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Bluming AZ, Hodis HN, Langer RD. 'Tis but a scratch: a critical review of the Women's Health Initiative evidence associating menopausal hormone therapy with the risk of breast cancer. Menopause 2023; 30:1241-1245. [PMID: 37847875 PMCID: PMC10758198 DOI: 10.1097/gme.0000000000002267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Use of menopausal hormone therapy (HT) fell precipitously after 2002, largely as a result of the Women's Health Initiative's report claiming that the combination of conjugated equine estrogen (CEE) and medroxyprogesterone acetate increased breast cancer risk and did not improve quality of life. More recently, Women's Health Initiative (WHI) publications acknowledge HT as the most effective treatment for managing menopausal vasomotor symptoms and report that CEE alone reduces the risk of breast cancer by 23% while reducing breast cancer death by 40%. Their sole remaining concern is a small increase in breast cancer incidence with CEE and medroxyprogesterone acetate (1 per 1,000 women per year) but with no increased risk of breast cancer mortality. This article closely examines evidence that calls even this claim of breast cancer risk into serious question, including the WHI's reporting of nonsignificant results as if they were meaningful, a misinterpretation of its own data, and the misleading assertion that the WHI's findings have reduced the incidence of breast cancer in the United States. A generation of women has been deprived of HT largely as a result of this widely publicized misinterpretation of the data. This article attempts to rectify this misunderstanding, with the goal of helping patients and physicians make informed joint decisions about the use of HT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avrum Z. Bluming
- Department of Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, San Diego, CA
| | - Howard N. Hodis
- Atherosclerosis Research Unit, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, San Diego, CA
| | - Robert D. Langer
- Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San Diego, CA
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2
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Wang K, Chen YF, Yang YCSH, Huang HM, Lee SY, Shih YJ, Li ZL, Whang-Peng J, Lin HY, Davis PJ. The power of heteronemin in cancers. J Biomed Sci 2022; 29:41. [PMID: 35705962 PMCID: PMC9202199 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-022-00816-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Heteronemin (Haimian jing) is a sesterterpenoid-type natural marine product that is isolated from sponges and has anticancer properties. It inhibits cancer cell proliferation via different mechanisms, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis as well as proliferative gene changes in various types of cancers. Recently, the novel structure and bioactivity evaluation of heteronemin has received extensive attention. Hormones control physiological activities regularly, however, they may also affect several abnormalities such as cancer. L-Thyroxine (T4), steroid hormones, and epidermal growth factor (EGF) up-regulate the accumulation of checkpoint programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) and promote inflammation in cancer cells. Heteronemin suppresses PD-L1 expression and reduces the PD-L1-induced proliferative effect. In the current review, we evaluated research and evidence regarding the antitumor effects of heteronemin and the antagonizing effects of non-peptide hormones and growth factors on heteronemin-induced anti-cancer properties and utilized computational molecular modeling to explain how these ligands interacted with the integrin αvβ3 receptors. On the other hand, thyroid hormone deaminated analogue, tetraiodothyroacetic acid (tetrac), modulates signal pathways and inhibits cancer growth and metastasis. The combination of heteronemin and tetrac derivatives has been demonstrated to compensate for anti-proliferation in cancer cells under different circumstances. Overall, this review outlines the potential of heteronemin in managing different types of cancers that may lead to its clinical development as an anticancer agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuan Wang
- Graduate Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Medical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 110, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Fong Chen
- Graduate Institute of Cancer Molecular Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chen S H Yang
- Joint Biobank, Office of Human Research, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Haw-Ming Huang
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Yang Lee
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan.,Dentistry, Wan-Fang Medical Center, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Jung Shih
- Graduate Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Medical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 110, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Cancer Molecular Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Zi-Lin Li
- Graduate Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Medical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 110, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Cancer Molecular Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Jacqueline Whang-Peng
- Cancer Center, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, No. 111, Section 3, Xinglong Road, Wenshan District, Taipei City, 116, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan.
| | - Hung-Yun Lin
- Graduate Institute of Cancer Molecular Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan. .,Cancer Center, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, No. 111, Section 3, Xinglong Road, Wenshan District, Taipei City, 116, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan. .,TMU Research Center of Cancer Translational Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan. .,Traditional Herbal Medicine Research Center of Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan. .,Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Rensselaer, NY, 12144, USA.
