Follicle stimulating hormone modulates ovarian stem cells through alternately spliced receptor variant FSH-R3

Proneurogenic actions of follicle-stimulating hormone on neurospheres derived from ovarian cortical cells in vitro

BACKGROUND

Neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPCs) from extra-neural origin represent a valuable tool for autologous cell therapy and research in neurogenesis. Identification of proneurogenic biomolecules on NSPCs would improve the success of cell therapies for neurodegenerative diseases. Preliminary data suggested that follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) might act in this fashion. This study was aimed to elucidate whether FSH promotes development, self-renewal, and is proneurogenic on neurospheres (NS) derived from sheep ovarian cortical cells (OCCs). Two culture strategies were carried out: (a) long-term, 21-days NS culture (control vs. FSH group) with NS morphometric evaluation, gene expression analyses of stemness and lineage markers, and immunolocalization of NSPCs antigens; (b) NS assay to demonstrate FSH actions on self-renewal and differentiation capacity of NS cultured with one of three defined media: M1: positive control with EGF/FGF2; M2: control; and M3: M2 supplemented with FSH.

RESULTS

In long-term cultures, FSH increased NS diameters with respect to control group (302.90 ± 25.20 μm vs. 183.20 ± 7.63 on day 9, respectively), upregulated nestin (days 15/21), Sox2 (day 21) and Pax6 (days 15/21) and increased the percentages of cells immunolocalizing these proteins. During NS assays, FSH stimulated NSCPs proliferation, and self-renewal, increasing NS diameters during the two expansion periods and the expression of the neuron precursor transcript DCX during the second one. In the FSH-group there were more frequent cell-bridges among neighbouring NS.

CONCLUSIONS

FSH is a proneurogenic hormone that promotes OCC-NSPCs self-renewal and NS development. Future studies will be necessary to support the proneurogenic actions of FSH and its potential use in basic and applied research related to cell therapy.

Pilot Study: FSHR Expression in Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Appendix

Appendix neuroendocrine neoplasm (ANEN) treatment is based on tumor size and proliferation markers. Recently, the role of the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) from the clinical perspective has also been increasingly discussed. The FSHR is expressed in the endothelial cells of both intratumoral and peritumoral blood vessels, where it contributes to neoangiogenesis and blood vessel remodeling. FSHR expression is associated with a range of tumor types, such as gastrointestinal tumors, and it is not detected in healthy tissues located more than 10 mm from the tumor site or in tumor lymphatics. In this study, we evaluated the expression of FSHR and CD31 in the blood vessels of ANENs in females and males with confirmed histopathology. We conducted a quantitative analysis of the immunohistochemical reactions and found a higher number of microvessels in the mucosa and submucosa of neuroendocrine tumors in the appendix. A higher level of FSHR expression was observed in women. Future research should consider whether an elevated number of blood vessels along with a strong pattern of FSHR expression may influence future treatment strategies.

Population Dynamics, Plasma Cytokines and Platelet Centrifugation: Technical and Sociodemographic Aspects of 'Ovarian Rejuvenation'

While advanced reproductive technologies have attained remarkable increases in sophistication, success, and availability since the 1980s, clinicians always meet a therapeutic impasse when the ovarian reserve reaches exhaustion. Irrespective of fertility aspirations, the decline in and eventual collapse of ovarian estrogen output means that menopause arrives with tremendous physiologic changes and reduced overall productivity. Because more women are gaining in longevity or delaying the age at pregnancy, the number of affected patients has never been larger. As concerns regarding standard hormone replacement therapy and the limitations of IVF are confronted, a workable path to enable primordial germ cell recruitment and de novo oocyte development would be welcome. Proof-of-concept case reports and clinical studies on autologous activated platelet-rich plasma (PRP) or its condensed cytokine derivatives suggest a way to facilitate these goals. However, ovarian PRP faces vexing challenges that place 'ovarian rejuvenation' under caution as it enters this therapeutic space. Here, we review key features of experimental human ovarian stem cell isolation/handling and reaffirm the need to harmonize laboratory protocols. Recognizing the regenerative science borrowed from other disciplines, specimen centrifugation, platelet processing, and condensed plasma cytokine enrichment are highlighted here. As the refinement of this rejuvenation approach would promise to reprogram adult ovarian physiology, the disruption of established treatment paradigms for infertility, menopause, and perhaps overall women's health seems likely. Emerging roles in reproductive biology and clinical practice are thus placed in a broader social and demographic context.

VSELs and OSCs together sustain oogenesis in adult ovaries and their dysfunction results in age-related senescence, PCOS, POI and cancer

Multiple studies using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) have failed to detect stem cells in adult ovaries. We have maintained that two populations of ovarian stem cells including pluripotent, very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) and tissue-committed 'progenitors' termed ovarian stem cells (OSCs) can easily be detected in Hematoxylin and Eosin-stained ovary surface epithelial (OSE) cells smears prepared from both mice and human ovaries. Most likely the stem cells never get subjected to scRNAseq since they pellet down only by centrifuging cells suspension at 1000 g while cells for scRNAseq were invariably prepared by centrifuging at 200-400 g. A recent article provided further explanation for the failure of scRNAseq to detect ovarian stem cells. Extensive reanalysis of data (generated by scRNAseq) using an advanced software successfully detected OSCs and meiotic markers supporting neo-oogenesis in adult human ovaries. But this article remained critical on the biological relevance of VSELs and their relationship with OSCs. By carefully studying the OSE cells smears (which hold VSELs, OSCs and germ cell nests GCNs), prepared by partial trypsin digestion of intact mice ovaries during different stages of estrus cycle, we have successfully delineated novel functions of VSELs/OSCs in vivo under physiological conditions. VSELs undergo asymmetrical divisions to self-renew and give rise to slightly bigger OSCs which in turn undergo symmetrical divisions and clonal expansion to form GCNs, regular neo-oogenesis and follicle assembly. GCNs have been earlier described in fetal ovaries and during OSE cells culture (from adult ovaries) in response to FSH treatment. Dysfunction of VSELs/OSCs (which express ERα, ERβ, FSHR) due to neonatal exposure to endocrine disruption results in ovarian insufficiency and polycystic ovaries. VSELs have also been implicated in ovarian cancer. Age-related ovarian senescence/menopause is also due to dysfunction and blocked differentiation of VSELs/OSCs. These novel findings in vivo along with abundant in vitro and lineage tracing studies data in published literature provides huge scope for further research, offers novel avenues to manage ovarian pathologies and calls for re-writing of textbooks.

Very small embryonic-like stem cells have the potential to win the three-front war on tissue damage, cancer, and aging

The concept of dedifferentiation and reprogramming of mature somatic cells holds much promise for the three-front "war" against tissue damage, cancer, and aging. It was hoped that reprogramming human somatic cells into the induced pluripotent state, along with the use of embryonic stem cells, would transform regenerative medicine. However, despite global efforts, clinical applications remain a distant dream, due to associated factors such as genomic instability, tumorigenicity, immunogenicity, and heterogeneity. Meanwhile, the expression of embryonic (pluripotent) markers in multiple cancers has baffled the scientific community, and it has been suggested that somatic cells dedifferentiate and "reprogram" into the pluripotent state in vivo to initiate cancer. It has also been suggested that aging can be reversed by partial reprogramming in vivo. However, better methods are needed; using vectors or Yamanaka factors in vivo, for example, is dangerous, and many potential anti-aging therapies carry the same risks as those using induced pluripotent cells, as described above. The present perspective examines the potential of endogenous, pluripotent very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs). These cells are naturally present in multiple tissues; they routinely replace diseased tissue and ensure regeneration to maintain life-long homeostasis, and they have the ability to differentiate into adult counterparts. Recent evidence suggests that cancers initiate due to the selective expansion of epigenetically altered VSELs and their blocked differentiation. Furthermore, VSEL numbers have been directly linked to lifespan in studies of long- and short-lived transgenic mice, and VSEL dysfunction has been found in the ovaries of aged mice. To conclude, a greater interest in VSELs, with their potential to address all three fronts of this war, could be the "light at the end of the tunnel."

