Vitamin D and cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Association of vitamin D and bisphenol A levels with cardiovascular risk in an elderly Italian population: results from the InCHIANTI study

Few studies have evaluated the association between circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D), 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D), and the endocrine disruptor bisphenol A (BPA), with risk of cardiovascular (CV) disease in elderly individuals. This was a cross-sectional study in a subgroup of elderly people from the InCHIANTI Biobank in Italy. We examined the association between circulating serum vitamin D metabolites, 1,25(OH)2D, 25(OH)D, and the endocrine disrupting agent BPA, with an arbitrary CV risk score and the European Society of Cardiology-based 10-year CV risk (SCORE2/SCORE2-OP) using univariate and multiple regression. In 299 individuals, blood samples were tested for serum values of 25(OH)D, 1,25(OH)2D and urinary BPA levels. One hundred eighty individuals (60.2%) were deficient (< 20 ng/ml) in 25(OH)D. Levels of 25(OH)D and 1,25(OH)2D were negatively correlated with CV risk score (p < 0.0001 for both) as well as SCORE2/SCORE2-OP (p < 0.0001 for both) while BPA levels were positively correlated with both CV risk scores (p < 0.0001 for both). In a logistic regression model, male gender (odds ratio; OR: 2.1, 95% CI:1.1-3.8, p = 0.022), obesity (OR:2.8, 95% CI:1.2-6.5, p = 0.016) and BPA levels ≥ 110 ng/dl (OR:20.9, 95% CI:9.4-46.8, p < 0.0001) were associated with deficient levels of 25(OH)D. 1,25(OH)2D levels < 41 ng/dl and 25(OH)D levels < 20 ng/ml were associated with CV risk score ≥ 3 (OR: 4.16, 95% CI: 2.32-7.4, p < 0.0001 and OR: 1.86, 95% CI: 1.02-3.39, p = 0.044) respectively and 1,25(OH)2D levels < 41 ng/dl were associated with SCORE2/SCORE2-OP of ≥ 20% (OR:2.98, 95% CI: 1.7-5.2, p = 0.0001). In this cross-sectional analysis, BPA exposure was associated with significantly reduced levels of vitamin D that in turn were significantly associated with increased CV risk.

Effect of Vitamin D supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive individuals with hypovitaminosis D: a systematic review and meta-analysis

In the present study, we aimed to conduct a literature review and meta-analysis to assess the effect of Vitamin D supplementation on SBP and DBP levels in individuals with hypertension and hypovitaminosis D. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and SciELO were systematically searched for relevant publications until January 2023. The review has been registered at PROSPERO (CRD42023400035). To compare the effects of vitamin D with placebo, the mean differences with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were pooled based on the random-effects model. Subgroup analyses were performed to identify the source of heterogeneity, and assessment of study quality was conducted using the GRADE approach. Publication bias was evaluated using funnel plots and Egger's tests. In total, 14 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included in this systematic review, and 11 trials were selected for meta-analysis. The data showed that Vitamin D significantly decreased SBP levels; however, it did not affect DBP levels. In subgroup analysis, Vitamin D supplementation significantly decreased in SBP in studies involving individuals over 60 years of age, with a dose greater than 400 000 IU, duration greater than 8 weeks, frequency of weekly supplementation in studies conducted in Asia. In addition, subgroup analysis revealed a significant reduction in DBP in the weekly frequency subgroups and in the studies carried out in Asia. This meta-analysis indicated that Vitamin D significantly reduced the SBP in individuals with hypertension and hypovitaminosis D. Further, well designed trials are necessary to validate these results.

Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Diseases: From Physiology to Pathophysiology and Outcomes

Vitamin D is rightly recognized as an essential key factor in the regulation of calcium and phosphate homeostasis, affecting primary adequate bone mineralization. In the last decades, a more complex and wider role of vitamin D has been postulated and demonstrated. Cardiovascular diseases have been found to be strongly related to vitamin D levels, especially to its deficiency. Pre-clinical studies have suggested a direct role of vitamin D in the regulation of several pathophysiological pathways, such as endothelial dysfunction and platelet aggregation; moreover, observational data have confirmed the relationship with different conditions, including coronary artery disease, heart failure, and hypertension. Despite the significant evidence available so far, most clinical trials have failed to prove any positive impact of vitamin D supplements on cardiovascular outcomes. This discrepancy indicates the need for further information and knowledge about vitamin D metabolism and its effect on the cardiovascular system, in order to identify those patients who would benefit from vitamin D supplementation.

The Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation on Lipid Profiles: an Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses

According to published meta-analyses, vitamin D exerts different beneficial effects in preventing and controlling risk factors associated with noncommunicable chronic diseases; however, the results are still conflicting. The purpose of this umbrella meta-analysis was to investigate the effect of vitamin D supplementation on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, total cholesterol (TC), and triglyceride (TG) as components of the lipid profile. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews were systematically searched for meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials. The umbrella meta-analysis followed the PRISMA guidelines. The random-effects model was employed to estimate the overall effect size (ES). Overall, 25 meta-analyses were included. In the standardized mean difference analysis, vitamin D significantly decreased TG (ES: -0.15; 95% CI: -0.23, -0.08; P ≤ 0.001) and TC levels (ES: -0.17; 95% CI: -0.23, -0.11; P ≤ 0.001) and increased HDL levels (ES: 0.08; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.15; P = 0.025). In the weighted mean difference analysis, vitamin D significantly decreased only TG levels (ES: -4.63 mg/dL; 95% CI: -7.70, -1.57; P = 0.003). The present study supports that vitamin D supplementation could be considered a beneficial adjuvant therapy in managing lipid profile levels, especially in individuals with vitamin D deficiency. This systematic review was registered in PROSPERO as CRD42022306334.

The Impact of Vitamin D Supplementation on Improving Blood Pressure: Evidence Obtained From an Umbrella Meta-analysis

PURPOSE

The results of meta-analyses regarding the effect of vitamin D on blood pressure are conflicting. The present umbrella meta-analysis was conducted to provide definite and conclusive results.

METHODS

Systematically, Scopus, EMBASE, PubMed, and Web of Science databases and Google Scholar were searched for relevant literature published up to July 2022. All meta-analyses of clinical trials addressing the effect of vitamin D on blood pressure were included. Random effects analysis was performed to obtain the overall effect size based on the standardized mean differences (SMDs) and weighted mean differences (WMDs) separately. The quality of included meta-analyses was assessed by using the Measurement Tool for Assessing Multiple Systematic Reviews 2 questionnaire.

FINDINGS

Overall, 21 meta-analyses were enrolled in the umbrella review. The results indicated that systolic blood pressure was significantly reduced after the intervention based on WMD effect size analysis (ESWMD = -0.69 mm Hg; 95% CI, -1.35 to -0.04 [P < 0.038]; I2 = 46.7%, P = 0.021); however, no considerable impact was observed based on analysis of SMD effect sizes (ESSMD = -0.05 mm Hg; 95% CI, -0.24 to 0.14; P = 0.615). Also, vitamin D supplementation indicated a significant improvement in diastolic blood pressure based on WMD effect sizes (ESWMD = -0.66 mm Hg; 95% CI, -1.05 to -0.27 [P < 0.001]; I2 = 56.4%, P = 0.004) but not SMD analysis (ESSMD = -0.04 mm Hg; 95% CI, -0.13 to 0.04 [P = 0.328]; I2 = 53.4%, P = 0.057).

IMPLICATIONS

Based on obtained evidence, vitamin D could be considered an efficient adjuvant for improving blood pressure.

Impact of vitamin D supplementation on modulating heat-shock proteins in postmenopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of vitamin D (VitD) supplementation on serum heat-shock proteins (HSP) in postmenopausal women (PW).

METHODS

In this double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 160 PW aged 45 to 65 years with amenorrhea 12 months or more were randomized into two groups: 80 PW in VitD group (oral supplementation with 1,000 IU VitD 3 /d) or 80 PW in placebo group. The PW were assessed at baseline and after 10 months of intervention. Plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxyVitD (25[OH]D) were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. HSP27/pS78/pS82, HSP27/total, HSP60, HSP70/72, and HSP90α levels were assessed in serum using a multiplexed bead immunoassay.

RESULTS

HSP27 (pS78/pS82 [ P < 0.035] and total [ P < 0.001]) levels increased in the supplemented group when compared with the control group. There was no effect of VitD supplementation on HSP60, HSP70/72, and HSP90α levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Vitamin D supplementation increases serum HSP27 level in PW.

Vitamin D supplementation and major cardiovascular events: D-Health randomised controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether supplementing older adults with monthly doses of vitamin D alters the incidence of major cardiovascular events.

DESIGN

Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial of monthly vitamin D (the D-Health Trial). Computer generated permuted block randomisation was used to allocate treatments.

SETTING

Australia from 2014 to 2020.

PARTICIPANTS

21 315 participants aged 60-84 years at enrolment. Exclusion criteria were self-reported hypercalcaemia, hyperparathyroidism, kidney stones, osteomalacia, sarcoidosis, taking >500 IU/day supplemental vitamin D, or unable to give consent because of language or cognitive impairment.