| | - Paul J Davis
- Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Rensselaer, NY, 12144, USA.,Department of Medicine, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY12144, USA
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3
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Westhoff CL, Guo H, Wang Z, Hibshoosh H, Polaneczky M, Pike MC, Ha R. The progesterone-receptor modulator, ulipristal acetate, drastically lowers breast cell proliferation. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2022; 192:321-329. [PMID: 35015210 PMCID: PMC10088437 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-021-06503-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The proliferation of breast epithelial cells increases during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, when they are exposed to progesterone, suggesting that ulipristal acetate, a selective progestin-receptor modulator (SPRM), may reduce breast cell proliferation with potential use in breast cancer chemoprevention. METHODS Women aged 18-39 were randomized 1:1 to ulipristal 10-mg daily or to a combination oral contraceptive (COC) for 84 days. Participants underwent a breast biopsy and breast MRI at baseline and at end of study treatment. Proliferation of breast TDLU cells was evaluated by Ki67 immunohistochemical stain. We evaluated the breast MRIs for background parenchymal enhancement (BPE). All slides and images were masked for outcome evaluation. RESULTS Twenty-eight treatment-compliant participants completed the study; 25 of whom had evaluable Ki67 results at baseline and on-treatment. From baseline to end of treatment, Ki67 % positivity (Ki67%+) decreased a median of 84% in the ulipristal group (N = 13; 2-sided p (2p) = 0.040) versus a median increase of 8% in the COC group (N = 12; 2p = 0.85). Median BPE scores decreased from 3 to 1 in the ulipristal group (p = 0.008) and did not decrease in the COC group. CONCLUSION Ulipristal was associated with a major decrease in Ki67%+ and BPE. Ulipristal would warrant further investigation for breast cancer chemoprevention were it not for concerns about its liver toxicity. Novel SPRMs without liver toxicity could provide a new approach to breast cancer chemoprevention. TRIAL REGISTRATION NCT02922127, 4 October 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn L Westhoff
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, PH 16-69, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA.
| | - Hua Guo
- Department of Pathology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Zhong Wang
- Department of Pathology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Hanina Hibshoosh
- Department of Pathology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Margaret Polaneczky
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Weill-Cornell Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Malcolm C Pike
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Richard Ha
- Department of Radiology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
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4
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Starek-Świechowicz B, Budziszewska B, Starek A. Endogenous estrogens-breast cancer and chemoprevention. Pharmacol Rep 2021; 73:1497-1512. [PMID: 34462889 PMCID: PMC8599256 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-021-00317-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Breast cancer is the most common female malignancy and the second leading cause of cancer related deaths. It is estimated that about 40% of all cancer in women is hormonally mediated. Both estrogens and androgens play critical roles in the initiation and development of breast cancer. Estrogens influence normal physiological growth, proliferation, and differentiation of breast tissues, as well as the development and progression of breast malignancy. Breast cancer is caused by numerous endo- and exogenous risk factors. The paper presents estrogen metabolism, in particular 17β-estradiol and related hormones. The mechanisms of estrogen carcinogenesis include the participation of estrogen receptors, the genotoxic effect of the estrogen metabolites, and epigenetic processes that are also presented. The role of reactive oxygen species in breast cancer has been described. It called attention to a role of numerous signaling pathways in neoplastic transformation. Chemoprotective agents, besides other phytoestrogens, classical antioxidants, synthetic compounds, and their mechanisms of action have been shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Starek-Świechowicz
- Department of Biochemical Toxicology, Chair of Toxicology, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, 30-688, Kraków, Poland.