Extremely Active Nano-formulation of Resveratrol (XAR™) attenuates and reverses chemotherapy-induced damage in mice ovaries and testes

BACKGROUND

Fertility preservation and restoration in cancer patients/survivors is the need of present times when increased numbers of patients get cured of cancer but face infertility as a serious side effect. Resveratrol has beneficial effects on chemoablated ovaries and testes in mice but has failed to enter the clinics because of extremely poor bioavailability. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the protective and curative effects of Extremely active Resveratrol (XAR™)- a nano-formulation of resveratrol with significantly improved bioavailability- on mouse ovary and testis after chemotherapy. Effects of XAR™ and FSH were compared on stimulation of follicle growth in adult mice ovaries. XAR™ (25 mg/kg) was administered for two days prior to chemotherapy to study the protective effects on the mouse gonads. XAR™ was also administered for 14 days post chemoablation to study the regenerative effects. Besides effect on numbers of primordial and growing follicles and spermatogenesis, the effect of XAR™ was also evaluated on the transcripts specific for ovarian/testicular stem/progenitor/germ cells, their proliferation, differentiation, meiosis, and the antioxidant indices.

RESULTS

Similar to FSH, XAR™ increased the numbers of primordial follicles (PF) as well as growing follicles. It protected the gonads from the adverse effects of chemotherapy and showed the ability to regenerate non-functional, chemoablated gonads. Besides stimulating follicle growth in adult ovaries similar to FSH, XAR™ also protected the testes from the adverse effects of chemotherapy and improved spermatogenesis. This was accompanied by improved anti-oxidant indices.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the present study potentiate the use of XAR™ in pilot clinical studies to protect gonadal function during oncotherapy and also regenerate non-functional gonads in cancer survivors by improving antioxidant indices and stem cell-based tissue regeneration.

A novel role of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in various regeneration-related functions of endometrial stem cells

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) promotes the production and secretion of estrogen, which in turn stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles. Therefore, consecutive FSH treatment to induce ovarian hyperstimulation (superovulation) is still considered the most cost-effective option for the majority of assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs). However, a relatively high cancellation rate and subsequent low pregnancy outcomes (approximately 15%) are the most challenging aspects of this FSH-based ART. Currently, the main cause for this low implantation rate of FSH-based ART has not yet been revealed. Therefore, we hypothesized that these high cancellation rates with FSH-based superovulation protocols might be associated with the harmful effects of consecutive FSH treatment. Importantly, several recent studies have revealed that tissue-resident stem cell deficiency can significantly reduce cyclic endometrial regeneration and subsequently decrease the pregnancy outcome. In this context, we investigated whether FSH treatment could directly inhibit endometrial stem cell functions and consequently suppress endometrial regeneration. Consistent with our hypothesis, our results revealed for the first time that FSH could inhibit various regeneration-associated functions of endometrial stem cells, such as self-renewal, migration, and multilineage differentiation capacities, via the PI3K/Akt and ERK1/2 signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is commonly administered to treat female infertility by stimulating the ovaries, but FSH treatment can also inhibit key cellular and physiological processes required for successful pregnancy. In the light of pregnancy outcomes as low as 15 percent after FSH-based assisted reproduction technologies, In-Sun Hong at Gachon University, Incheon, South Korea, and colleagues investigated the effects of FSH. Working with cultured human stem cells from the lining of the uterus, they found that FSH could inhibit multiple cellular regenerative functions that normally maintain this lining. They also identified a specific molecular signaling pathway involved in mediating these inhibitory effects. Studies in mice supported the cell culture results. The findings could help improve infertility treatment strategies by guiding research into methods to alleviate the unwanted effects of FSH.

Dysfunctional Ovarian Stem Cells Due to Neonatal Endocrine Disruption Result in PCOS and Ovarian Insufficiency in Adult Mice

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a common global cause of anovulatory infertility but underlying etiology leading to PCOS still remains elusive. Fetal and perinatal endocrine disruption reportedly affects germ cell nests (GCN) breakdown, meiosis, and primordial follicle (PF) assembly with unassembled oocytes in neonatal ovaries. We recently reported that very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) and ovarian stem cells (OSCs) express ERα, ERβ and FSHR, undergo distinct cyclic changes and neo-oogenesis encompassing GCN formation, meiosis, and primordial follicle (PF) assembly on regular basis in adult mice ovaries and these GCN are arrested in pre-meiotic or early meiotic stage in aged ovaries. Present study was undertaken to evaluate whether neonatal exposure to endocrine disruption (estradiol E2 or diethylstilbestrol DES) affects ovarian stem cells and their differentiation (neo-oogenesis) and PF assembly in adult 100 days old ovaries. Neonatal exposure to E2 resulted in typical features of PCOS including hyperandrogenism, infertility, increased stromal compartment, absent corpus lutea, and cystic follicles whereas DES treated ovaries showed rapid recruitment of follicles in young ovaries and multi-ovular/cystic follicles. Ovary surface epithelial cells smears showed large numbers of growth-arrested GCN in zygotene/pachytene with increased expression of Mlh-1 and Scp-1 suggesting defects at synapsis and recombination stages during prophase-1 of meiosis. Being immortal and expression of ERα and ERβ makes VSELs directly vulnerable to carry developmental endocrine insults to adult life. Dysfunction of VSELs/OSCs possibly results in oocyte defects observed in our study in PCOS/POI besides the widely reported defects in granulosa cells.

Female germline stem cells: aging and anti-aging

The delay of ovarian aging and the fertility preservation of cancer patients are the eternal themes in the field of reproductive medicine. Acting as the pacemaker of female physiological aging, ovary is also considered as the principle player of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases and etc. However, its aging mechanism and preventive measures are still unclear. Some researchers attempt to activate endogenous ovarian female germline stem cells (FGSCs) to restore ovarian function, as the most promising approach. FGSCs are stem cells in the adult ovaries that can be infinitely self-renewing and have the potential of committed differention. This review aims to elucidate FGSCs aging mechanism from multiple perspectives such as niches, immune disorder, chronic inflammation and oxidative stress. Therefore, the rebuilding nichs of FGSCs, regulation of immune dysfunction, anti-inflammation and oxidative stress remission are expected to restore or replenish FGSCs, ultimately to delay ovarian aging.

GFP Tagged VSELs Help Delineate Novel Stem Cells Biology in Multiple Adult Tissues

Various types of stem cells are being researched upon to exploit their potential for regenerative medicine including pluripotent human embryonic stem (hES) cells derived from spare human embryos, induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells by reprogramming somatic cells to a pluripotent state and multipotent mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) obtained in vitro from multiple tissues. More than 50 independent groups have reported another novel population of pluripotent stem cells in adult tissues termed very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs). VSELs are developmentally linked to primordial germ cells, which rather than giving rise to the germ cells and later ceasing to exist, survive throughout life in multiple organs along with tissue-specific adult stem cells better described as lineage-restricted, tissue-committed progenitors with limited plasticity. VSELs survive total body irradiation in bone marrow, oncotherapy in the gonads, bilateral ovariectomy in the uterus and partial pancreatectomy in the pancreas of mice and participate in the regeneration of multiple organs under normal physiological conditions. VSELs and tissue-specific progenitor cells work together in a subtle manner, maintain life-long tissue homeostasis and their dysfunction leads to various pathologies including cancer. However, due to their quiescent state, VSELs have invariably eluded lineage-tracing studies reported so far. Present article reviews novel insights into VSELs biology and how VSELs enriched from GFP (green fluorescent protein) mice have enabled to delineate their role in various biological processes in vivo. VSELs biology needs to be understood in-depth as this alone will help evolve the field of regenerative medicine and win the war against cancer.

Why double ovarian stimulation in an in vitro fertilization cycle is potentially unsafe

The occurrence of two antral follicle recruitment waves in a single inter-ovulatory interval has been detected in ovaries of normal women. This data supports the claim that a double ovarian stimulation in the same cycle may benefit poor responder patients with an increased recovery of mature oocytes and good quality embryos per single cycle. The double stimulation protocol was the object of several published studies in which, surprisingly, the mechanism and the safety of the double stimulation in the same cycle were poorly addressed. We propose that in the double stimulation protocol, the first stimulation impacts more committed oocytes progenitors ready to differentiate into mature oocytes. Conversely, the protracted exposure of developmentally earlier less-committed ovarian stem cells to FSH, which occurs in the double stimulation protocol, impacts the less differentiated stem cells which take longer to differentiate into oocytes. The proposed mechanism has broad implications for the safety of the double stimulation strategy.