INTERVENTION

60 000 IU/month vitamin D₃ (n=10 662) or placebo (n=10 653) taken orally for up to five years. 16 882 participants completed the intervention period: placebo 8270 (77.6%); vitamin D 8552 (80.2%).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The main outcome for this analysis was the occurrence of a major cardiovascular event, including myocardial infarction, stroke, and coronary revascularisation, determined through linkage with administrative datasets. Each event was analysed separately as secondary outcomes. Flexible parametric survival models were used to estimate hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals.

RESULTS

21 302 people were included in the analysis. The median intervention period was five years. 1336 participants experienced a major cardiovascular event (placebo 699 (6.6%); vitamin D 637 (6.0%)). The rate of major cardiovascular events was lower in the vitamin D group than in the placebo group (hazard ratio 0.91, 95% confidence interval 0.81 to 1.01), especially among those who were taking cardiovascular drugs at baseline (0.84, 0.74 to 0.97; P for interaction=0.12), although the P value for interaction was not significant (<0.05). Overall, the difference in standardised cause specific cumulative incidence at five years was -5.8 events per 1000 participants (95% confidence interval -12.2 to 0.5 per 1000 participants), resulting in a number needed to treat to avoid one major cardiovascular event of 172. The rate of myocardial infarction (hazard ratio 0.81, 95% confidence interval 0.67 to 0.98) and coronary revascularisation (0.89, 0.78 to 1.01) was lower in the vitamin D group, but there was no difference in the rate of stroke (0.99, 0.80 to 1.23).

CONCLUSIONS

Vitamin D supplementation might reduce the incidence of major cardiovascular events, although the absolute risk difference was small and the confidence interval was consistent with a null finding. These findings could prompt further evaluation of the role of vitamin D supplementation, particularly in people taking drugs for prevention or treatment of cardiovascular disease.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ACTRN12613000743763.

The effects of vitamin D on all-cause mortality in different diseases: an evidence-map and umbrella review of 116 randomized controlled trials

Purpose

To conduct a solid evidence by synthesizing meta-analyses and updated RCTs about the effects of vitamin D on all-cause mortality in different health conditions.

Methods

Data sources: Pubmed, Embase, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, Google Scholar from inception until 25th April, 2022. Study selection: English-language, meta-analyses and updated RCTs assessing the relationships between vitamin D and all-cause mortality. Data synthesis: Information of study characteristics, mortality, supplementation were extracted, estimating with fixed-effects model. A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews, Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation, and funnel plot was used to assess risk of bias. Main outcomes: All-cause mortality, cancer mortality, cardiovascular disease mortality.

Results

In total of 27 meta-analyses and 19 updated RCTs were selected, with a total of 116 RCTs and 149, 865 participants. Evidence confirms that vitamin D reduces respiratory cancer mortality (RR, 0.56 [95%CI, 0.33 to 0.96]). All-cause mortality is decreased in patients with COVID-19 (RR, 0.54[95%CI, 0.33 to 0.88]) and liver diseases (RR, 0.64 [95%CI, 0.50 to 0.81]), especially in liver cirrhosis (RR, 0.63 [95%CI, 0.50 to 0.81]). As for other health conditions, such as the general health, chronic kidney disease, critical illness, cardiovascular diseases, musculoskeletal diseases, sepsis, type 2 diabetes, no significant association was found between vitamin D and all-cause mortality.

Conclusions

Vitamin D may reduce respiratory cancer mortality in respiratory cancer patients and all-cause mortality in COVID-19 and liver disorders' patients. No benefits showed in all-cause mortality after vitamin D intervention among other health conditions. The hypothesis of reduced mortality with vitamin D still requires exploration.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=252921, identifier: CRD42021252921.

Mechanisms Suggesting a Relationship between Vitamin D and Erectile Dysfunction: An Overview

Vitamin D deficiency (VDD) and erectile dysfunction (ED) heavily burden the male population. The higher prevalence of both conditions in the elderly suggests a possible relationship between the two conditions. In addition, in vitro, animal, and human studies have revealed several mechanisms that may relate VDD to ED. The main mechanism by which vitamin D might exert its action on sexual function appears to be through the regulation of endothelial function. Indeed, VDD correlates with several markers of endothelial function. The action of vitamin D on the endothelium would be exercised both indirectly through its intervention in inflammatory processes and through the production of oxygen free radicals, and directly through the regulation of vascular stiffness, the production of nitric oxide, and the regulation of vessel permeability. Furthermore, the ubiquitous distribution of the vitamin D receptor in the human body means that this hormone can also exert a beneficial effect on erectile function by interfering with those comorbidities significantly associated with ED, such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, chronic kidney disease, and hypogonadism. In this review, we thoroughly and carefully presented the evidence and mechanisms that would appear to relate vitamin D levels to erectile function. Furthermore, we have summarized the meta-analytic evidence for and against this association to provide a true representation of this topic. Data published to date suggest that low levels of vitamin D could contribute to worsening erectile function through several mechanisms. Therefore, vitamin D levels should be measured in patients with ED and maintained at adequate levels by specific supplementation in case of deficiency. However, the low quality and heterogeneity of clinical trials evaluating the effects of vitamin D administration on erectile function and ED-associated comorbidities do not allow for a univocal conclusion, and indicate the need for further studies to analyze these aspects.

Effect of vitamin D supplementation on type 2 diabetes biomarkers: an umbrella of interventional meta-analyses

BACKGROUND

Vitamin D supplementation exerts several supporting effects on improving glycemic status, however, results are inconclusive. Thus, in the present study, we aimed to conduct an umbrella of meta-analysis regarding the impact of vitamin D on type 2 diabetes (T2DM) biomarkers.

METHODS

The Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Google Scholar online databases were searched up to March 2022. All meta-analyses evaluating the impact of vitamin D supplementation on T2DM biomarkers were considered eligible. Overall, 37 meta-analyses were included in this umbrella meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Our findings indicated that vitamin D supplementation significantly decreased fasting blood sugar (FBS) (WMD =  - 3.08; 95% CI: - 3.97, - 2.19, p < 0.001, and SMD =  - 0.26; 95% CI: - 0.38, - 0.14, p < 0.001), hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) (WMD =  - 0.05; 95% CI: - 0.10, - 0.01, p = 0.016, and SMD =  - 0.16; 95% CI: - 0.27, - 0.05, p = 0.004), insulin concentrations (WMD =  - 2.62; 95% CI: - 4.11, - 1.13; p < 0.001, and SMD =  - 0.33; 95% CI: - 0.56, - 0.11, p = 0.004), and homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (WMD =  - 0.67; 95% CI: - 1.01, - 0.32, p < 0.001, and SMD =  - 0.31; 95% CI: - 0.46, - 0.16, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

This umbrella meta-analysis proposed that vitamin D supplementation may improve T2DM biomarkers.

Vitamin D Determinants, Status, and Antioxidant/Anti-inflammatory-Related Effects in Cardiovascular Risk and Disease: Not the Last Word in the Controversy

Beyond its key role in calcium homeostasis, vitamin D has been found to significantly affect the cardiovascular (CV) system. In fact, low vitamin D levels have been associated with increased CV risk, as well as increased CV morbidity and mortality. The majority of effects of this molecule are related directly or indirectly to its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Generally, vitamin D insufficiency is considered for 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels between 21-29 ng/mL (corresponding to 52.5-72.5 nmol/L), deficiency as 25(OH)D levels less than 20 ng/mL (<50 nmol/L), and extreme deficiency as 25(OH)D less than 10 ng/mL (<25 nmol/L). However, the definition of an optimal vitamin D status, as defined by 25(OH)D, remains controversial for many extra-bone conditions, including CV disease. In this review, confounding factors affecting the 25(OH)D measurement and status will be discussed. In particular, available evidence on the mechanism and role of vitamin D in relation to CV risk and disease through its antioxidant effect will be reported, also facing the aspect regarding the debate on the minimum blood 25(OH)D level required to ensure optimal CV health.

Vitamin D Supplementation and Its Impact on Mortality and Cardiovascular Outcomes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 80 Randomized Clinical Trials

BACKGROUND

The impact of vitamin D supplementation on cardiovascular outcomes and mortality risk reduction remains unclear due to conflicting study findings.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs), published between 1983 and 2022, that reported the effect of vitamin D supplementation in adults versus placebo or no treatment on all-cause mortality (ACM), cardiovascular mortality (CVM), non-cardiovascular mortality (non-CVM), and cardiovascular morbidities. Only studies with a follow-up period longer than one year were included. The primary outcomes were ACM and CVM. Secondary outcomes were non-CVM, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, and major or extended adverse cardiovascular events. Subgroup analyses were performed according to low-, fair- and good-quality RCTs.