| | - Bogusława Budziszewska
- Department of Biochemical Toxicology, Chair of Toxicology, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, 30-688, Kraków, Poland.,Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Andrzej Starek
- Department of Biochemical Toxicology, Chair of Toxicology, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, 30-688, Kraków, Poland
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Yang YCSH, Li ZL, Huang TY, Su KW, Lin CY, Huang CH, Chen HY, Lu MC, Huang HM, Lee SY, Whang-Peng J, Lin HY, Davis PJ, Wang K. Effect of Estrogen on Heteronemin-Induced Anti-proliferative Effect in Breast Cancer Cells With Different Estrogen Receptor Status. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:688607. [PMID: 34381775 PMCID: PMC8350732 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.688607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Estrogen (E2) has multiple functions in breast cancers including stimulating cancer growth and interfering with chemotherapeutic efficacy. Heteronemin, a marine sesterterpenoid-type natural product, has cytotoxicity on cancer cells. Breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, were used for investigating mechanisms involved in inhibitory effect of E2 on heteronemin-induced anti-proliferation in breast cancer cells with different estrogen receptor (ER) status. Cytotoxicity was detected by cell proliferation assay and flow cytometry, gene expressions were determined by qPCR, mechanisms were investigated by Western blot and Mitochondrial ROS assay. Heteronemin exhibited potent cytotoxic effects against both ER-positive and ER-negative breast cancer cells. E2 stimulated cell growth in ER-positive breast cancer cells. Heteronemin induced anti-proliferation via suppressing activation of ERK1/2 and STAT3. Heteronemin suppressed E2-induced proliferation in both breast cancer cells although some gene expressions and anti-proliferative effects were inhibited in the presence of E2 in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells with a higher concentration of heteronemin. Heteromenin decreased the Bcl-2/Bax ratio to inhibit proliferation in MDA-MB-231 but not in MCF-7 cells. Both heteronemin and E2 increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species but combined treatment reversed superoxide dismutase (SOD)s accumulation in MCF-7 cells. Heteronemin caused G0/G1 phase arrest and reduced the percentage of cells in the S phase to suppress cancer cell growth. In conclusion, Heteronemin suppressed both ER-positive and ER-negative breast cancer cell proliferation. Interactions between E2 and heteronemin in signal transduction, gene expressions, and biological activities provide insights into the complex pathways by which anti-proliferation is induced by heteronemin in E2-replete environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chen S H Yang
- Joint Biobank, Office of Human Research, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Zi-Lin Li
- Graduate Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Medical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Yung Huang
- Graduate Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Medical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kuan-Wei Su
- Department of Dentistry, Hsinchu MacKay Memorial Hospital, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Yu Lin
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Hung Huang
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Cathay General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Han-Yu Chen
- Graduate Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Medical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Chin Lu
- National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium, Pingtung, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Marine Biology, National Dong Hwa University, Pingtung, Taiwan
| | - Haw-Ming Huang
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Yang Lee
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Center for Tooth Bank and Dental Stem Cell Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Dentistry, Wan-Fang Medical Center, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jaqueline Whang-Peng
- Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Cancer Center, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hung-Yun Lin
- Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Cancer Center, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,TMU Research Center of Cancer Translational Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Traditional Herbal Medicine Research Center of Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Rensselaer, NY, United States
| | - Paul J Davis
- Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Rensselaer, NY, United States.,Department of Medicine, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Kuan Wang
- Graduate Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Medical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
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6
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Dumitrascu MC, Mares C, Petca RC, Sandru F, Popescu RI, Mehedintu C, Petca A. Carcinogenic effects of bisphenol A in breast and ovarian cancers. Oncol Lett 2020; 20:282. [PMID: 33014160 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2020.12145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous chemical compounds ubiquitously found in everyday life of the modern world. EDCs enter the human body where they act similarly to endogenous hormones, altering the functions of the endocrine system and causing adverse effects on human health. Bisphenol A (BPA), the principal representative of this class, is a carbon-based synthetic plastic, and a key element in manufacturing cans, reusable water bottles and medical equipment. BPA mimics the actions of estrogen on multiple levels by activating estrogen receptors α and β. BPA regulates various processes, such as cell proliferation, migration and apoptosis, leading to neoplastic changes. Considering genetic mechanisms, BPA exerts its functions via multiple oncogenic signaling pathways, including the STAT3, PI3K/AKT and MAPK pathways. Furthermore, BPA is associated with various modifications of the reproductive system in both males and females. These alterations include benign lesions, such as endometrial hyperplasia, the development of ovarian cysts, an increase in the ductal density of mammary gland cells and other preneoplastic lesions. These benign lesions may continue to develop to breast or ovarian cancer; the effects of BPA depend on various molecular and epigenetic mechanisms that dictate whether the endocrine or reproductive system is impacted, wherein preexisting benign lesions can become cancerous. The present review supports the need for continuous research on BPA, considering its widespread use and most available data suggesting a carcinogenic effect of BPA on the female reproductive system. Although most studies on BPA have been conducted in vitro with human cells or in vivo with animal models, it can be argued that more studies should be conducted in vivo with humans to further promote understanding of the impact of BPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihai Cristian Dumitrascu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 'Carol Davila' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Emergency Hospital, 050098 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Cristian Mares