Overview of follicle stimulating hormone and its receptors in reproduction and in stem cells and cancer stem cells

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and its receptor (FSHR) have been reported to be responsible for several physiological functions and cancers. The responsiveness of stem cells and cancer stem cells towards the FSH-FSHR system make the function of FSH and its receptors more interesting in the context of cancer biology. This review is comprised of comprehensive information on FSH-FSHR signaling in normal physiology, gonadal stem cells, cancer cells, and potential options of utilizing FSH-FSHR system as an anti-cancer therapeutic target.

An overview of FSH-FSHR biology and explaining the existing conundrums

FSH was first identified in 1930 and is central to mammalian reproduction. It is indeed intriguing that despite being researched upon for about 90 years, there is still so much more to learn about FSH-FSHR biology. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of current understanding of FSH-FSHR biology, to review published data on biological and clinical relevance of reported mutations, polymorphisms and alternately spliced isoforms of FSHR. Tissue-resident stem/progenitor cells in multiple adult tissues including ovaries, testes and uterus express FSHR and this observation results in a paradigm shift in the field. The results suggest a direct action of FSH on the stem cells in addition to their well-studied action on Granulosa and Sertoli cells in the ovaries and testes respectively. Present review further addresses various concerns raised in recent times by the scientific community regarding extragonadal expression of FSHR, especially in cancers affecting multiple organs. Similar population of primitive and pluripotent tissue-resident stem cells expressing FSHR exist in multiple adult tissues including bone marrow and reproductive tissues and help maintain homeostasis throughout life. Any dysfunction of these stem cells results in various pathologies and they also most likely get transformed into cancer stem cells and initiate cancer. This explains why multiple solid as well as liquid tumors express OCT-4 and FSHR. More research efforts need to be focused on alternately spliced FSHR isoforms.

Endogenous, tissue-resident stem/progenitor cells in gonads and bone marrow express FSHR and respond to FSH via FSHR-3

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the anterior pituitary and acts on the germ cells indirectly through Granulosa cells in ovaries and Sertoli cells in the testes. Extragonadal action of FSH has been reported but is still debated. Adult tissues harbor two populations of stem cells including a reserve population of primitive, small-sized, pluripotent very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) and slightly bigger, tissue-specific progenitors which include ovarian stem cells (OSCs) in ovaries, spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) in testes, endometrial stem cells (EnSCs) in uterus and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the bone marrow. Data has accumulated in animal models showing FSHR expression on both VSELs and progenitors in ovaries, testes, uterus and bone marrow and eventually gets lost as the cells differentiate further. FSH exerts a direct action on the stem/progenitor cells via alternatively spliced FSHR-3 rather than the canonical FSHR-1. FSH stimulates VSELs to undergo asymmetrical cell divisions to self-renew and give rise to the progenitors that in turn undergo symmetrical cell divisions and clonal expansions followed by differentiation into specific cell types. Excessive self-renewal of VSELs results in cancer and this explains ubiquitous expression of embryonic markers including nuclear OCT-4 along with FSHR in cancerous tissues. Focus of this review is to compile published data to support this concept. FSHR expression in stem/progenitor cells was confirmed by immuno-fluorescence, Western blotting, in situ hybridization and by quantitative RT-PCR. Two different commercially available antibodies (Abcam, Santacruz) were used to confirm specificity of FSHR expression along with omission of primary antibody and pre-incubation of antibody with immunizing peptide as negative controls. Western blotting allowed detection of alternatively spliced FSHR isoforms. Oligoprobes and primers specific for Fshr-1 and Fshr-3 were used to study these alternately-sliced isoforms by in situ hybridization and their differential expression upon FSH treatment by qRT-PCR. To conclude, stem/progenitor cells in adult tissues express FSHR and directly respond to FSH via FSHR-3. These findings change the field of FSH-FSHR biology, call for paradigm shift, explain FSHR expression on cancer cells in multiple organs and provide straightforward explanations for various existing conundrums including extragonadal expression of FSHR.

Actions and Roles of FSH in Germinative Cells

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is produced by the pituitary gland in a coordinated hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis event, plays important roles in reproduction and germ cell development during different phases of reproductive development (fetal, neonatal, puberty, and adult life), and is consequently essential for fertility. FSH is a heterodimeric glycoprotein hormone of two dissociable subunits, α and β. The FSH β-subunit (FSHβ) function starts upon coupling to its specific receptor: follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR). FSHRs are localized mainly on the surface of target cells on the testis and ovary (granulosa and Sertoli cells) and have recently been found in testicular stem cells and extra-gonadal tissue. Several reproduction disorders are associated with absent or low FSH secretion, with mutation of the FSH β-subunit or the FSH receptor, and/or its signaling pathways. However, the influence of FSH on germ cells is still poorly understood; some studies have suggested that this hormone also plays a determinant role in the self-renewal of germinative cells and acts to increase undifferentiated spermatogonia proliferation. In addition, in vitro, together with other factors, it assists the process of differentiation of primordial germ cells (PGCLCs) into gametes (oocyte-like and SSCLCs). In this review, we describe relevant research on the influence of FSH on spermatogenesis and folliculogenesis, mainly in the germ cell of humans and other species. The possible roles of FSH in germ cell generation in vitro are also presented.

Stem Cells in Adult Mice Ovaries Form Germ Cell Nests, Undergo Meiosis, Neo-oogenesis and Follicle Assembly on Regular Basis During Estrus Cycle

Very small embryonic-like (VSELs) and ovarian (OSCs) stem cells are located in adult mammalian ovary surface epithelium (OSE). OSCs can expand long-term and differentiate into oocyte-like structures in vitro and have resulted in birth of fertile pups. Lineage tracing studies have provided evidence to suggest OSCs differentiation into oocytes in vivo. But how these stem cells function under normal physiological conditions has not yet been well worked out. Besides studying STRA-8 and SCP-3 expression in enzymatically isolated OSE cells smears, mice were injected BrdU to track mitosis, meiosis and follicle assembly. H&E stained OSE cells during late diestrus and proestrus showed VSELs undergoing asymmetrical cell divisions to give rise to slightly bigger OSCs which in turn underwent symmetrical cell divisions followed by clonal expansion (rapid expansion with incomplete cytokinesis) during early estrus to form germ cell nests (GCN). OCT-4, SSEA-1, MVH and DAZL positive cells in GCN expressed Erα, Erβ and FSHR, were interconnected by ring canals (TEX-14), showed mitochondrial aggregation (Cytochrome C) and Balbiani Body (TRAL). Apoptosis in 'nurse' cells was marked by PARP and putative oocytes were clearly visualized. BrdU was detected in cells undergoing mitosis/meiosis and also in an oocyte of secondary follicle. FACS sorted, green fluorescent protein (GFP) positive VSELs upon transplantation resulted in GFP positive GCN suggesting crucial role for VSELs in adult ovaries. Results suggest that various events described during oogenesis and follicle assembly in fetal ovaries are recapitulated on regular basis in adult ovary and result in the formation of follicles.

The role of gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists in female fertility preservation

Advances in anticancer treatments have resulted in increasing survival rates among cancer patients. Accordingly, the quality of life after treatment, particularly the preservation of fertility, has gradually emerged as an essential consideration. Cryopreservation of embryos or unfertilized oocytes has been considered as the standard method of fertility preservation among young women facing gonadotoxic chemotherapy. Other methods, including ovarian suppression and ovarian tissue cryopreservation, have been considered experimental. Recent large-scale randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that temporary ovarian suppression using gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists (GnRHa) during chemotherapy is beneficial for preventing chemotherapy-induced premature ovarian insufficiency in breast cancer patients. It should also be emphasized that GnRHa use during chemotherapy does not replace established fertility preservation methods. All young women facing gonadotoxic chemotherapy should be counseled about and offered various options for fertility preservation, including both GnRHa use and cryopreservation of embryos, oocytes, and/or ovarian tissue.