RESULTS

Eighty RCTs were assessed, including 82,210 participants receiving vitamin D supplementation and 80,921 receiving placebo or no treatment. The participants' mean (SD) age was 66.1 (11.2) years, and 68.6% were female. Vitamin D supplementation was associated with a lower risk of ACM (OR: 0.95 [95%CI 0.91-0.99] p = 0.013), was close to statistical significance for a lower risk of non-CVM (OR: 0.94 [95%CI 0.87-1.00] p = 0.055), and was not statistically associated with a lower risk of any cardiovascular morbi-mortality outcome. Meta-analysis of low-quality RCTs showed no association with cardiovascular or non-cardiovascular morbi-mortality outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

The emerging results of our meta-analysis present evidence that vitamin D supplementation appears to decrease the risk of ACM (especially convincing in the fair- and good-quality RCTs), while not showing a decrease in the specific cardiovascular morbidity and mortality risk. Thus, we conclude that further research is warranted in this area, with well-planned and executed studies as the basis for more robust recommendations.

Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on cardiometabolic disease risk among overweight/obese adult males in the UK: A pilot randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Observational studies suggest links between reduced serum 25(OH)D concentration and increased cardiometabolic disease risk. However, these studies provide limited evidence of causation, with few conclusive randomised controlled trials (RCT) having been carried out to date. This RCT investigated the effect of vitamin D₃ supplementation on vascular function and cardiometabolic disease risk markers, in 55 healthy males aged 18-65 years with plasma 25(OH)D concentration <75 mol L^-1 and body mass index ≥24.9 kg m^-2 .

METHODS

Participants were assigned to consume 125 µg day^-1 (5000 IU day^-1 ) vitamin D₃ or placebo for 8 weeks. Blood samples and vascular function measures were obtained at baseline, as well as at weeks 4 and 8. The primary outcome was arterial stiffness, an indicator of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, assessed by pulse wave velocity. Biomarkers of CVD risk, insulin resistance and endothelial function were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Daily oral intake of 125 µg supplemental vitamin D₃ led to a significant improvement in plasma 25(OH)D concentrations over the 8-week intervention in the vitamin D group compared to the change in the placebo group (p ˂ 0.001). In the vitamin D group, the baseline mean ± SD 25(OH)D concentration was 38.4 ± 15.9 and this increased to 72.8 ± 16.1 nmol L^-1 after 8 weeks of supplementation. The intervention had no effect on arterial stiffness, as measured by pulse wave velocity, although vitamin D₃ supplementation did lead to a decrease in mean ± SD brachial pulse pressure from baseline to 8 weeks of -2.9 ± 3.4 mmHg (p = 0.027) in the vitamin D group compared to the same period in the placebo group. The intervention had no effect on the remaining cardiometabolic parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, treatment significantly improved brachial pulse pressure but no other cardiometabolic disease risk markers. To follow on from this pilot RCT, future large-scale clinical trials over longer durations may offer further insights.

Cardiovascular benefits and risks associated with calcium, vitamin D, and antiresorptive therapy in the management of skeletal fragility

Osteoporosis affects one in every five women over the age of 50 worldwide. With a rapidly ageing population, the prevalence of fragility fractures, considered a largely preventable consequence of osteoporosis, is expected to increase. Age is also a major risk for cardiovascular disease and mortality, thus highlighting the importance of cardiovascular profiling of osteoporosis interventions. Although calcium and vitamin D are essential for a healthy bone metabolism, excessive supplementation may be associated with increased risk. Conversely, early pre-clinical data have suggested a possible cardiovascular benefit from bisphosphonate therapy. This review evaluates the evidence behind the cardiovascular benefits and risks that may be associated with osteoporosis therapy.

Hypovitaminosis D and cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

•

Vitamin D deficiency can not only affect bones but have association with cardiovascular effects.

•

The likelihood of unfavorable cardiovascular outcomes, especially major adverse cardiovascular event (MACE), new MI, and all-cause mortality among deficient vitamin D patient is poorly understood.

•

This is a first and most comprehensive meta-analysis with the largest sample size thus far comparing vitamin D levels in terms of cardiovascular outcomes.

•

High risk patients need to monitor vitamins level and implement vitamins supplementation to avoid adverse outcomes especially elder females.

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Combined exposure to fine particulate matter and high glucose aggravates endothelial damage by increasing inflammation and mitophagy: the involvement of vitamin D

Background

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are related to particulate matter (PM_2.5) exposure. Researchers have not clearly determined whether hyperglycemia, a hallmark of diabetes, exacerbates PM_2.5-induced endothelial damage. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the combined effects of PM_2.5 and high glucose on endothelial damage.

Results

Here, we treated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) with 30 mM high glucose and 50 μg/mL PM (HG + PM) to simulate endothelial cells exposed to hyperglycemia and air pollution. First, we showed that HUVECs exposed to PM under high glucose conditions exhibited significant increases in cell damage and apoptosis compared with HUVECs exposed to PM or HG alone. In addition, PM significantly increased the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HUVECs and mitochondria treated with HG and decreased the expression of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), a free radical scavenging enzyme. The coexposure group exhibited significantly increased ROS production in cells and mitochondria, a lower mitochondrial membrane potential, and increased levels of the autophagy-related proteins p62, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3β (LC3B), and mitophagy-related protein BCL2 interacting protein 3 (Bnip3). Moreover, autophagosome-like structures were observed in the HG + PM group using transmission electron microscopy. The expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) were also increased through the JNK/p38 signaling pathway in the HG + PM group. As a ROS scavenger, vitamin D treatment effectively protected cells under HG and PM conditions by increasing cell viability, reducing mitochondrial ROS production, and suppressing the formation of mitophagy and inflammation. Furthermore, diabetes was induced in mice by administering streptozotocin (STZ). Mice were treated with PM by intratracheal injection. Vitamin D effectively alleviated oxidative stress, mitophagy, and inflammation in the aortas of mice treated with STZ and PM.

Conclusion

Taken together, simultaneous exposure to PM and high glucose exerts significant harmful effects on endothelial cells by inducing ROS production, mitophagy, and inflammation, while vitamin D reverses these effects.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12989-022-00462-1.

1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and cardiometabolic risk in healthy sedentary adults: The FIT-AGEING study

BACKGROUND

A growing body of scientific works investigating the physio-pathological mechanisms behind cardiovascular disease has suggested that vitamin D deficiency could play a key role on its development. However, it remains unclear whether its active form (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)₂D] is associated with cardiometabolic risk factors in healthy individuals. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships of 1,25(OH)₂D plasma levels with cardiometabolic risk factors in a sample of healthy sedentary adults.

METHODS

A total of 73 adults (~53% women; 54 ± 5 years old) were included in the current cross-sectional study. A sex-specific cardiometabolic risk score (MetScore) was calculated for each subject based on clinical parameters (i.e., waist circumference, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, plasma glucose, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides) according to the International Diabetes Federation's clinical criteria. Plasma levels of 1,25(OH)₂D were measured using a DiaSorin Liaison® immunochemiluminometric analyzer.

RESULTS

No significant association was detected between 1,25(OH)₂D and MetScore (β = 0.037, R² = 0.001, p = 0.77), independently of age, sex and fat body mass index. A significant inverse association were observed between 1,25(OH)₂D and waist circumference (β = -0,303, R² = 0.092, p = 0.01). These results were consistent after controlling by potential confounders.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the present results suggest that 1,25(OH)₂D plasma levels are not associated with either cardiometabolic risk factors or insulin resistance in healthy sedentary adults. However, an inverse association of 1,25(OH)₂D plasma levels with central adiposity was observed in our study sample.

Vitamin D and Multiple Health Outcomes: An Umbrella Review of Observational Studies, Randomized Controlled Trials, and Mendelian Randomization Studies

Observational studies, randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and Mendelian randomization (MR) studies have yielded inconsistent results on the associations of vitamin D concentrations with multiple health outcomes. In the present umbrella review we aimed to evaluate the effects of low vitamin D concentrations and vitamin D supplementation on multiple health outcomes. We summarized current evidence obtained from meta-analyses of observational studies that examined associations between vitamin D concentrations and multiple health outcomes, meta-analyses of RCTs that investigated the effect of vitamin D supplementation on multiple health outcomes, and MR studies that explored the causal associations of vitamin D concentrations with various diseases (international prospective register of systematic reviews PROSPERO registration number CRD42018091434). A total of 296 meta-analyses of observational studies comprising 111 unique outcomes, 139 meta-analyses of RCTs comprising 46 unique outcomes, and 73 MR studies comprising 43 unique outcomes were included in the present umbrella review. Twenty-eight disease outcomes were identified by both meta-analyses of observational studies and MR studies. Seventeen of these reported disease outcomes had consistent results, demonstrating that lower concentrations of vitamin D were associated with a higher risk for all-cause mortality, Alzheimer's disease, hypertension, schizophrenia, and type 2 diabetes. The combinations of consistent evidence obtained by meta-analyses of observational studies and MR studies together with meta-analyses of RCTs showed that vitamin D supplementation was associated with a decreased risk for all-cause mortality but not associated with the risk for Alzheimer's disease, hypertension, schizophrenia, or type 2 diabetes. The results indicated that vitamin D supplementation is a promising strategy with long-term preventive effects on multiple chronic diseases and thus has the potential to decrease all-cause mortality. However, the current vitamin D supplementation strategy might not be an efficient intervention approach for these diseases, suggesting that new strategies are highly needed to improve the intervention outcomes.

The cost-effectiveness analysis of a nationwide vitamin D supplementation program among Iranian adolescents for adulthood cardiovascular diseases prevention

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate a national vitamin D supplementation program's cost-effectiveness among Iranian adolescents to prevent cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in adulthood.