- Department of Urology, 'Prof. Dr. Th. Burghele' Clinical Hospital, 050659 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Razvan-Cosmin Petca
- Department of Urology, 'Prof. Dr. Th. Burghele' Clinical Hospital, 050659 Bucharest, Romania.,Department of Urology, 'Carol Davila' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Florica Sandru
- Department of Dermatology, Elias Emergency University Hospital, 011461 Bucharest, Romania.,Department of Dermatology, 'Carol Davila' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Razvan-Ionut Popescu
- Department of Urology, 'Prof. Dr. Th. Burghele' Clinical Hospital, 050659 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Claudia Mehedintu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 'Carol Davila' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Malaxa Clinical Hospital, 022441 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Aida Petca
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 'Carol Davila' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Elias Emergency University Hospital, 011461 Bucharest, Romania
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Lundström E, Virijevic I, Söderqvist G. Progestogen addition with low-dose levonorgestrel intrauterine system in menopausal hormone treatment gives less normal breast tissue proliferation than oral norethisterone acetate or medroxyprogesterone acetate. Horm Mol Biol Clin Investig 2020; 41:hmbci-2019-0051. [PMID: 32735552 DOI: 10.1515/hmbci-2019-0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Background The impact of hormones on the development of breast cancer is despite extensive studies, incompletely understood. Combined estrogen-progestogen treatment augments the risk for breast cancer beyond that of estrogen alone, according to numerous studies. The role of breast cell proliferation as a promoter in the development and growth of breast cancer is well recognized. Materials and methods Seventy-nine patients from three randomised trials were subject to a re-analysis of breast cell proliferation: (1) 22 women received continuous combined treatment with oral estradiol (E2) 2 mg/norethisterone acetate (NETA) 1 mg once daily for 3 months. (2) Thirty-seven women received 2 months of sequential treatment with oral conjugated equine estrogens (CEE) 0.625 mg daily combined with medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) 5 mg for 14/28 days of each cycle. (3) Twenty women received oral estradiol-valerate (E2V) 2 mg daily combined with levonorgestrel (LNG) intrauterine system (IUS), 20 μg/24 h for 2 months. Fine needle aspiration (FNA) (studies 1 and 3) and core needle biopsy (CNB) (study 2) were used for the assessment of breast cell proliferation. Results There were no baseline proliferation differences, but at the end of treatment there was a highly significant between-group difference for E2V/LNG IUS versus the other two groups (p = 0.0025). E2/NETA and CEE treatments gave a 4-7-old increase in proliferation during treatment (p = 0.04) and (p = 0.007), respectively, which was absent in the E2V/LNG group, showing a significant correlation with insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) serum levels. Conclusion E2V in combination with very low serum concentrations of LNG in the IUS gives no increase in proliferation in the normal breast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Lundström
- Division for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Children's and Women's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, SE-171 76, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ivana Virijevic
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Västerås Hospital, Västerås, Sweden
| | - Gunnar Söderqvist
- Division for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Children's and Women's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, SE-171 76, Stockholm, Sweden.,Division for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Children's and Women's Health, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 76 Stockholm, Sweden, Phone: +46 73 833 82 22
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8
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Hormone replacement therapy and mammographic density: a systematic literature review. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2020; 182:555-579. [PMID: 32572713 PMCID: PMC7320951 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-020-05744-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is used to reduce climacteric symptoms of menopause and prevent osteoporosis; however, it increases risk of breast cancer. Mammographic density (MD) is also a strong risk factor for breast cancer. We conducted this review to investigate the association between HRT use and MD and to assess the effect of different HRT regimens on MD. METHODS Two of authors examined articles published between 2002 and 2019 from PubMed, Embase, and OVID using Covidence systematic review platform. Any disagreements were discussed until consensus was reached. The protocol used in this review was created in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Quality of each eligible study was assessed using the Oxford Center for Evidence-Based Medicine (OCEBM) hierarchy. RESULTS Twenty-two studies met the inclusion criteria. Six studies showed that using estrogen plus progestin (E + P) HRT was associated with higher MD than estrogen alone. Four studies reported that continuous estrogen plus progestin (CEP) users had higher MD than sequential estrogen plus progestin (SEP) and estrogen alone users. However, two studies showed that SEP users had slightly higher MD than CEP users and estrogen alone users. CONCLUSIONS Epidemiological evidence is rather consistent suggesting that there is a positive association between HRT use and MD with the highest increase in MD among current users, and CEP users. Our results suggest that due to increase in MD and masking effect, current E + P users may require additional screening procedures, shorter screening intervals, or using advanced imaging techniques.
