (98%), anomalies of the corpus callosum (96%), microcephaly (76%) and lissencephaly (agyria-pachygyria) (70%), although reporting was incomplete in the different studies. We identified a total of 121 specific variants, including 15 recurrent ones. Missense variants cluster in the C-terminal region around the most commonly affected amino acid position Arg402 (13.3%). In a three-dimensional protein model, 38.6% of all disease-causing variants including those in the C-terminal region are predicted to affect the binding of microtubule-associated proteins or motor proteins. Genotype-phenotype analysis for recurrent variants showed an overrepresentation of certain clinical features. However, individuals with these variants are often reported in the same publication.

CONCLUSIONS

With 166 individuals, we present the most comprehensive phenotypic and genotypic standardized synopsis for clinical interpretation of TUBA1A variants. Despite this considerable number, a detailed genotype-phenotype characterization is limited by large inter-study variability in reporting.

Tubulin genes and malformations of cortical development

A large number of genes encoding for tubulin proteins are expressed in the developing brain. Each is subject to specific spatial and temporal expression patterns. However, most are highly expressed in post-mitotic neurons during stages of neuronal migration and differentiation. The major tubulin subclasses (alpha- and beta-tubulin) share high sequence and structural homology. These globular proteins form heterodimers and subsequently co-assemble into microtubules. Microtubules are dynamic, cytoskeletal polymers which play key roles in cellular processes crucial for cortical development, including neuronal proliferation, migration and cortical laminar organisation. Mutations in seven genes encoding alpha-tubulin (TUBA1A), beta-tubulin (TUBB2A, TUBB2B, TUBB3, TUBB4A, TUBB) and gamma-tubulin (TUBG1) isoforms have been associated with a wide and overlapping range of brain malformations or "Tubulinopathies". The majority of cortical phenotypes include lissencephaly, polymicrogyria, microlissencephaly and simplified gyration. Well-known hallmarks of the tubulinopathies include dysmorphism of the basal ganglia (fusion of the caudate nucleus and putamen with absence of the anterior limb of the internal capsule), midline commissural structures hypoplasia and/or agenesis (anterior commissure, corpus callosum and fornix), hypoplasia of the oculomotor and optic nerves, cerebellar hypoplasia or dysplasia and dysmorphism of the hind-brain structures. The cortical and extra-cortical brain phenotypes observed are largely dependent on the specific tubulin gene affected. In the present review, all the published data on tubulin family gene mutations and the associated cortical phenotypes are summarized. In addition, the most typical neuroimaging patterns of malformations of cortical development associated with tubulin gene mutations detected on the basis of our own experience are described.

Clinical Application of Genome and Exome Sequencing as a Diagnostic Tool for Pediatric Patients: a Scoping Review of the Literature

PURPOSE

Availability of clinical genomic sequencing (CGS) has generated questions about the value of genome and exome sequencing as a diagnostic tool. Analysis of reported CGS application can inform uptake and direct further research. This scoping literature review aims to synthesize evidence on the clinical and economic impact of CGS.

METHODS

PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane were searched for peer-reviewed articles published between 2009 and 2017 on diagnostic CGS for infant and pediatric patients. Articles were classified according to sample size and whether economic evaluation was a primary research objective. Data on patient characteristics, clinical setting, and outcomes were extracted and narratively synthesized.

RESULTS

Of 171 included articles, 131 were case reports, 40 were aggregate analyses, and 4 had a primary economic evaluation aim. Diagnostic yield was the only consistently reported outcome. Median diagnostic yield in aggregate analyses was 33.2% but varied by broad clinical categories and test type.

CONCLUSION

Reported CGS use has rapidly increased and spans diverse clinical settings and patient phenotypes. Economic evaluations support the cost-saving potential of diagnostic CGS. Multidisciplinary implementation research, including more robust outcome measurement and economic evaluation, is needed to demonstrate clinical utility and cost-effectiveness of CGS.

The α-Tubulin gene TUBA1A in Brain Development: A Key Ingredient in the Neuronal Isotype Blend

Microtubules are dynamic cytoskeletal polymers that mediate numerous, essential functions such as axon and dendrite growth and neuron migration throughout brain development. In recent years, sequencing has revealed dominant mutations that disrupt the tubulin protein building blocks of microtubules. These tubulin mutations lead to a spectrum of devastating brain malformations, complex neurological and physical phenotypes, and even fatality. The most common tubulin gene mutated is the α-tubulin gene TUBA1A, which is the most prevalent α-tubulin gene expressed in post-mitotic neurons. The normal role of TUBA1A during neuronal maturation, and how mutations alter its function to produce the phenotypes observed in patients, remains unclear. This review synthesizes current knowledge of TUBA1A function and expression during brain development, and the brain malformations caused by mutations in TUBA1A.