STUDY DESIGN

A cost-effectiveness analytical study.

METHODS

A decision tree model was adopted to evaluate the cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) of monthly intake of nine pearls of 50,000 IU vitamin D for nine months to prevent CVD a one-year horizon compared to no intervention. The analysis was conducted in Iranian adolescents in first or second high school grades of 47 climatically different Iran regions.

RESULTS

Our analytical analysis estimated the 1090$ cost per QALY gained of the monthly intake of 50,000 IU vitamin D for nine months among adolescents over a one-year horizon. Based on the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) threshold of 1032-2666, vitamin D supplementation was cost-effective for adolescents to prevent adulthood CVD. It means that vitamin D supplementation costs were substantially less than the costs of CVD treatments compared to the no intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these findings, the national program of vitamin D supplementation in adolescents would be cost effective to prevent CVD development in adulthood. From an economic perspective, vitamin D supplementation, especially in adolescents with vitamin D deficiency, would be administrated.

Potential impact of the steroid hormone, vitamin D, on the vasculature

The role of vitamin D in the cardiovascular system is complex because it regulates expression of genes involved in diverse metabolic processes. Although referred to as a vitamin, it is more accurately considered a steroid hormone, because it is produced endogenously in the presence of ultraviolet light. It occurs as a series of sequentially activated forms, here referred to as vitamin D-hormones. A little-known phenomenon, based on pre-clinical data, is that its biodistribution and potential effects on vascular disease likely depend on whether it is derived from diet or sunlight. Diet-derived vitamin D-hormones are carried in the blood, at least in part, in chylomicrons and lipoprotein particles, including low-density lipoprotein. Since low-density lipoprotein is known to accumulate in the artery wall and atherosclerotic plaque, diet-derived vitamin D-hormones may also collect there, and possibly promote the osteochondrogenic mineralization associated with plaque. Also, little known is the fact that the body stores vitamin D-hormones in adipose tissue with a half-life on the order of months, raising doubts about whether the use of the term "daily requirement" is appropriate. Cardiovascular effects of vitamin D-hormones are controversial, and risk appears to increase with both low and high blood levels. Since low serum vitamin D-hormone concentration is reportedly associated with increased cardiovascular and orthopedic risk, oral supplementation is widely used, often together with calcium supplements. However, meta-analyses show that oral vitamin D-hormone supplementation does not protect against cardiovascular events, findings that are also supported by a randomized controlled trial. These considerations suggest that prevalent recommendations for vitamin D-hormone supplementation for the purpose of cardiovascular protection should be carefully reconsidered.

Vitamin D Deficiency as a Risk Factor for Myocardial Ischemia

Background and Objectives: Vitamin D (Vit D) deficiency has been implicated in various conditions, including cardiovascular disease. The purpose of this retrospective study was to investigate the incidence of patients with myocardial ischemia in relation to their serum levels of vitamin D. Materials and Methods: A 64-month search (January 2016 to April 2021) in our database of the Nuclear Medicine Laboratory revealed 113 patients who had both myocardial perfusion imaging with single photon emission computed tomography (MPI SPECT) and Vit D measurements. MPI SPECT obtained myocardial images during both stress (summed stress score, SSS) and rest (summed rest score, SRS). Abnormal MPI SPECT was when the SSS was ≥4. Vit D was determined by radioimmunoassay (RIA). Patients with Vit D values <10 ng/mL, 10-29 ng/mL and ≥30 ng/mL were defined as having a deficiency, insufficiency and sufficiency, respectively. Results: Among patients, 46/113 (40.7%) were male and 67/113 (59.3%) were female. Abnormal MPI was found in 58/113 (51.3%) patients. Vit D deficiency was noted in 20/113 (17.7%) patients, insufficiency in 86/113 (76.1%) patients, and normal Vit D was noted in only 7/113 (6.2%) patients. Sixteen of the 20 patients (80%) with Vit D deficiency, and 38/86 (44.2%) with insufficiency had an abnormal MPI SPECT. In contrast, only 1/7 (14.3%) patients with sufficient Vit D levels had an abnormal MPI SPECT. The Mann-Whitney U-test showed that ischemia reduced the values of Vit D. Correlation analysis showed a negative association of Vit D levels with SSS (rho = -0.232, p = 0.014) and SRS (rho = -0.250, p = 0.008). Further evaluation with a Vit D cut off 20 ng/mL retrieved no statistical significance. Finally, Vit D and gender were independently associated with myocardial ischemia. Conclusions: Low Vit D levels may represent a risk factor for myocardial ischemia.

The Effect of Vitamin D on Coronary Atherosclerosis: A Propensity Score Matched Case-Control Coronary CTA Study

Background: Vitamin D supplementation may be associated with lower cardiovascular (CV) events, but the data are controversial. It remains speculative whether vitamin D supplementation has a direct effect on coronary atherosclerosis. We therefore set out to assess the influence of vitamin D supplementation on the coronary atherosclerosis profile quantified by coronary computed tomography angiography (CTA) in a retrospective case–control cohort study. Methods: 176 patients (age: 62.4 ± 10.4) referred to coronary CTA for clinical indications were included. A total of 88 patients receiving vitamin D supplementation (mean duration 65.3 ± 81 months) were 1:1 propensity score matched with 88 controls for age, gender, smoking, arterial hypertension, positive family history, dyslipidemia, and diabetes. Coronary stenosis severity (CAD-RADS^TM), mixed plaque burden (weighted for non-calcified), high-risk-plaque (HRP) features, and plaque density (HU) were quantified by CTA. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (OH)-levels were measured in 138 patients and categorized into four groups (0: <20 ng/mL; 1: 20–40 ng/mL; 2: 40–60 ng/mL; and 3: >60 ng/mL) and compared with CTA. Results: The prevalence of atherosclerosis by CTA was similar in both groups (75.6% versus 74.3%, p = 0.999), >50% coronary stenosis was slightly higher in controls (p = 0.046), but stenosis severity score (CAD-RADS) was not different (p = 0.106). Mixed plaque burden (weighted for non-calcified) was lower in patients receiving vitamin D supplementation (p = 0.002) and high-risk-plaque prevalence was markedly lower (3.8% versus 32%, p < 0.001). CT plaque density (HU) was higher (p < 0.001) in the vitamin D group. Patients with serum vitamin D (OH) levels >60 ng/mL had higher plaque density (p = 0.04), indicating more calcified and less vulnerable plaque. Conclusions: In this retrospective case–control cohort study, vitamin D supplementation was associated with less high-risk plaque, less non-calcified plaque burden, and a higher calcified plaque independent of CV risk factors.

Vitamin D equilibrium affects sex-specific changes in lipid concentrations during Christian Orthodox fasting

We aimed to evaluate sex differences in changes of lipid profiles in a cohort of metabolically healthy adults following Orthodox fasting (OF), as well as to assess a potential role of vitamin D status in mediating these variations. 45 individuals (24 premenopausal females, 53.3 %) with mean age 48.3 ± 9.1 years and mean Body Mass Index 28.7 ± 5.8 kg/m² were prospectively followed for 12 weeks. Anthropometry, dietary and biochemical data regarding serum lipids, and vitamin D status were collected at baseline, 7 weeks after the implementation of OF, and 5 weeks after fasters returned to their standard dietary habits (12 weeks from baseline). According to 25-hydroxy-vitamin D [25(OH)D] measurements, participants were divided into two groups: those with concentrations above and below the median of values. Females with 25(OH)D concentrations below the median manifested a non-significant reduction by approximately 15 % in total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol during the fasting period, followed by a significant increase 5 weeks after OF cessation (170.7 vs. 197.5 and 99.6 vs. 121.0 mg/dl respectively, p < 0.001). In contrast, males with 25(OH)D levels below the median demonstrated an inverse, non-significant trend of increase in lipid concentrations during the whole study period. Our findings suggest strikingly different inter-gender lipid responses to a dietary model of low-fat, mediated by vitamin D status. Further studies are necessary to reveal the underlying mechanisms and assess the importance of these differences with respect to cardiovascular health and the benefit of vitamin D supplementation strategies.

Epidemiologic Data of Vitamin D Deficiency and Its Implication in Cardio-Cerebrovascular Risk in a Southern Italian Population

Background

Vitamin D (25(OH)D) deficiency is a prevalent condition worldwide. However, the highest prevalence rates of 25(OH)D deficiency have been attributed to regions with higher latitude. A close association between 25(OH)D and cardio-cerebrovascular (CCV) risk factors and major health problems has been identified.

Aim

To establish the prevalence of 25(OH)D deficiency and to investigate the relationship between 25(OH)D levels and CCV risk factors (blood cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose concentrations, body mass index, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure) in a cohort representative of Southern Italy.

Methods

The prevalence of 25(OH)D levels was evaluated in 1200 subjects aged 25-74 years (600 males and 600 females), enrolled in the "VIP" (from Italian for Irno Valley Prevention) Project, whereas multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between 25(OH)D levels and CCV risk factors.