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9
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Han Y, Berkey CS, Herman CR, Appleton CM, Alimujiang A, Colditz GA, Toriola AT. Adiposity Change Over the Life Course and Mammographic Breast Density in Postmenopausal Women. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2020; 13:475-482. [PMID: 32102947 PMCID: PMC8210631 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-19-0549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mammographic breast density is a strong risk factor for breast cancer. We comprehensively investigated the associations of body mass index (BMI) change from ages 10, 18, and 30 to age at mammogram with mammographic breast density in postmenopausal women. We used multivariable linear regression models, adjusted for confounders, to investigate the associations of BMI change with volumetric percent density, dense volume, and nondense volume, assessed using Volpara in 367 women. At the time of mammogram, the mean age was 57.9 years. Compared with women who had a BMI gain of 0.1-5 kg/m2 from age 10, women who had a BMI gain of 5.1-10 kg/m2 had a 24.4% decrease [95% confidence interval (CI), 6.0%-39.2%] in volumetric percent density; women who had a BMI gain of 10.1-15 kg/m2 had a 46.1% decrease (95% CI, 33.0%-56.7%) in volumetric percent density; and women who had a BMI gain of >15 kg/m2 had a 56.5% decrease (95% CI, 46.0%-65.0%) in volumetric percent density. Similar, but slightly attenuated associations were observed for BMI gain from ages 18 and 30 to age at mammogram and volumetric percent density. BMI gain over the life course was positively associated with nondense volume, but not dense volume. We observed strong associations between BMI change over the life course and mammographic breast density. The inverse associations between early-life adiposity change and volumetric percent density suggest that childhood adiposity may confer long-term protection against postmenopausal breast cancer via its effect of mammographic breast density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunan Han
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Department of Breast Surgery, First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Catherine S Berkey
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham & Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Cheryl R Herman
- Alvin J. Siteman Cancer Center, Barnes-Jewish Hospital and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | | | - Aliya Alimujiang
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Graham A Colditz
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Alvin J. Siteman Cancer Center, Barnes-Jewish Hospital and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Adetunji T Toriola
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.
- Alvin J. Siteman Cancer Center, Barnes-Jewish Hospital and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
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10
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Fabian CJ, Nye L, Powers KR, Nydegger JL, Kreutzjans AL, Phillips TA, Metheny T, Winblad O, Zalles CM, Hagan CR, Goodman ML, Gajewski BJ, Koestler DC, Chalise P, Kimler BF. Effect of Bazedoxifene and Conjugated Estrogen (Duavee) on Breast Cancer Risk Biomarkers in High-Risk Women: A Pilot Study. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2019; 12:711-720. [PMID: 31420361 PMCID: PMC6774863 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-19-0315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Interventions that relieve vasomotor symptoms while reducing risk for breast cancer would likely improve uptake of chemoprevention for perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. We conducted a pilot study with 6 months of the tissue selective estrogen complex bazedoxifene (20 mg) and conjugated estrogen (0.45 mg; Duavee) to assess feasibility and effects on risk biomarkers for postmenopausal breast cancer. Risk biomarkers included fully automated mammographic volumetric density (Volpara), benign breast tissue Ki-67 (MIB-1 immunochemistry), and serum levels of progesterone, IGF-1, and IGFBP3, bioavailable estradiol and testosterone. Twenty-eight perimenopausal and postmenopausal women at increased risk for breast cancer were enrolled: 13 in cohort A with baseline Ki-67 < 1% and 15 in cohort B with baseline Ki-67 of 1% to 4%. All completed the study with > 85% drug adherence. Significant changes in biomarkers, uncorrected for multiple comparisons, were a decrease in mammographic fibroglandular volume (P = 0.043); decreases in serum progesterone, bioavailable testosterone, and IGF-1 (P < 0.01), an increase in serum bioavailable estradiol (P < 0.001), and for women from cohort B a reduction in Ki-67 (P = 0.017). An improvement in median hot flash score from 15 at baseline to 0 at 6 months, and menopause-specific quality-of-life total, vasomotor, and sexual domain scores were also observed (P < 0.001). Given the favorable effects on risk biomarkers and patient reported outcomes, a placebo-controlled phase IIB trial is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol J Fabian