MNRR1, a Biorganellar Regulator of Mitochondria

The central role of energy metabolism in cellular activities is becoming widely recognized. However, there are many gaps in our knowledge of the mechanisms by which mitochondria evaluate their status and call upon the nucleus to make adjustments. Recently, a protein family consisting of twin CX₉C proteins has been shown to play a role in human pathophysiology. We focus here on two family members, the isoforms CHCHD2 (renamed MNRR1) and CHCHD10. The better studied isoform, MNRR1, has the unusual property of functioning in both the mitochondria and the nucleus and of having a different function in each. In the mitochondria, it functions by binding to cytochrome c oxidase (COX), which stimulates respiration. Its binding to COX is promoted by tyrosine-99 phosphorylation, carried out by ABL2 kinase (ARG). In the nucleus, MNRR1 binds to a novel promoter element in COX4I2 and itself, increasing transcription at 4% oxygen. We discuss mutations in both MNRR1 and CHCHD10 found in a number of chronic, mostly neurodegenerative, diseases. Finally, we propose a model of a graded response to hypoxic and oxidative stresses, mediated under different oxygen tensions by CHCHD10, MNRR1, and HIF1, which operate at intermediate and very low oxygen concentrations, respectively.

The function of sperm-associated antigen 6 in neuronal proliferation and differentiation

Sperm-associated antigen 6 (SPAG6) is initially found in human testis and is essential for sperm motility and male fertility. Later studies indicate that it also express in the chick Central Nervous System and human embryonic stem cells. However, the function of Spag6 in cortical development is still largely unclear. Using in utero electroporation, we showed that overexpression of Spag6 induced the transfected cells excluded from the proliferation zone of the mouse cortex. Ki67 Co-labeling and BrdU incorporation experiment suggested that overexpression of Spag6 inhibited proliferation of neural progenitor cells. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Spag6-overexpressing cells preferred to differentiated into neurons, which could be labeled by Brn2, rather than GFAP positive astrocytes. Taken together, our data indicate that Spag6 plays an essential role in the process of neuronal proliferation and differentiation.

Mutations in the genes encoding eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2B in Japanese patients with vanishing white matter disease

OBJECTIVE

Vanishing white matter disease (VWM) is a chronic, progressive leukoencephalopathy associated with episodes of rapid deterioration following minor stress events such as head traumas or infectious disorders. The white matter of the patients with VWM exhibits characteristic radiological findings.

METHOD

The genes encoding all five subunits of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2B (EIF2B) were analyzed in patients, who were tentatively diagnosed with VWM, by Sanger sequencing.

RESULTS

Seven mutations were identified in the genes encoding the subunits 1, 2, 4, and 5 of EIF2B. Among them, one mutation (p.V83E) in the subunit 2 (EIF2B2) was recurrently identified in three alleles, indicating the most common mutation in Japanese patients with VWM. Two patients were homozygous, and the other four patients were compound heterozygous.

CONCLUSION

All patients showed white matter abnormalities with various degrees. One patient showed manifestations of end-stage VWM disease. Some patients showed late onset and slow progression associated with brain magnetic resonance imaging displaying T2 high intensity only in the deep white matter. There was clinical heterogeneity among patients with VWM.

TUBA1A mutation can cause a hydranencephaly-like severe form of cortical dysgenesis

TUBA1A mutations cause a wide spectrum of lissencephaly and brain malformations. Here, we report two patients with severe cortical dysgeneses, one with an extremely thin cerebral parenchyma apparently looking like hydranencephaly and the other with lissencephaly accompanied by marked hydrocephalus, both harbouring novel de novo missense mutations of TUBA1A. To elucidate how the various TUBA1A mutations affect the severity of the phenotype, we examined the capacity of the mutant protein to incorporate into the endogenous microtubule network in transfected COS7 cells by measuring line density using line extraction in an immunofluorescence study. The mutants responsible for severe phenotypes were found to incorporate extensively into the network. To determine how each mutant alters the microtubule stability, we examined cold-induced microtubule depolymerisation in fibroblasts. The depolymerisation of patients’ fibroblasts occurred earlier than that of control fibroblasts, suggesting that microtubules bearing mutated tubulins are unstable. Both mutations are predicted to participate in lateral interactions of microtubules. Our data suggest that the TUBA1A mutations disrupting lateral interactions have pronounced dominant-negative effects on microtubule dynamics that are associated with the severe end of the lissencephaly spectrum.