Effects of dietary Enteromorpha powder on reproduction-related hormones and genes during the late laying period of Zi geese

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Enteromorpha powder supplementation on reproduction-related hormones and genes in the late laying period of Zi geese.

METHODS

A total of 312 (1-year-old) Zi geese with similar laying rate were randomly divided into 2 groups with 6 replicates each, each with 21 female geese and 5 male geese. The control group was fed with a basal diet and the test group was fed with a diet containing 3% Enteromorpha powder. The trial period lasted for 7 weeks.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the laying rate was improved in the test group at each week of trial (p<0.01), and the levels of estradiol in serum and prolactin in ovary were increased compared with the control group (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Based on above results, Enteromorpha powder supplementation at 3% could promote reproductive performance during the late laying period of Zi geese.

Pluripotent Stem (VSELs) and Progenitor (EnSCs) Cells Exist in Adult Mouse Uterus and Show Cyclic Changes Across Estrus Cycle

We have earlier reported pluripotent, very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) and slightly bigger endometrial stem cells (EnSCs) in adult mouse uterus and their regulation by gonadotropin and steroid hormones. VSELs can differentiate into cells of all three lineages in vitro; however, they neither expand readily in vitro nor compliment a developing embryo. In the present study, a robust protocol is described to enrich uterine stem/progenitor cells along with their characterization and variation across estrus cycle. After enzymatic digestion of adult mouse uterus, single-cell suspension obtained was spun at 1000 rpm (250 g) to pellet majority of cells. Stem cells remain buoyant at this speed and were pelleted by spinning supernatant at 3000 rpm (1000 g). Spherical, darkly stained VSELs (2-6 μm) with high nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio and EnSCs (> 6 μm) expressed OCT-4, NANOG, SSEA-1, SCA-1, and c-KIT. OCT-4-positive cells co-expressed SSEA-1, ERα, ERβ, PR, and FSHR. Transcripts specific for pluripotent state (Oct-4, Oct-4a, Sox-2, Nanog), primordial germ cells (Stella, Fragilis), and receptors for pituitary and steroid hormones (ERα, ERβ, PR, FSHR 1 and 3) were studied by RT-PCR in 3000 rpm pellet. Cell pellet collected at 3000 rpm showed 10-fold enrichment of VSELs (2-6 μm, viable cells with surface phenotype of LIN-CD45-SCA-1+) by flow cytometry and upregulation of pluripotent transcripts by qRT-PCR compared with 1000 rpm pellet. VSELs were maximal during estrus and metestrus phases of estrus cycle. To conclude, VSELs/EnSCs can be enriched from adult uterus using the strategy described here, vary in numbers across estrus cycle, and are vulnerable to endocrine disruption as they express steroid receptors.

Ovary does harbor stem cells - size of the cells matter!

A recent study published in the journal Nature Communications from Karolinska Institute, Sweden was unable to detect stem cells in adult human ovarian cortex by single-cell RNAseq and by studying cell surface antigen profiles by flow cytometry studies. Their findings are startling since stem cells have been well characterized in the adult mammalian ovary of several species including mouse, rabbit, monkey, sheep, pig and humans. Ovarian stem cells include pluripotent, very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) and slightly bigger ovarian stem cells (OSCs) which are easily visualized in smears obtained by gently scraping the ovary surface. The potential of ovarian stem cells to differentiate into oocyte-like structures in vitro and also resulting in the birth of mouse pups has been reported. A possible role of ovarian VSELs in initiation of ovarian cancers has also been delineated. The ovarian stem cells can also be collected by enzymatic digestion of ovarian tissue for various studies, taking care to always pellet the cells suspension at 1000 g since this high speed is required to collect the small-sized stem cell populations (VSELs & OSCs) with high nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. These stem cells invariably get discarded when cells suspension is spun at lower speed. The cells were spun at 300 g for various experiments in the Karolinska study and this is the underlying reason for their negative results. Stem cells were inadvertently and unknowingly discarded and never got analyzed by single-cell RNAseq and flow cytometry experiments. To conclude, stem cells surely exist in adult mammalian ovary and their role during neo-oogenesis and primordial follicle assembly under physiological conditions is currently being investigated.

In Vitro Generation of Oocytes from Ovarian Stem Cells (OSCs): In Search of Major Evidence

The existence of ovarian stem cells (OSCs) in women as well as their physiological role in post-menopausal age are disputed. However, accumulating evidence demonstrated that, besides the animal models including primarily mice, even in adult women putative OSCs obtained from ovarian cortex are capable to differentiate in vitro into oocyte-like cells (OLCs) expressing molecular markers typical of terminal stage of oogonial cell lineage. Recent studies describe that, similarly to mature oocytes, the OSC-derived OLCs also contain haploid karyotype. As proof of concept of their stem commitment, OSCs from mice differentiated to oocytes in vitro are suitable to be fertilized and implanted in sterilized animals resulting in embryo development. Despite enthusiasm for these data, which definitely require extended confirmation before considering potential application in humans for treatment of ovarian insufficiency, OSCs appear suitable for other clinical uses, restoring the endocrine derangements in premature ovarian failure or for fertility preservation in oncologic patients after anti-cancer treatments. In this context, the selection of viable oocytes generated from OSCs before chemotherapy protocols would overcome the potential adjunct oncogenic risk in women bearing hormone-dependent tumors who are repeatedly stimulated with high dose estrogens to induce oocyte maturation for their egg recruitment and cryopreservation.

Fertility Preservation in Women With Malignancy: Future Endeavors

The area of fertility preservation is constantly developing. To date, the only noninvestigational and unequivocally accepted methods for fertility preservation are cryopreservation of embryos and unfertilized oocytes. This article is one of several in a monogram on fertility preservation. The debate, pros and cons, and equivocal data on the use of GnRH analogues for fertility preservation are elaborated by 3 other manuscripts, in this monogram. A repeat of the arguments, pros and cons of this debatable issue, would be a repetition and redundancy of what is already included in this monogram. The subject of ovarian cryopreservation for fertility preservation is also elaborated by several other authors in this monogram. It is possible that, in the not too far future, the technologies of in vitro maturation of primordial follicles to metaphase 2 oocytes, and the “artificial ovary,” will turn clinically available. These technologies may bypass the risk of resuming malignancy by autotransplantation of cryopreserved-thawed ovarian tissue in leukemia and diseases where malignant cells may persist in the cryopreserved ovarian tissue. We summarize here the suggested options for future endeavors in fertility preservation.

Fertility Preservation Using GnRH Agonists: Rationale, Possible Mechanisms, and Explanation of Controversy

The only clinically accepted method of fertility preservation in young women facing gonadotoxic chemo- and/or radiotherapy for malignant or autoimmune diseases is cryopreservation of embryos or unfertilized ova, whereas cryopreservation of ovarian tissue for future reimplantation, or in vitro maturation of follicles, and the use of gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists (GnRHa) are still considered investigational, by several authorities. Whereas previous publications have raised the fear of GnRHa's possible detrimental effects in patients with hormone receptor-positive breast cancers, recent randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have shown that it either improves or does not affect disease-free survival (DFS) in such patients. This review summarizes the pros and cons of GnRHa co-treatment for fertility preservation, suggesting 5 theoretical mechanisms for GnRHa action: (1) simulating the prepubertal hypogonadotropic milieu, (2) direct effect on GnRH receptors, (3) decreased ovarian perfusion, (4) upregulation of an ovarian-protecting molecule such as sphingosine-1-phosphate, and (5) protecting a possible germinative stem cell. We try to explain the reasons for the discrepancy between most publications that support the use of GnRHa for fertility preservation and the minority of publications that did not support its efficiency.

Similar Population of CD133+ and DDX4+ VSEL-Like Stem Cells Sorted from Human Embryonic Stem Cell, Ovarian, and Ovarian Cancer Ascites Cell Cultures: The Real Embryonic Stem Cells?