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Lauren Nye
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Kandy R Powers
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Jennifer L Nydegger
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Amy L Kreutzjans
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Teresa A Phillips
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Trina Metheny
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Onalisa Winblad
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Carola M Zalles
- Department of Pathology, Boca Raton Hospital, Boca Raton, Florida
| | - Christy R Hagan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Merit L Goodman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Byron J Gajewski
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Devin C Koestler
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Prabhakar Chalise
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Bruce F Kimler
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas.
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11
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Maiti S, Nazmeen A. Impaired redox regulation of estrogen metabolizing proteins is important determinant of human breast cancers. Cancer Cell Int 2019; 19:111. [PMID: 31114446 PMCID: PMC6518504 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-019-0826-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Estrogen evidently involves critically in the pathogenesis of gynaecological-cancers. Reports reveal that interference in estrogen-signalling can influence cell-cycle associated regulatory-processes in female reproductive-organs. The major determinants that influence E2-signallings are estrogen-receptor (ER), estrogen-sulfotransferase (SULT1E1), sulfatase (STS), and a formylglycine-generating-enzyme (FGE) which regulates STS activity. The purpose of this mini review was to critically analyze the correlation between oxidative-threats and redox-regulation in the process of estrogen signalling. It is extensively investigated and reported that oxidative-stress is linked to cancer. But no definite mechanism has been explored till date. The adverse effects of oxidative-threat/free-radicals (like genotoxic-effects, gene-regulation, and mitochondrial impairment) have been linked to several diseases like diabetes/cardiovascular-syndrome/stroke and cancer. However, a significant correlation between oxidative-stress and gynaecological-cancers are repeatedly reported without pointing a definite mechanism. For the first time in our study we have investigated the relationship between oxidative stress and the regulation of estrogen via estrogen metabolizing proteins. Reports reveal that ER, SULT1E1, STS and FGE are target-molecules of oxidative-stress and may function differently in oxidizing and reducing environment. In addition, estrogen itself can induce oxidative-stress. This fact necessitates identifying the critical connecting events between oxidative-stress and regulation of estrogen-associated-molecules (ER, SULT1E1, STS, and FGE) that favors tumorigenesis/carcinogenesis. The current review focus is on unique redox-regulation of estrogen and its regulatory-molecules via oxidative-stress. This mechanistic-layout may identify new therapeutic-targets and open further scopes to treat gynecological-cancers more effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smarajit Maiti
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Cell & Molecular Therapeutics Lab, Oriental Institute of Science & Technology, Midnapore, 721101 India.,Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Cell & Molecular Therapeutics Lab, OIST, Midnapore, 721102 India
| | - Aarifa Nazmeen
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Cell & Molecular Therapeutics Lab, Oriental Institute of Science & Technology, Midnapore, 721101 India
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12
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Infante M, Fabi A, Cognetti F, Gorini S, Caprio M, Fabbri A. RANKL/RANK/OPG system beyond bone remodeling: involvement in breast cancer and clinical perspectives. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2019; 38:12. [PMID: 30621730 PMCID: PMC6325760 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-018-1001-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