Results

Only 13.3% of females and 11.1% of males showed adequate serum concentrations of 25(OH)D (≥30 ng/ml), while 59.3% of females and 55.1% of males showed 25(OH)D deficient levels (<20 ng/ml). We observed an independent association between 25(OH)D concentrations and metabolic syndrome score, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and corrected QT (cQT).

Conclusions

We report a high prevalence of 25(OH)D deficiency across the largest Italian adult population studied so far and, in particular, the first across Southern Italy; furthermore, we provide data on the association between 25(OH)D deficiency and higher CCV risk factors.

Association of lower vitamin D levels with inflammation and leucocytes parameters in patients with and without diabetes mellitus undergoing coronary angiography

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus has been associated with a chronic low-grade inflammation and a higher risk of cardiovascular and infectious disease, that could be prevented by the effects of vitamin D. We aimed at evaluating the impact of vitamin D levels on the biomarkers of acute-phase response, inflammation and glucose metabolism in a large cohort of diabetic patients with cardiovascular disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Consecutive patients undergoing coronary angiography were included. Diabetes mellitus was defined as previous diagnosis, specific treatment administration (oral drug or insulin), fasting glycaemia >6.99 mmol/L or HbA1c >48 mmol/L. Glucose parameters, white blood cells, Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR), Monocyte-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (MLR), C-reactive protein (CRP) and vitamin D were measured at admission. Vitamin D levels were measured by chemiluminescence immunoassay kit LIAISON® Vitamin D assay (Diasorin Inc).

RESULTS

We included 1472 diabetic patients and 2499 non-diabetic patients that were divided according to vitamin D tertiles. Among diabetic patients, lower levels of vitamin D were associated with female gender (P = .02), obesity (P = .004), active smoking and acute presentation (P < .001) and with a more atherogenic metabolic profile. The levels of white blood cells, leucocytes subfamilies, and inflammatory parameters significantly correlated with vitamin D levels in both patients with and without diabetes (diabetic: P = .012 for WBC, P = .004 for NLR and P < .001 for MLR and C-reactive protein, non-diabetic: P < .001 for WBC; NLR, MLR and C-reactive protein, respectively). Among diabetic patients, results were confirmed at multivariate analysis with no significant interaction according to glycaemic control.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that, among patients with cardiovascular disease, vitamin D deficiency is associated with metabolic dysregulation and with an elevation of cellular and humoural inflammatory parameters, especially among diabetics, although not being dependent from glycaemic control.

Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease: An Updated Narrative Review

During the last two decades, the potential impact of vitamin D on the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) has been rigorously studied. Data regarding the effect of vitamin D on CVD risk are puzzling: observational data indicate an inverse nonlinear association between vitamin D status and CVD events, with the highest CVD risk at severe vitamin D deficiency; however, preclinical data and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) show several beneficial effects of vitamin D on the surrogate parameters of vascular and cardiac function. By contrast, Mendelian randomization studies and large RCTs in the general population and in patients with chronic kidney disease, a high-risk group for CVD events, largely report no significant beneficial effect of vitamin D treatment on CVD events. In patients with rickets and osteomalacia, cardiovascular complications are infrequently reported, except for an increased risk of heart failure. In conclusion, there is no strong evidence for beneficial vitamin D effects on CVD risk, either in the general population or in high-risk groups. Whether some subgroups such as individuals with severe vitamin D deficiency or a combination of low vitamin D status with specific gene variants and/or certain nutrition/lifestyle factors would benefit from vitamin D (metabolite) administration, remains to be studied.

Association between vitamin D deficiency and serum Homocysteine levels and its relationship with coronary artery disease

Homocysteine (Hcy) elevation and vitamin D deficiency have emerged as potential markers of coronary artery disease (CAD). However, even tough hypovitaminosis D has been suggested to interfere with Hcy catabolism, no study has so far addressed the interaction of vitamin D and Hcy and their impact on CAD, that was the aim of present study. A cohort of consecutive patients undergoing coronary angiography in a single center were included and analyzed within the year 2019. Significant CAD was defined as at least 1 vessel stenosis > 50%, while severe CAD as left main and/or three-vessel disease. Hcy and vitamin D levels were assesssed at admission. We included 3150 patients undergoing coronary angiography at our centre, who were divided according to the quartiles values of vitamin D. Patients with lower levels of Vitamin D displayed a higher cardiovascular risk profile and a higher prevalence of CAD. We observed an inverse linear relationship between lower levels of vitamin D and higher Hcy (r = − 0.092, p < 0.001) and a higher prevalence of hyperhomocysteinemia in patients with lower quartiles values of vitamin D (p < 0.001). By forward conditional regression model, low vitamin D appeared as independent predictors of Homocysteine levels above the median (OR[95%CI] = 1.79[1.37–2.33], p < 0.001). In addition, patients with low vitamin D (below the median) and increased Hcy displayed a non-significantly higher rate of CAD (81% vs 77.7%, p = 0.13, adjusted OR[95%CI] = 1.16[0.88–1.54], p = 0.29) but a significant increase in the rate of severe left main/3-vessel CAD (37.4% vs 30.5%, p = 0.005, adjusted OR[95%CI] = 1.29[1.02–1.67], p = 0.04). Among patients with vitamin D levels above the median, Hcy levels did not impact on the prevalence and extent of CAD (77.7 vs 77.2%, p = 0.81, adjusted OR[95%CI] = 0.94[0.73–1.20], p = 0.60 for CAD and 31.8% vs 27.7%, p = 0.08, adjusted OR[95%CI] = 0.97[0.75–1.25], p = 0.81 for severe left main/3-vessel CAD). No significant interaction between Hcy and vitamin D with CAD or severe CAD was observed. The present study shows an independent inverse linear relationship between vitamin D and Hcy values. Moreover, the association of Hcy with the extent of CAD was significant only among patients with hypovitaminosis D, and not in the cohort of subjects with vitamin D levels above the median, suggesting that a normal vitamin D status can prevent the deleterious effects of hyperhomocysteinemia on coronary atherosclerosis, a hypothesis that certainly needs further confirmation in larger randomized trials.

Serum vitamin D levels in relation to abdominal obesity: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies

Although several observational studies have investigated the relationship between vitamin D deficiency and risk of central obesity, the results were inconsistent. We performed a dose-response meta-analysis on epidemiologic studies that evaluated the association of vitamin D status and abdominal obesity in adults. A systematic search was carried out of all published articles, up to May 2020, in five electronic databases, including MEDLINE (Pubmed), EMBASE, Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) (Web of science), Scopus and Google scholar. Forty-one observational studies reported odds ratios (ORs) or relative risks (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for abdominal obesity in relation to serum vitamin D levels in adults were included in the analysis. Using a random effects model, the overall effect size was calculated. Combining 44 effect sizes from 36 cross-sectional studies with 257,699 participants revealed that the highest versus the lowest serum vitamin D level was significantly associated with a 23% decreased odds of abdominal obesity (OR: 0.77; 95% CI [0.71, 0.83]). This inverse association was significant in almost all subgroups based on different covariates. Dose-response analysis showed that each 25 nmol/L increase in serum vitamin D was related to 8% reduced risk of abdominal obesity (OR: 0.92; 95% CI [0.85, 0.99]). When we confined the analysis to 23 effect sizes from 17 studies with representative population (242,135 participants), the same results were obtained (OR: 0.79; 95% CI [0.71, 0.87]). Dose-response analysis indicated that each 25 nmol/L increase in blood vitamin D levels was linked to 10% decreased central adiposity risk in representative populations (OR: 0.90; 95% CI [0.82, 0.99]). This meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies revealed that serum vitamin D level was inversely associated with risk of abdominal obesity in adults, in a dose-response manner. The same findings were obtained in representative populations. Further prospective studies are required to examine the causal association between serum vitamin D levels and abdominal obesity.

Determinants of vitamin D activation in patients with acute coronary syndromes and its correlation with inflammatory markers

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Vitamin D deficiency is a pandemic disorder affecting over 1 billion of subjects worldwide. Calcitriol (1,25(OH)2D) represents the perpetrator of the several systemic effects of vitamin D, including the anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic and anti-atherosclerotic actions, potentially preventing acute cardiovascular ischemic events. Variability in the transformation of vitamin D into 1,25(OH)2D has been suggested to modulate its cardioprotective benefits, however, the determinants of the levels of calcitriol and their impact on the cardiovascular risk have been seldom addressed and were, therefore, the aim of the present study.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A consecutive cohort of patients undergoing coronary angiography for acute coronary syndrome (ACS) were included. The levels of 25 and 1,25(OH)2 D were assessed at admission by chemiluminescence immunoassay kit LIAISON® Vitamin D assay (Diasorin Inc) and LIAISON® XL. Hypovitaminosis D was defined as 25(OH)D < 10 ng/ml, whereas calcitriol deficiency as 1,25(OH)2D < 19.9 pg/ml. We included in our study 228 patients, divided according to median values of 1,25(OH)2D (<or ≥ 41.5 pg/ml). Lower calcitriol was associated with age (p = 0.005), diabetes (p = 0.013), renal failure (p < 0.0001), use of diuretics (p = 0.007), platelets (p = 0.019), WBC (p = 0.032), 25(0H)D (p = 0,046), higher creatinine (p = 0.011), and worse glycaemic and lipid profile. A total of 53 patients (23.2%) had hypovitaminosis D, whereas 19 (9.1%) displayed calcitriol deficiency (15.1% among patients with hypovitaminosis D and 7.1% among patients with normal Vitamin D levels, p = 0.09). The independent predictors of 1,25(OH)2D above the median were renal failure (OR[95%CI] = 0.242[0.095-0.617], p = 0.003) and level of vitamin D (OR[95%CI] = 1.057[1.018-1.098], p = 0.004). Calcitriol levels, in fact, directly related with the levels of vitamin D (r = 0.175, p = 0.035), whereas an inverse linear relationship was observed with major inflammatory and metabolic markers of cardiovascular risk (C-reactive protein: r = -0.14, p = 0.076; uric acid: r = -0.18, p = 0.014; homocysteine: r = -0.19, p = 0.007; fibrinogen: r = -0.138, p = 0.05) and Lp-PLA2 (r = -0.167, p = 0.037), but not for leukocytes.