A population of small stem cells with diameters of up to 5 μm resembling very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) were sorted from human embryonic stem cell (hESC) cultures using magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS) based on the expression of a stem-cell-related marker prominin-1 (CD133). These VSEL-like stem cells had nuclei that almost filled the whole cell volume and expressed stem-cell-related markers (CD133, SSEA-4) and markers of germinal lineage (DDX4/VASA, PRDM14). They were comparable to similar populations of small stem cells sorted from cell cultures of normal ovaries and were the predominant cells in ascites of recurrent ovarian cancer. The sorted populations of CD133+ VSEL-like stem cells were quiescent in vitro, except for ascites, and were highly activated after exposure to valproic acid and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), indicating a new tool to study these cells in vitro. These VSEL-like stem cells spontaneously formed clusters resembling tumour-like structures or grew into larger, oocyte-like cells and were differentiated in vitro into adipogenic, osteogenic and neural lineages after sorting. We propose the population of VSEL-like stem cells from hESC cultures as potential original embryonic stem cells, which are present in the human embryo, persist in adult human ovaries from the embryonic period of life and are involved in cancer manifestation.

Stem cells survive oncotherapy & can regenerate non-functional gonads: A paradigm shift for oncofertility

A large proportion of patients who survive cancer are rendered infertile as an unwanted side effect of oncotherapy. Currently accepted approaches for fertility preservation involve banking eggs/sperm/embryos or ovarian/testicular tissue before oncotherapy for future use. Such approaches are invasive, expensive, technically challenging and depend on assisted reproductive technologies (ART). Establishing a gonadal tissue bank (for cancer patients) is also fraught with ethical, legal and safety issues. Most importantly, patients who find it difficult to meet expenses towards cancer treatment will find it difficult to meet expenses towards gonadal tissue banking and ART to achieve parenthood later on. In this review an alternative strategy to regenerate non-functional gonads in cancer survivors by targeting endogenous stem cells that survive oncotherapy is discussed. A novel population of pluripotent stem cells termed very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs), developmentally equivalent to late migratory primordial germ cells, exists in adult gonads and survives oncotherapy due to their quiescent nature. However, the stem-cell niche gets compromised by oncotherapy. Transplanting niche cells (Sertoli or mesenchymal cells) can regenerate the non-functional gonads. This approach is safe, has resulted in the birth of fertile offspring in mice and could restore gonadal function early in life to support proper growth and later serve as a source of gametes. This newly emerging understanding on stem cells biology can obviate the need to bank gonadal tissue and fertility may also be restored in existing cancer survivors who were earlier deprived of gonadal tissue banking before oncotherapy.

Implications and Current Limitations of Oogenesis from Female Germline or Oogonial Stem Cells in Adult Mammalian Ovaries

A now large body of evidence supports the existence of mitotically active germ cells in postnatal ovaries of diverse mammalian species, including humans. This opens the possibility that adult stem cells naturally committed to a germline fate could be leveraged for the production of female gametes outside of the body. The functional properties of these cells, referred to as female germline or oogonial stem cells (OSCs), in ovaries of women have recently been tested in various ways, including a very recent investigation of the differentiation capacity of human OSCs at a single cell level. The exciting insights gained from these experiments, coupled with other data derived from intraovarian transplantation and genetic tracing analyses in animal models that have established the capacity of OSCs to generate healthy eggs, embryos and offspring, should drive constructive discussions in this relatively new field to further exploring the value of these cells to the study, and potential management, of human female fertility. Here, we provide a brief history of the discovery and characterization of OSCs in mammals, as well as of the in-vivo significance of postnatal oogenesis to adult ovarian function. We then highlight several key observations made recently on the biology of OSCs, and integrate this information into a broader discussion of the potential value and limitations of these adult stem cells to achieving a greater understanding of human female gametogenesis in vivo and in vitro.

Heterogeneity of Stem Cells in the Ovary

Every organ in the body is thought to harbor two populations of stem cells, including the quiescent and the actively dividing, that leads to heterogeneity among them. It is generally believed that the ovary harbors a fixed number of follicles at birth that differentiate during fetal development from the primordial germ cells. The numbers of follicles decrease by age, leading to menopause. However, in 2004, it was suggested that ovary may harbor stem cells that are possibly involved in the formation of new follicles throughout reproductive life. Research over little more than a decade shows that ovarian stem cells include a quiescent population of very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) and slightly bigger, actively dividing ovarian stem cells (OSCs). This heterogeneity among ovarian stem cells is similar to the presence of VSELs along with spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) in the testis or hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the hematopoietic system. VSELs express embryonic markers, including nuclear OCT-4, and are lodged in the ovary surface epithelium (OSE). Ovarian VSELs undergo asymmetric cell division to self-renew and give rise to OSCs that in turn undergo symmetric cell divisions and clonal expansion (germ cell nest) followed by meiosis to form an oocyte that gets assembled as a primordial follicle. Both VSELs and OSCs also express receptors for follicle-stimulating hormone (FSHR) and are directly activated by FSH to undergo neo-oogenesis and primordial follicle assembly. Whether stimulation of ovaries by FSH in Infertility Clinics activates the stem cells leading to the formation of multiple follicles needs further investigation. Epithelial cells lining the surface of ovary provide a niche to the stem cells under normal circumstances and undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to form granulosa cells for primordial follicle assembly. Compromised function of the epithelial cells with age possibly leads to inability of stem cells to form follicles, leading to menopause. More than 90% of ovarian cancers arise in the OSE, possibly due to excessive self-renewal of VSELs. Altered biology of the OSE cells results in the formation of myofibroblasts by EMT and may provide a cancerous niche that supports excessive expansion of the stem cells lodged in the OSE, leading to ovarian cancer. Ovarian cancer cells express markers like OCT-4 and FSHR, which are also expressed by the VSELs lodged in the OSE, whereas the epithelial cells are distinctly negative for the same. Lot more research is required in the field to gain further understanding of ovarian stem cell biology.

Role of OCT4 in the Regulation of FSH-Induced Granulosa Cells Growth in Female Mice

As a member of the POU (Pit-Oct-Unc) transcription factor family, OCT4 (Octamer-binding transcription factor 4) is associated with the cellular proliferative. However, the roles of OCT4 in regulating the transition from preantral follicle to early antral follicle are still remains unclear. To evaluate the effect of OCT4 on cellular development in ovary, mice were injected with eCG in vivo or granulosa cells were co-cultured with FSH in vitro. The results showed that eCG up-regulated ovarian OCT4 expression. Meanwhile, OCT4 expression in granulosa cells was also up-regulated by FSH, and knockdown of OCT4 by siRNA significantly decreased FSH-induced cellular viability. Moreover, gonadotropin increased p-GSK3β (Glycogen synthase kinase 3-beta) level, β-catenin expression and its translocation to nuclear in ovarian cells. In addition, the inhibition of GSK3β activity by CT99021 significantly increased the expression of β-catenin and OCT4 in granulosa cells. And knockdown β-catenin by siRNA dramatically abolished FSH-induced OCT4 expression and cellular development. Furthermore, FSH-induced the phosphorylation of GSK3β, expression of β-catenin and OCT4, and translocation of β-catenin were mediated by the PI3K/Akt pathway. Taken together, the present study demonstrates that FSH regulated OCT4 expression via GSK3β/β-catenin pathway, which was mediated by the PI3K/Akt pathway. And these regulations are involved in ovarian cell development.

Dynamics of Bone Marrow VSELs and HSCs in Response to Treatment with Gonadotropin and Steroid Hormones, during Pregnancy and Evidence to Support Their Asymmetric/Symmetric Cell Divisions

Gender plays an important role in the incidence of hematological malignancies and recently hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) were found to proliferate more in females that gets further augmented during pregnancy. It was suggested that since basal numbers of HSCs remain the same in both sexes, possibly HSCs in females undergo increased self-renewal and apoptosis. Then how is self-renewal of stem cells regulated in males? More important, do HSCs undergo asymmetric cell divisions (ACD) or a more primitive population of pluripotent, very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) undergo ACD to self-renew and specify into HSCs? Lot more clarity is required on the bone marrow stem cells biology. Present study was undertaken to evaluate whether similar dimorphism reported for HSCs also exists among VSELs. Bone marrow VSELs and HSCs were studied in bilaterally ovariectomized and castrated mice by flow cytometry after treating with gonadotropin (FSH) and sex steroid (estrogen & progesterone) hormones and during pregnancy. Differential expression of pluripotent (Oct-4A, Sox2, Nanog) and differentiation (Oct-4, Sca1, c-Kit, Ikaros) specific transcripts was studied. Basal BrdU uptake was more in both VSELs (p < 0.01) and HSCs (p < 0.05) in female bone marrow. FSH exerted a more profound effect compared to estradiol in both the sexes. Flow cytometry results showed ten-fold increase in spleen VSELs by mid-gestation associated with approximately two-fold increase in HSCs. These results point to a novel yet unreported role of spleen VSELs during pregnancy. Furthermore, VSELs underwent ACD to self-renew and give rise to slightly bigger HSCs based on unequal expression of NUMB, CD45 and OCT-4.

Gonadotropin and steroid hormones regulate pluripotent very small embryonic-like stem cells in adult mouse uterine endometrium

Background

Very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) exist in adult organs, express pluripotent markers and have the ability to differentiate into three germ layers in vitro. Testicular, ovarian and hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells express receptors for follicle stimulating (FSH) and ovarian hormones and are activated by them to undergo proliferation/differentiation. VSELs exist in mouse uterus and are regulated by physiological dose of estradiol (E) & progesterone (P) during endometrial growth, differentiation and regeneration/remodeling. In the present study, effects of daily administration of E (2 μg/day), P (1 mg/Kg/day) or FSH (5 IU/day) for 7 days on the endometrium and stem/progenitor cells was studied in bilaterally ovariectomized mice.

Results

E treatment resulted in hypertrophy whereas P resulted in hyperplasia and overcrowding of epithelial cells. FSH also directly stimulated the endometrial cells. Nuclear OCT-4A positive VSELs were visualized in ovariectomized (atrophied) endometrium and cytoplasmic OCT-4B positive epithelial, stromal and endothelial cells were observed after treatment. FSH treated uterine tissue showed presence of 4 alternately spliced FSHR isoforms by Western blotting. 3–5 μm VSELs with a surface phenotype of LIN-/CD45-/SCA-1+ were enumerated by flow cytometry and were found to express ER, PR, FSHR1 and FSHR3 by RT-PCR analysis. Differential effects of treatment were observed on pluripotent (Oct4A, Sox2, Nanog), progenitors (Oct-4, Sca-1), primordial germ cells (Stella, Fragilis) and proliferation (Pcna) specific transcripts by qRT-PCR analysis. FSH and P (rather than E) exerted profound, direct stimulatory effects on uterine VSELs. Asymmetric, symmetric divisions and clonal expansion of stem/progenitor cells was confirmed by co-expression of OCT-4 and NUMB.

Conclusions

Results confirm presence of VSELs and their regulation by circulatory hormones in mouse uterus. Stem cell activation was more prominent after P and FSH compared to E treatment. The results question whether epithelial cells proliferation is regulated by paracrine influence of stromal cells or due to direct action of hormones on stem cells. VSELs expressing nuclear OCT-4A are the most primitive and pluripotent stem cells, undergo asymmetric cell division to self-renew and differentiate into epithelial, stromal and endothelial cells with cytoplasmic OCT-4B. Role of follicle stimulating and steroid hormones on the stem cells needs to be studied in various uterine pathologies.

Novel Insights into Adult and Cancer Stem Cell Biology

Adult tissues are thought to harbor two populations of "dormant" and "actively dividing" stem cells. Quiescent stem cells undergo rare asymmetric cell divisions (ACDs) through which they self-renew and give rise to tissue-committed "progenitors" of distinct fate and "progenitors" in turn undergo symmetric cell divisions (SCDs) and clonal expansion. However, quiescent stem cells have not been demonstrated in adult tissues such as skin, testis, liver, and brain. After surgical removal of part of liver and pancreas-adult differentiated cells divide and regenerate and a possible role of stem cells remains doubtful. Long-term repopulating hematopoietic stem cells are quiescent in nature but ACD has not been convincingly demonstrated even among them. Attempts by various groups to identify a common stemness program that ensures self-renewal among different kinds of stem cells have also remained futile. Uncontrolled self-renewal and compromised differentiation of stem cells possibly initiate leukemia/cancer, but the identity of leukemic stem cells and whether cancer stem cells arise by epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in solid tumors are all open-ended questions that need greater clarity. Acceptance of the presence of very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) in adult tissues could clarify several of these existing dilemmas in the field. Data are compiled showing that VSELs undergo ACD in the hematopoietic system, testis, ovary, uterus, and pancreas, whereas tissue-committed progenitors undergo SCD and clonal expansion. VSELs possess similar overlapping stemness program as in embryonic stem cells, embryonic carcinoma cells, embryonic germ cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, and primordial germ cells. VSELs and leukemic and cancer cells express overlapping embryonic markers. Uncontrolled proliferation of VSELs and compromised differentiation possibly initiate leukemia. Process of EMT and initiation of solid tumor from VSELs (located among the epithelial cells) are indeed two distinct and parallel events. To conclude, VSELs provide explanation to several confounding aspects of adult stem cell biology.

Characterization of stem cell and cancer stem cell populations in ovary and ovarian tumors

Background

Ovarian cancer is a complicated malady associated with cancer stem cells (CSCs) contributing to 238,700 estimated new cases and 151,900 deaths per year, worldwide. CSCs comprise a tiny fraction of tumor-bulk responsible for cancer recurrence and eventual mortality. CSCs or tumor initiating cells are responsible for self-renewal, differentiation and proliferative potential, tumor initiation capability, its progression, drug resistance and metastatic spread. Although several biomarkers are implicated in these processes, their distribution within the ovary and association with single cell type has neither been established nor demonstrated across ovarian tumor developmental stages. Therefore, precise identification, thorough characterization and effective targeted destruction of dormant and highly proliferating potent CSC populations is an immediate need.

Results

In view of this, distribution of various CSC (ALDH1/2, C-KIT, CD133, CD24 and CD44) and cell proliferation (KI67) specific markers in the ovarian surface epithelium (OSE) and cortex regions in normal ovary, and benign, borderline and high grade metastatic ovarian tumors by immuno-histochemistry and confocal microscopy was studied. We further confirmed their expression by RT-PCR analysis. Co-expression analysis of stem cell (OCT4, SSEA4) and CSC (ALDH1/2, CD44 and LGR5) markers with proliferation marker (KI67) in HG tumors revealed dual positive proliferating stem and CSCs, few non-proliferating stem/CSC (SSEA4⁺/KI67⁻ and ALDH1/2⁺/KI67⁻) and only KI67⁺ cells in cortex, signifying dynamic populations and interesting cellular hierarchy in cortex region. Smaller spherical (≤ 5 μm) and larger spindle/elliptical shaped (~ 10 μm) cell populations with high nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio were detected across all samples (including normal ovaries) but with variable distribution and characteristic stage-wise marker expression across different tumor stages.

Conclusions

Diverse stem and CSC populations expressing characteristic markers revealing distinct phenotypes (spherical ≤5 μm and spindle/elliptical ~ 10 μm) were distributed within different tumor stages studied signifying dynamic and probable functional hierarchy within these cell types. Involvement of extra-ovarian sites of origin of stem and CSCs requires rigorous evaluation. Quantitative analysis of potent CSC populations, their mechanisms and pathways for self-renewal, chemo-resistance, metastatic spread etc. with respect to various markers studied, will provide better insights and targets for developing effective therapeutics to prevent metastasis and eventually help improve patient mortality.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13048-018-0439-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Novel evidence that pituitary sex hormones regulate migration, adhesion, and proliferation of embryonic stem cells and teratocarcinoma cells

The pituitary sex hormones (SexHs): follicle‑stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and prolactin (PRL) regulate several functions crucial for reproduction, including oogenesis, spermatogenesis, and lactation. An important source of prolactin-like hormones, known as lactogens, is the placenta, and lactogens bind to the PRL receptor (PRLR) with high affinity and thereby mimic the actions of PRL. Recently, it has been demonstrated that pituitary SexHs were involved in metastatic lung cancer, certain sarcomas, and leukemia. In the present study we aimed to investigate whether FSH, LH, and PRL were able to stimulate stem cells involved in early development. To address this issue we employed a murine embryonic stem cell line (ES-D3) as well as two teratocarcinoma cell lines, P19 (murine) and NTera2 (human). We determined that all these cells expressed SexH receptors at the mRNA and protein levels and that stimulation of these receptors induced phosphorylation of p42/44 MAPK, p38 MAPK, and AKT. Moreover, ES-D3, P19, and NTera2 cells responded with increased migration and adhesion to physiological concentrations of pituitary SexHs. In view of these findings we proposed that maternal-derived pituitary SexHs regulate the biology of stem cells involved in early development.