CONCLUSION

The present study shows that among ACS patients, calcitriol deficiency is frequent and can occur even among patients with adequate vitamin D levels. We identified renal failure and vitamin D levels as independent predictors of 1,25(OH)2D deficiency. Furthermore, we found a significant inverse relationship of calcitriol with inflammatory and metabolic biomarkers, suggesting a potential more relevant and accurate role of calcitriol, as compared to cholecalciferol, in the prediction of cardiovascular risk. Future trials should certainly investigate the potential role of calcitriol administration in the setting of acute coronary syndromes as much as in other inflammatory disorders, such as the SARS-CoV2 infection.

Prognostic impact of Vitamin D deficiency in patients with coronary artery disease undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention

BACKGROUND

Whether Vitamin D deficiency represents an independent predictor of mortality and major cardiovascular events or rather the mirror of a more advanced clinical condition with increased comorbidities is still debated. We aimed at assessing the impact of vitamin D levels on the long-term outcomes among patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention.

METHODS

Consecutive patients from a single centre were included. Vitamin D levels were measured at admission by chemiluminescence immunoassay kit LIAISON® Vitamin D assay (Diasorin Inc). Severe deficiency was defined for 25(OH)D < 10 ng/ml. The primary study endpoint was overall mortality. Secondary endpoints were cardiovascular mortality, recurrent acute coronary syndrome or major cardiovascular events (a composite of death, recurrent MI and target vessel revascularization) at the longest available follow-up.

RESULTS

We included a total of 705 patients, that were divided according to vitamin D tertiles (<12.7; 12.7-21.59; ≥21.6 ng/ml). Lower levels of Vitamin D were associated with renal failure (p=0.03), more severe coronary disease (p=0.001), diabetes mellitus and previous CABG (p<0.001), lower ejection fraction (p=0.02), acute presentation (p=0.04), use of statins (p=0.02), diuretics, nitrates and clopidogrel (p<0.001) and RASI (p=0.008). An inverse association was documented with BMI, glycemia, total cholesterol (p<0.001), creatinine and WBC (p=0.001). At a median follow-up of 996.5 [377-1552] days, 3.8% of the patients died. Vitamin D deficiency was significantly associated with overall mortality (7.6% vs 2.9% vs 0.4%, adjusted HR[95%CI]=3.6[1.43-8.9], p=0.006), MACE (adjusted HR[95%CI]=1.32[1.07-1.63], p=0.01) and the composite of death and MI (adjusted HR[95%CI]=1.3[1.03-1.65], p=0.03). A similarly increased risk was confirmed for all major higher-risk subsets of patients, with no significant interaction according to age, gender, diabetes mellitus or chronic kidney disease.

CONCLUSION

Among patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions, lower levels of vitamin D are associated with an over 3-fold increased risk of mortality and major cardiovascular events. Future larger studies are certainly warranted in order to define the prognostic implications of cholecalciferol supplementation among high-risk patients with established coronary artery disease.

The VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL): Do Results Differ by Sex or Race/Ethnicity?

Whether vitamin D or marine omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid supplementation reduces risk of cancer or cardiovascular disease (CVD) in general populations at usual risk for these outcomes is relatively unexplored in randomized trials. The primary goal of the VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL), a nationwide, randomized, placebo-controlled, 2 × 2 factorial trial of vitamin D₃ (2000 IU/day) and marine n-3 fatty acids (1 g/day) in the primary prevention of cancer and CVD among 25 871 US men aged ≥50 years and women aged ≥55 years, was to fill these knowledge gaps. Studying the influence of sex and race/ethnicity on treatment-related outcomes was a prespecified goal; such analyses help ensure that important effects are not missed and contribute to the foundation for developing targeted recommendations for supplement use. To enable investigation of potential sex- and race-specific treatment effects, trial investigators enrolled an even balance of men (n = 12 786) and women (n = 13 085) and oversampled African Americans (n = 5106). Significant or suggestive variation in intervention effects according to sex, race/ethnicity, and other participant characteristics was observed for some, though not all, outcomes. Additional research is needed to determine which individuals may be most likely to derive a net benefit from vitamin D or n-3 fatty acid supplementation. (VITAL clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT01169259).

Is microvascular dysfunction a systemic disorder with common biomarkers found in the heart, brain, and kidneys? - A scoping review

Although microvascular dysfunction (MVD) has been well characterized in individual organs as different disease entities, clinical evidence is mounting in support of an underlying systemic process. To address this hypothesis, we systematically searched PubMed and Medline for studies in adults published between 2014 and 2019 that measured blood biomarkers of MVD in three vital organs i.e. brain, heart, and the kidney. Of the 9706 unique articles 321 met the criteria, reporting 49 biomarkers of which 16 were common to the three organs. Endothelial dysfunction, inflammation including reactive oxidation, immune activation, and coagulation were the commonly recognized pathways. Triglyceride, C-reactive protein, Cystatin C, homocysteine, uric acid, IL-6, NT-proBNP, thrombomodulin, von Willebrand Factor, and uric acid were increased in MVD of all three organs. In contrast, vitamin D was decreased. Adiponectin, asymmetric dimethylarginine, total cholesterol, high-density and low-density cholesterol were found to be variably increased or decreased in studies. We review the pathways underlying MVD in the three organs and summarize evidence supporting its systemic nature. This scoping review informs clinicians and researchers in the multi-system manifestation of MVD. Future work should focus on longitudinal investigations to evaluate the multi-system involvement of this disease.

Association between vitamin D and cardioprotection in adult patients

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a review of articles which have evaluated the relationship between vitamin D and cardioprotection in adult.

METHODS

A literature search was performed in the Pubmed and Scielo databases. The results were extracted from primary and secondary sources and will be presented in the form of a bibliographic review.

RESULTS

Twenty-three articles were identified from the electronic search that reported on physiological mechanisms relating the vitamin D axis and the cardiovascular system through receptors. Of the ten studies that evaluated the therapeutic effect of vitamin D in cardiovascular diseases, none reported significant results.

CONCLUSION

The articles assessed in this review did not demonstrate a cardioprotective effect of vitamin D, despite the epidemiological correlation of vitamin D deficiency with a higher prevalence of cardiovascular diseases.

Vitamin D Receptor Polymorphisms and Cancer

Increasing scientific evidence supports the link between vitamin D and cancer risk. The active metabolite 1,25(OH)2D exerts its activity by binding to the vitamin D receptor (VDR), an intracellular receptor that mediates transcriptional activation and repression of target genes. The binding of 1,25(OH)2D to VDR is able to regulate hundreds of different genes. VDR is active in virtually all tissues including the colon, breast, lung, ovary, bone, kidney, parathyroid gland, pancreatic b-cells, monocytes, T lymphocytes, melanocytes, keratinocytes, and also cancer cells.The relevance of VDR gene restriction fragment length polymorphisms for various types of cancer has been investigated by a great number of studies.We have carried out a systematic review of the literature to analyze the relevance of more VDR polymorphisms (Fok1, Bsm1, Taq1, Apa1, and Cdx2) for individual malignancies considering ethnicity as a key factor for heterogeneity.Up to December 2018, we identified 176 independent studies with data to assess the risk of breast, prostate, colorectal, skin (melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer), lung, ovarian, kidney, bladder, gallbladder, esophageal, thyroid, head and neck, liver and pancreatic cancer, oral squamous cell carcinoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, multiple myeloma and sarcoma.Significant associations with VDR polymorphisms have been reported for prostate (Fok1, Bsm1, Taq1, Apa1, Cdx2), breast (Fok1, Bsm1, Taq1, Apa1, CdX2), colorectal (Fok1, Bsm1, Taq1, Apa1), and skin cancer (Fok1, Bsm1, Taq1). Very few studies reported risk estimates for the other cancer sites.Conflicting data have been reported for most malignancies, and at present, it is still not possible to make any definitive statements about the importance of the VDR genotype for cancer risk. It seems probable that other factors such as ethnicity, phenotype, 25(OH)D plasma levels, and UV radiation exposure play a role as confounding factors and introduce heterogeneity.To conclude, there is some indication that VDR polymorphisms may modulate the risk of some cancer sites and in future studies VDR genetic variation should be integrated also with assessment of vitamin D status and stratified by ethnicity.

Low vitamin D levels affect left ventricular wall thickness in severe aortic stenosis

BACKGROUND

Vitamin D [25(OH)D] deficiency and degenerative aortic stenosis represent emerging conditions, linked to a progressive ageing of the population and increased frailty. Previous studies have associated lower levels of 25 (OH)D to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and vascular calcifications. However, few studies have evaluated, so far, the impact of vitamin D deficiency in patients with aortic stenosis, which was therefore the aim of present study.

METHODS

Consecutive patients with severe degenerative aortic stenosis undergoing nonurgent coronary angiography were included. Aortic stenosis was defined as aortic valve area (AVA) less than 1 cm and/or mean gradient more than 40 mmHg. Indexed area and stroke volume or dobutamine stress evaluation were performed when indicated. Fasting samples were collected at admission for 25 (OH)D levels assessment.

RESULTS

We included 137 patients with severe degenerative aortic stenosis (48.9% men, mean age 78.4 ± 6.4 years) who were divided according to vitamin D median values (≥12.4 ng/ml). Patients with lower vitamin D had a more frequent history of coronary artery bypass graft (P = 0.02) and received more often angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitors (P = 0.03). Among them, 38.7% had vitamin D levels less than 10 ng/ml and only five patients were in therapy with vitamin D supplementation. We observed no significant relationship between vitamin D levels and echocardiographic parameters for the severity of aortic stenosis (AVA, peak and mean gradients, volumes, ejection fraction) except for a greater wall thickness in patients with lower vitamin D levels (r = -0.34, P = 0.03). Results did not change when excluding patients with renal failure or treated with vitamin D supplementation.

CONCLUSION

Among patients with severe degenerative aortic stenosis, vitamin D deficiency is common. We found a significant association between left ventricular wall thickness and vitamin D levels, suggesting a potential role of this hormone in modulating hypertrophic remodelling in these patients. However, future larger studies are certainly needed to confirm our findings and to define their prognostic implications.

Silent myocardial dysfunction in vitamin D deficiency

Introduction

Vitamin D (VD) deficiency is a common disease that occurs in all stages of life. A growing number of studies call attention to the relationship between VD deficiency and cardiovascular disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of VD on subclinical left ventricular (LV) function in diabetic and non-diabetic patients with no significant coronary artery disease.

Material and methods

We recruited 140 patients (80 diabetics and 60 non-diabetics) with symptoms of stable ischemic heart disease who underwent coronary angiography and who had no significant coronary artery disease in our clinic. The 25(OH)D₃ levels were measured and patients who had 25-(OH)D₃ levels below 20 ng/dl were defined as the VD deficient group. In addition to conventional echocardiographic parameters, tissue Doppler echocardiography was used for LV diastolic functions and 2D speckle tracking strain echocardiography (2D STE) for evaluating the longitudinal deformation indices of the LV myocardium.

Results

In all groups, LV global longitudinal strain (GLS) was significantly impaired in patients with VD deficiency (p < 0.001) compared to patients without VD deficiency. LV global longitudinal strain rate (GLSR) was significantly impaired in patients with VD deficiency (p = 0.003). The GLS was negatively associated with 25-(OH)D₃ in the VD deficiency group (r = –0.52623, p < 0.001). Conversely, GLS was positively associated with 25-(OH)D₃ levels in the normal VD group (r = 0.28, p = 0.048).

Conclusions

VD deficiency is associated with impaired myocardial GLS. The present study demonstrated that VD deficiency may be the cause of subclinical myocardial dysfunction in patients with or without diabetes mellitus and no history of significant coronary artery disease.

The predictive role of circulating telomerase and vitamin D for long-term survival in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting surgery (CABG)

Backgrounds

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality all over the globe. Inflammation is believed to play a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of CVD. While there are studies on the interrelationship of telomerase and vitamin D and their involvement in CVD, their independent contributions to long-term outcomes in patients with CVD are not well-defined. This study aimed to investigate the association of both telomerase and vitamin D concentrations with 10-year survival among candidates of coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) surgery.

Methods

Participants were 404 patients from Tehran Heart Center-Coronary Outcome Measurement (THC-COM) cohort who were recruited from CABG surgery candidates in 2006. In addition to demographic and clinical data including risk factors for coronary artery disease, laboratory parameters such as markers of inflammation as well as baseline serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D [25(OH)D] and telomerase concentrations were measured. Cardiac function indexes alongside outcome measures such as mortality and survival days were recorded for every patient up to 10 years after CABG. Cox-proportional hazard model was used to study the association between all-cause mortality and research parameters.

Results

The mean serum telomerase enzyme level was 24.92 ±21.4 nmol/L and the mean serum 25(OH)D was 27.27±10.3 ng/mL. 10-year mortality was reported in 64 (15.8%) patients. 25(OH)D was categorized into three groups (<20, 20–30, and >30) and the cut-point for telomerase was set at 25.0 nmol/L. In Cox regression analysis, higher levels of telomerase (>25 nmol/L) were significantly associated with longer survival (p = 0.041), whereas 25(OH)D concentrations were not associated with survival time. Further analysis showed that telomerase concentrations significantly predicted survival only in the presence of insufficient levels of 25(OH)D (20–30 ng/mL) (p = 0.037).

Conclusions

Telomerase can be regarded as a potential predictor of long-term outcomes in patients who underwent CABG. However, the association of telomerase with the mortality may be modified by vitamin D concentrations.

Vitamin D supplementation effects on the clinical outcomes of patients with coronary artery disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis

In this systematic review and meta-analysis our aim was to assess the effect of vitamin D supplementation on cardiac outcomes in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). The search terms were performed from January 2000 to January 2018, only randomized clinical trials (RCT) in human subjects were considered, with no language restrictions. The electronic databases used in this study were: PubMed; Cochran library; Embase; and Scopus. Two independent expert reviewers carried out data extraction according to Cochrane recommendations. Only four RCTs were found in relation to the effects of vitamin D supplementation on the coronary artery disease. In these 299 patients, vitamin D supplementation had significant favorable effects on Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP) (- 2.96, p = 0.02) and Parathyroid hormone (PTH) (- 4.05, p < 0.001). However, it had no significant effects on hs-CRP mean difference (- 0.04, p = 0.25), total cholesterol (TC) (- 0.46, p = 0.83), triglyceride (TG) (0.68, p = 0.89), low-density lipoproteins (LDL) (2.08, p = 0.56), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL) (- 2.59, p = 0.16). In conclusion, the use of vitamin D was associated with improvements in some cardiac outcomes of CAD patients with vitamin D deficiency. Also, further research is needed to clarify these results.

Vitamin D Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease Risks in More Than 83 000 Individuals in 21 Randomized Clinical Trials: A Meta-analysis

Importance

Observational studies have reported an association between low serum vitamin D levels and elevated risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) events, but such studies cannot prove causation because of possible unmeasured confounding.

Objective

We conducted a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials that tested the association of vitamin D supplementation with reduced CVD events and all-cause mortality.

Data Sources

Literature search through PubMed, the Cochrane Library, and Embase was completed by 2 reviewers from each database's inception to December 15, 2018.

Study Selection

Inclusion criteria were randomized clinical trials that reported the effect of long-term (≥1 year) vitamin D supplementation on CVD events and all-cause mortality. Studies that did not include cardiovascular outcomes were excluded.

Data Extraction and Synthesis

Data were abstracted independently by 2 authors. Random-effects models were used to report the risk ratios (RRs) and 95% CIs.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Major adverse cardiovascular events was the primary outcome, and rates of myocardial infarction, stroke or cerebrovascular accident, CVD mortality, and all-cause mortality were the secondary end points.

Results

Twenty-one randomized clinical trials were included (including 83 291 patients, of whom 41 669 received vitamin D and 41 622 received placebos). The mean (SD) age of trial participants was 65.8 (8.4) years; 61 943 (74.4%) were female. Only 4 trials had prespecified CVD as a primary end point. Vitamin D supplementation compared with placebo was not associated with reduced major adverse cardiovascular events (RR, 1.00 [95% CI, 0.95-1.06]; P = .85) nor the secondary end points of myocardial infarction (RR, 1.00 [95% CI, 0.93-1.08]; P = .92), stroke (RR, 1.06 [95% CI, 0.98-1.15]; P = .16), CVD mortality (RR, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.90-1.07]; P = .68), or all-cause mortality (RR, 0.97 [95% CI, 0.93-1.02]; P = .23). Results were generally consistent by sex, baseline 25-hydroxyvitamin D level, vitamin D dosage, formulation (daily vs bolus dosing), and presence or absence of concurrent calcium administration.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this updated meta-analysis, vitamin D supplementation was not associated with reduced major adverse cardiovascular events, individual CVD end points (myocardial infarction, stroke, CVD mortality), or all-cause mortality. The findings suggest that vitamin D supplementation does not confer cardiovascular protection and is not indicated for this purpose.