Further characterization of adult sheep ovarian stem cells and their involvement in neo-oogenesis and follicle assembly

BACKGROUND

Stem cells in the ovary comprise of two distinct populations including very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) and slightly bigger progenitors termed ovarian stem cells (OSCs). They are lodged in ovary surface epithelium (OSE) and are expected to undergo neo-oogenesis and primordial follicle (PF) assembly in adult ovaries. The ovarian stem cells express follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) receptors and are directly activated by FSH resulting in formation of germ cell nests (GCN) in vitro. Present study was undertaken to further characterize adult sheep OSCs and to understand their role during neo-oogenesis and PF assembly.

METHODS

Stem cells were collected by gently scraping the OSE cells and were characterized by H&E staining, immuno-localization, immuno-phenotyping and RT-PCR studies. Expression of FSH receptors and markers specific for stem cells (OCT-4, SSEA-4) and proliferation (PCNA) were studied on stem/progenitor cells in OSE culture and on adult sheep ovarian cortical tissue sections. Effect of FSH on stem cells was also studied in vitro. Asymmetric cell division (ACD) was monitored by studying expression of OCT-4 and NUMB.

RESULTS

Additional evidence was generated on the presence of two populations of stem cells in the OSE including VSELs and OSCs. FSHR expression was observed on both VSELs and OSCs by immuno-localization and immuno-phenotyping studies. FSH treatment in vitro stimulated VSELs that underwent ACD to self-renew and give rise to OSCs which divided rapidly by symmetric cell divisions (SCD) and clonal expansion with incomplete cytokinesis to form GCN. ACD was further confirmed by differential expression of OCT-4 in VSELs and NUMB in the OSCs. Immuno-histochemical expression of OCT-4, PCNA and FSHR was noted on stem cells located in the OSE in sheep ovarian sections. GCN and cohort of PF were observed in the ovarian cortex and provided evidence in support of neo-oogenesis from the stem cells.

CONCLUSION

Results of present study provide further evidence in support of two stem cells populations in adult sheep ovary. Both VSELs, OSCs and GCN express FSH receptors and FSH possibly regulates their function to undergo neo-oogenesis and primordial follicle assembly.

Improved Isolation, Proliferation, and Differentiation Capacity of Mouse Ovarian Putative Stem Cells

The recent discovery of ovarian stem cells in postnatal mammalian ovaries, also referred to as putative stem cells (PSCs), and their roles in mammalian fertility has challenged the long-existing theory that women are endowed with a certain number of germ cells. The rare amount of PSCs is the major limitation for utilizing them through different applications. Therefore, this study was conducted in six phases to find a way to increase the number of Fragilis- and mouse vasa homolog (MVH)-positive sorted cells from 14-day-old NMRI strain mice. Results showed that there is a population of Fragilis- and MVH-positive cells with pluripotent stem cell characteristics, which can be isolated and expanded for months in vitro. PSCs increase their proliferation capacity under the influence of some mitogenic agents, and our results showed that different doses of stem cell factor (SCF) induce PSC proliferation with the maximum increase observed at 50 ng/mL. SCF was also able to increase the number of Fragilis- and MVH-positive cells after sorting by magnetic-activated cell sorting and enhance colony formation efficiency in sorted cells. Differentiation capacity assay indicated that there is a basic level of spontaneous differentiation toward oocyte-like cells during 3 days of culture. However, relative gene expression was significantly higher in the follicle-stimulating hormone-treated groups, especially in the Fragilis- sorted PSCs. We suggest that higher number of PSCs provides us either a greater source of energy that can be injected into energy-impaired oocytes in women with a history of repeat IVF failure or a good source for research.

Ovarian stem cells-resolving controversies

A recent review on ovarian stem cells by Horan and Williams entitled "Oocyte Stem Cells: Fact or Fantasy?" suggests that the debate on ovarian stem cells (OSCs) is still not over. They did not even discuss the presence of two distinct populations of stem cells in the ovary in their review. OSCs are located in the ovary surface epithelium and Tilly's group reported them in the size range of 5-8 μm whereas Virant-Klun's group has reported pluripotent, 2-4 μm OSCs. Our group reported OSCs of two distinct sizes including pluripotent very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) which are smaller in size than RBCs (similar to those reported by Virant-Klun's group) and slightly bigger (similar to those reported by Tilly's group) tissue committed progenitors (OSCs) that presumably differentiate from VSELs. These stem/progenitor cells express receptors for follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and are activated by FSH. Our opinion article provides explanation to several open-ended questions raised in the review on OSCs by Horan and Williams. VSELs survive chemotherapy; maintain life-long homeostasis; loss of their function due to a compromised niche results in age-related senescence and presence of overlapping pluripotent markers suggest that they may also be implicated in epithelial ovarian cancers.

Mouse Bone Marrow VSELs Exhibit Differentiation into Three Embryonic Germ Lineages and Germ & Hematopoietic Cells in Culture

Very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) have been reported in various adult tissues, express pluripotent and primordial germ cells (PGCs) specific markers, are mobilized under stress/disease conditions, give rise to tissue committed progenitors and thus help regenerate and maintain homeostasis. The aim of the present study was to evaluate in vitro differentiation potential of VSELs using a quantitative approach. VSELs were collected from mouse bone marrow after 4 days of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU, 150 mg/Kg) treatment, further enriched by size based filtration and cultured on a feeder support in the presence of specific differentiation media. Cultured VSELs were found to differentiate into all three embryonic germ cell lineages, germ and hematopoietic cells after 14 days in culture. This was confirmed by studying Nestin, PDX-1, NKX2.5, DAZL, CD45 and other markers expression by various approaches. Very small, CD45 negative cells collected and enriched from GFP positive 5-FU treated mice bone marrow transitioned into CD45 positive cells in vitro thus demonstrating that VSELs can give rise to hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). We envision that VSELs may be responsible for plasticity and ability of bone marrow cells to give rise to non-hematopoietic tissue progenitors of all 3 germ layers. Moreover the ability of VSELs to differentiate into germ cells as well as all the three lineages provides further evidence to support their pluripotent state and confirms developmental link between bone marrow VSELs and PGCs. The property of quiescence, no risk of teratoma formation and autologus source, make pluripotent VSELs a potential candidate to facilitate endogenous regeneration compared to cell replacement strategy envisioned using embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells.

Neo-oogenesis in mammals

Recently, the existence of a mechanism for neo-oogenesis in the ovaries of adult mammals has generated much controversy within reproductive biology. This mechanism, which proposes that the ovary has cells capable of renewing the follicular reserve, has been described for various species of mammals. The first evidence was found in prosimians and humans. However, these findings were not considered relevant because the predominant dogma for reproductive biology at the time was that of Zuckerman. This dogma states that female mammals are born with finite numbers of oocytes that decline throughout postnatal life. Currently, the concept of neo-oogenesis has gained momentum due to the discovery of cells with mitotic activity in adult ovaries of various mammalian species (mice, humans, rhesus monkeys, domestic animals such as pigs, and wild animals such as bats). Despite these reports, the concept of neo-oogenesis has not been widely accepted by the scientific community, generating much criticism and speculation about its accuracy because it has been impossible to reproduce some evidence. This controversy has led to the creation of two positions: one in favour of neo-oogenesis and the other against it. Various animal models have been used in support of both camps, including both classic laboratory animals and domestic and wild animals. The aim of this review is to critically present the current literature on the subject and to evaluate the arguments pro and contra neo-oogenesis in mammals.