Polymorphism rs2762939 of CYP24A1 enzyme and coronary artery disease: angiographic results from a large prospective cohort of patients

: Recent attention has been focused on the regulation of vitamin D metabolism as modulating the cardiovascular benefits of vitamin D. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the functional impact of the genetic polymorphism rs2762939 of CYP24A1, the hydroxylase-enzyme modulating the inactivation of vitamin D, on the prevalence and extent of coronary artery disease (CAD).A consecutive cohort of patients undergoing coronary angiography in a single centre was included. Significant CAD was defined as at least one stenosis more than 50%, severe CAD as left main and/or three-vessel disease. Among 1204 patients, 673 (55.8%) carried the C allele. Baseline features showed a lower use of beta-blockers among the C-carriers (P = 0.01) and higher levels of C-reactive protein (P = 0.05). The prevalence of CAD and severe CAD was not conditioned by CYP24A1 genetic status [78.7%-GG vs. 81.2%-C-carriers; P = 0.31; adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval ) = 0.71(0.20-2.56), P = 0.60 and 29.1%-GG vs. 29.5%-C carriers P = 0.95; adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval) = 0.87 (0.73-1.04), P = 0.13, respectively]. Coronary calcifications were significantly higher among GG homozygotes (P = 0.005). This study showed that the polymorphisms rs2762939 of CYP24A1 is not associated with the prevalence and extent of CAD. However, the C-allele carriage significantly lowers the rate of coronary calcifications.

Vitamin D Treatment Attenuates Heart Apoptosis After Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

Vitamin D plays an important role in immune system and in the regulation of inflammatory cytokines. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is associated with an extensive inflammatory response. The aim of this study is to examine the effect of vitamin D treatment on the apoptosis and inflammatory changes developed after CABG.

METHODS

This trial was conducted on 70 patients undergoing CABG with CPB. Patients were randomly administered either in placebo or in the group of orally consuming 150 000 IU vitamin D daily for 3 consecutive days before surgery. The right atrium sample was taken to assess caspases 2, 3, and 7 activity using immunohistochemistry method. The serum level of interleukin-10 (IL-10) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) were compared at intervals.

RESULTS

The average number of positive cells for caspases 2 and 3 were less in vitamin D group (P = .006 and P < .001, respectively). There was an increase in serum levels of IL-10 after 3 days from vitamin D treatment before surgery (vitamin D group = 4.4 ± 4.9 ng/mL and control group = 1 ± 0.5 ng/mL, P = .001). After operation, IL-10 increased in both groups, higher level in vitamin D group (P < .001). The comparison of serum IGF-1 showed significant difference after 3 days (P = .006) and remained higher in vitamin D group after CPB (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest the apoptosis rate after CPB can be reduced by vitamin D. Vitamin D treatment may improve the inflammatory status before and after surgery. Further studies are needed to confirm the antiapoptotic property of vitamin D and clinical implication.

Principal results of the VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL) and updated meta-analyses of relevant vitamin D trials

Whether supplemental vitamin D reduces risk of cancer or cardiovascular disease (CVD) is relatively unexplored in randomized trial settings. The VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL) was a nationwide, randomized, placebo-controlled, 2 × 2 factorial trial of daily vitamin D₃ (2000 IU) and marine omega-3 fatty acids (1 g) in the primary prevention of cancer and CVD among 25,871 U.S. men aged ≥50 and women aged ≥55, including 5106 African Americans. Median treatment duration was 5.3 years. Vitamin D did not significantly reduce the primary endpoint of total invasive cancer incidence (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.96 [95% confidence interval 0.88-1.06]) but showed a promising signal for reduction in total cancer mortality (HR = 0.83 [0.67-1.02]), especially in analyses that accounted for latency by excluding the first year (HR = 0.79 [0.63-0.99]) or first 2 years (HR = 0.75 [0.59-0.96]) of follow-up. Vitamin D did not significantly reduce the co-primary endpoint of major CVD events (HR = 0.97 [0.85-1.12]), other cardiovascular endpoints, or all-cause mortality (HR = 0.99 [0.87-1.12]). Updated meta-analyses that include VITAL and other recent vitamin D trials indicate a significant reduction in cancer mortality but not in cancer incidence or CVD endpoints. Additional research is needed to determine which individuals may be most likely to derive a net benefit from vitamin D supplementation. (VITAL clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT01169259).

Role of Vitamin D in Preventing and Treating Selected Extraskeletal Diseases-An Umbrella Review

Evidence is accumulating that vitamin D may have beneficial effects on respiratory tract, autoimmune, neuro-degenerative, and mental diseases. The present umbrella review of systematic reviews (SRs) of cohort studies and randomised controlled trials (RCTs), plus single Mendelian randomisation studies aims to update current knowledge on the potential role of vitamin D in preventing and treating these extraskeletal diseases. Altogether, 73 SRs were identified. Observational data on primary prevention suggest an inverse association between vitamin D status and the risk of acute respiratory tract infections (ARI), dementia and cognitive decline, and depression, whereas studies regarding asthma, multiple sclerosis (MS), and type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) are scarce. SRs of RCTs support observational data only for the risk of ARI. No respective RCTs are available for the prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), MS, and T1DM. SRs of RCTs indicate beneficial therapeutic effects in vitamin D-deficient patients with asthma and COPD, while effects on major depression and T1DM need to be further elucidated. Mendelian randomisation studies do not consistently support the results of SRs. Since several limitations of the included SRs and existing RCTs do not permit definitive conclusions regarding vitamin D and the selected diseases, further high-quality RCTs are warranted.

Impact of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D on the Prognosis of Acute Ischemic Stroke: Machine Learning Approach

Background and Purpose: Vitamin D is a predictor of poor outcome for cardiovascular disease. We evaluated whether serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level was associated with poor outcome in patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) using machine learning approach. Materials and Methods: We studied a total of 328 patients within 7 days of AIS onset. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level was obtained within 24 h of hospital admission. Poor outcome was defined as modified Rankin Scale score of 3-6. Logistic regression and extreme gradient boosting algorithm were used to assess association of 25-hydroxyvitamin D with poor outcome. Prediction performances were compared with area under ROC curve and F1 score. Results: Mean age of patients was 67.6 ± 13.3 years. Of 328 patients, 59.1% were men. Median 25-hydroxyvitamin D level was 10.4 (interquartile range, 7.1-14.8) ng/mL and 47.2% of patients were 25-hydroxyvitamin D-deficient (<10 ng/mL). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency was a predictor for poor outcome in multivariable logistic regression analysis (odds ratio, 3.38; 95% confidence interval, 1.24-9.18, p = 0.017). Stroke severity, age, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D level were also significant predictors in extreme gradient boosting classification algorithm. Performance of extreme gradient boosting algorithm was comparable to those of logistic regression (AUROC, 0.805 vs. 0.746, p = 0.11). Conclusions: 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency was highly prevalent in Korea and low 25-hydroxyvitamin D level was associated with poor outcome in patients with AIS. The machine learning approach of extreme gradient boosting was also useful to assess stroke prognosis along with logistic regression analysis.

Vitamin D, Marine n-3 Fatty Acids, and Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease Current Evidence

Whether marine omega-3 fatty acid (n-3 FA) or vitamin D supplementation can prevent cardiovascular disease (CVD) in general populations at usual risk for this outcome is unknown. A major goal of VITAL (Vitamin D and Omega-3 Trial) was to fill this knowledge gap. In this article, we review the results of VITAL, discuss relevant mechanistic studies regarding n-3 FAs, vitamin D, and vascular disease, and summarize recent meta-analyses of the randomized trial evidence on these agents. VITAL was a nationwide, randomized, placebo-controlled, 2×2 factorial trial of marine n-3 FAs (1 g/d) and vitamin D₃ (2000 IU/d) in the primary prevention of CVD and cancer among 25 871 US men aged ≥50 and women aged ≥55 years, including 5106 blacks. Median treatment duration was 5.3 years. Supplemental n-3 FAs did not significantly reduce the primary cardiovascular end point of major CVD events (composite of myocardial infarction, stroke, and CVD mortality; hazard ratio [HR], 0.92 [95% CI, 0.80-1.06]) but were associated with significant reductions in total myocardial infarction (HR, 0.72 [95% CI, 0.59-0.90]), percutaneous coronary intervention (HR, 0.78 [95% CI, 0.63-0.95]), and fatal myocardial infarction (HR, 0.50 [95% CI, 0.26-0.97]) but not stroke or other cardiovascular end points. For major CVD events, a treatment benefit was seen in those with dietary fish intake below the cohort median of 1.5 servings/wk (HR, 0.81 [95% CI, 0.67-0.98]) but not in those above (P interaction=0.045). For myocardial infarction, the greatest risk reductions were in blacks (HR, 0.23 [95% CI, 0.11-0.47]; P interaction by race, 0.001). Vitamin D supplementation did not reduce major CVD events (HR, 0.97 [95% CI, 0.85-1.12]) or other cardiovascular end points. Updated meta-analyses that include VITAL and other recent trials document coronary risk reduction from supplemental marine n-3 FAs but no clear CVD risk reduction from supplemental vitamin D. Additional research is needed to determine which individuals may be most likely to derive net benefit from supplementation. Clinical Trial Registration: URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT01169259.