Putative germline and pluripotent stem cells in adult mouse ovary and their in vitro differentiation potential into oocyte-like and somatic cells

According to classical knowledge of reproductive biology, in the ovary of female mammals there is a limited number of oocytes and there is no possibility of renewal if the oocytes are lost due to disease or injury. However, in recent years, the results of some studies on renewal and formation of oocytes and follicles in the adult mammalian ovary have led to the questioning of this opinion. The aim of our study is to demonstrate the presence of putative germline and pluripotent stem cells in the adult mouse ovary and their differentiation potential into germ and somatic cells. In ovary tissues and cells harvested from pre-differentiation step, the expression of pluripotent and germline stem cell markers was analysed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunofluorescence staining and western blotting. Embryoid bodies that formed in this step were analysed using immunofluorescence staining and transmission electron microscopy. Ovarian stem cells were induced to differentiate into oocyte, osteoblast, chondrocyte and neural cells. Besides morphological observation, differentiated cells were analysed by RT-PCR, histochemical and immunofluorescence staining. Expression of germline and pluripotent stem cell markers both in mRNA and at the protein level were detected in the pre-differentiated cells and ovary tissues. As a result of the differentiation process, the formation of oocyte-like cells, osteoblasts, chondrocytes and neural cells was observed and characteristics of differentiated cells were confirmed using the methods mentioned above. Our study results revealed that the adult mouse ovary contains germline and pluripotent stem cells with the capacity to differentiate into oocyte-like cells, osteoblasts, chondrocytes and neural cells.

Oocyte stem cells: fact or fantasy?

For many decades, the dogma prevailed that female mammals had a finite pool of oocytes at birth and this was gradually exhausted during a lifetime of reproductive function. However, in 2004, a new era began in the field of female oogenesis. A study was published that appeared to detect oocyte-stem cells capable of generating new eggs within mouse ovaries. This study was highly controversial and the years since this initial finding have produced extensive research and even more extensive debate into their possibility. Unequivocal evidence testifying to the existence of oocyte-stem cells (OSCs) has yet to be produced, meanwhile the spectrum of views from both sides of the debate are wide-ranging and surprisingly passionate. Although recent studies have presented some convincing results that germ cells exist and are capable of creating new oocytes, many questions remain. Are these cells present in humans? Do they exist in physiological conditions in a dormant state? This comprehensive review first examines where and how the dogma of a finite pool was established, how this has been challenged over the years and addresses the most pertinent questions as to the current status of their existence, their role in female fertility, and perhaps most importantly, if they do exist, how can we harness these cells to improve a woman's oocyte reserve and treat conditions such as premature ovarian insufficiency (POI: also known as premature ovarian failure, POF).

Changes in the expression of OCT4 in mouse ovary during estrous cycle

The transcriptional factor OCT4 regulates pluripotency of stem cells and has an important role during oocyte growth. Whereas, its role has remained ambiguous in ovarian tissue during reproductive cycle. Therefore, this study was aimed to investigate the expression patterns of OCT4 in mouse ovaries during the normal estrous cycle. Adult National Medical Research Institute mice were classified as proestrous, estrous, metestrous and diestrous on the basis of vaginal smear cytology. Their ovaries were removed and the protein and gene expression levels of OCT4 were assessed using immunohistochemical staining and real-time quantitative reverse-transcription PCR, respectively. Immunohistochemical staining revealed the expression of OCT4 in the cytoplasm of corpus luteum cells. In the follicles, OCT4 was expressed in the cytoplasm of granulosa cells. Furthermore, the gene expression levels of OCT4 was significantly higher in the proestrous phase than in the other phases of the estrous cycle (p < 0.05). The results indicated that OCT4 gene expression levels are affected by the cyclic pattern of the estrous cycle.

Endogenous, very small embryonic-like stem cells: critical review, therapeutic potential and a look ahead

BACKGROUND

Both pluripotent very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) and induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells were reported in 2006. In 2012, a Nobel Prize was awarded for iPS technology whereas even today the very existence of VSELs is not well accepted. The underlying reason is that VSELs exist in low numbers, remain dormant under homeostatic conditions, are very small in size and do not pellet down at 250-280g. The VSELs maintain life-long tissue homeostasis, serve as a backup pool for adult stem cells and are mobilized under stress conditions. An imbalance in VSELs function (uncontrolled proliferation) may result in cancer.

SEARCH METHODS

The electronic database 'Medline/Pubmed' was systematically searched with the subject heading term 'very small embryonic-like stem cells'.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

The most primitive stem cells that undergo asymmetric cell divisions to self-renew and give rise to progenitors still remain elusive in the hematopoietic system and testes, while the presence of stem cells in ovary is still being debated. We propose to review the available literature on VSELs, the methods of their isolation and characterization, their ontogeny, how they compare with embryonic stem (ES) cells, primordial germ cells (PGCs) and iPS cells, and their role in maintaining tissue homeostasis. The review includes a look ahead on how VSELs will result in paradigm shifts in basic reproductive biology.

OUTCOMES

Adult tissue-specific stem cells including hematopoietic, spermatogonial, ovarian and mesenchymal stem cells have good proliferation potential and are indeed committed progenitors (with cytoplasmic OCT-4), which arise by asymmetric cell divisions of pluripotent VSELs (with nuclear OCT-4). VSELs are the most primitive stem cells and postulated to be an overlapping population with the PGCs. Rather than migrating only to the gonads, PGCs migrate and survive in various adult body organs throughout life as VSELs. VSELs express both pluripotent and PGC-specific markers and are epigenetically and developmentally more mature compared with ES cells obtained from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst-stage embryo. As a result, VSELs readily differentiate into three embryonic germ layers and spontaneously give rise to both sperm and oocytes in vitro. Like PGCs, VSELs do not divide readily in culture, nor produce teratoma or integrate in the developing embryo. But this property of being relatively quiescent allows endogenous VSELs to survive various kinds of toxic insults. VSELs that survive oncotherapy can be targeted to induce endogenous regeneration of non-functional gonads. Transplanting healthy niche (mesenchymal) cells have resulted in improved gonadal function and live births.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

Being quiescent, VSELs possibly do not accumulate genomic (nuclear or mitochondrial) mutations and thus may be ideal endogenous, pluripotent stem cell candidates for regenerative and reproductive medicine. The presence of VSELs in adult gonads and the fact that they survive oncotherapy may obviate the need to bank gonadal tissue for fertility preservation prior to oncotherapy. VSELs and their ability to undergo spermatogenesis/neo-oogenesis in the presence of a healthy niche will help identify newer strategies toward fertility restoration in cancer survivors, delaying menopause and also enabling aged mothers to have better quality eggs.

Testicular Stem Cells Express Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Receptors and Are Directly Modulated by FSH

Testicular spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) are a heterogeneous population of stem cells, and definitive marker for the most primitive subset that undergoes asymmetric cell division remains to be identified. A novel subpopulation of pluripotent, very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) has been reported in both human and mouse testes. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) receptors (FSHRs) are expressed on Sertoli cells in testis and on granulosa cells in ovary, but recently FSHRs are reported on VSELs in ovaries, bone marrow, and cord blood. The present study was aimed to investigate whether FSHRs are also expressed on testicular stem cells (VSELs and SSCs) and their possible modulation by FSH using intact and chemoablated (25 mg/kg busulfan) mice. Chemoablated testis was a better model to study stem cell biology since quiescent stem cells survive along with the Sertoli cells in the tubules. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive, small-sized cells presumed to be VSELs were clearly visualized, and flow cytometry analysis revealed an increase in LIN^-/CD45^-/SCA-1⁺ VSELs from 0.045±0.008% to 0.1±0.03% of total cells in chemoablated testis after FSH treatment. Very small embryonic-like stem cells expressing nuclear octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (OCT-4) and SSCs with cytoplasmic OCT-4 were detected. Very small embryonic-like stem cells (Oct-4A, Sca-1, Nanog), SSCs (Oct-4), and proliferation (Pcna) specific transcripts were upregulated on FSH treatment. Stem cells expressed FSHR and were stimulated by FSH, and Fshr3 was the predominant transcript maximally modulated by FSH. Nuclear OCT-4 and SCA-1 (stem cell antigen 1) positive VSELs are the most primitive stem cells in testis, and FSH stimulates them to undergo asymmetric cell division including self-renewal and give rise to SSCs, which in turn proliferate rapidly and undergo clonal expansion and further differentiation.