RANKL/RANK/OPG system consists of three essential signaling molecules: i) the receptor activator of nuclear factor (NF)-kB-ligand (RANKL), ii) the receptor activator of NF-kB (RANK), and iii) the soluble decoy receptor osteoprotegerin (OPG). Although this system is critical for the regulation of osteoclast differentiation/activation and calcium release from the skeleton, different studies have elucidated its specific role in mammary gland physiology and hormone-driven epithelial proliferation during pregnancy. Of note, several data suggest that progesterone induces mammary RANKL expression in mice and humans. In turn, RANKL controls cell proliferation in breast epithelium under physiological conditions typically associated with higher serum progesterone levels, such as luteal phase of the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. Hence, RANKL/RANK system can be regarded as a major downstream mediator of progesterone-driven mammary epithelial cells proliferation, potentially contributing to breast cancer initiation and progression. Expression of RANKL, RANK, and OPG has been detected in breast cancer cell lines and in human primary breast cancers. To date, dysregulation of RANKL/RANK/OPG system at the skeletal level has been widely documented in the context of metastatic bone disease. In fact, RANKL inhibition through the RANKL-blocking human monoclonal antibody denosumab represents a well-established therapeutic option to prevent skeletal-related events in metastatic bone disease and adjuvant therapy-induced bone loss in breast cancer. On the other hand, the exact role of OPG in breast tumorigenesis is still unclear. This review focuses on molecular mechanisms linking RANKL/RANK/OPG system to mammary tumorigenesis, highlighting pre-clinical and clinical evidence for the potential efficacy of RANKL inhibition as a prevention strategy and adjuvant therapy in breast cancer settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Infante
- Unit of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, Department of Systems Medicine, CTO A. Alesini Hospital, ASL Roma 2, University Tor Vergata, Via San Nemesio, 21, 00145, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Fabi
- Division of Medical Oncology 1, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, Via Elio Chianesi, 53, 00144, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Cognetti
- Division of Medical Oncology 1, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, Via Elio Chianesi, 53, 00144, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefania Gorini
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Endocrinology, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Via di Val Cannuta, 247, 00166, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Caprio
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Endocrinology, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Via di Val Cannuta, 247, 00166, Rome, Italy.,Department of Human Sciences and Promotion of the Quality of Life, San Raffaele Roma Open University, Via di Val Cannuta, 247, 00166, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Fabbri
- Unit of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, Department of Systems Medicine, CTO A. Alesini Hospital, ASL Roma 2, University Tor Vergata, Via San Nemesio, 21, 00145, Rome, Italy.
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13
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Villanueva H, Grimm S, Dhamne S, Rajapakshe K, Visbal A, Davis CM, Ehli EA, Hartig SM, Coarfa C, Edwards DP. The Emerging Roles of Steroid Hormone Receptors in Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (DCIS) of the Breast. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2018; 23:237-248. [PMID: 30338425 PMCID: PMC6244884 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-018-9416-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is a non-obligate precursor to most types of invasive breast cancer (IBC). Although it is estimated only one third of untreated patients with DCIS will progress to IBC, standard of care for treatment is surgery and radiation. This therapeutic approach combined with a lack of reliable biomarker panels to predict DCIS progression is a major clinical problem. DCIS shares the same molecular subtypes as IBC including estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) positive luminal subtypes, which encompass the majority (60-70%) of DCIS. Compared to the established roles of ER and PR in luminal IBC, much less is known about the roles and mechanism of action of estrogen (E2) and progesterone (P4) and their cognate receptors in the development and progression of DCIS. This is an underexplored area of research due in part to a paucity of suitable experimental models of ER+/PR + DCIS. This review summarizes information from clinical and observational studies on steroid hormones as breast cancer risk factors and ER and PR as biomarkers in DCIS. Lastly, we discuss emerging experimental models of ER+/PR+ DCIS.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antineoplastic Agents, Hormonal/pharmacology
- Antineoplastic Agents, Hormonal/therapeutic use
- Biomarkers, Tumor/metabolism
- Breast/pathology
- Breast Neoplasms/diagnosis
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Breast Neoplasms/therapy
- Carcinoma, Intraductal, Noninfiltrating/diagnosis
- Carcinoma, Intraductal, Noninfiltrating/pathology
- Carcinoma, Intraductal, Noninfiltrating/therapy
- Clinical Trials as Topic
- Disease Models, Animal
- Disease Progression
- Estrogens/metabolism
- Female
- Humans
- Neoplasm Invasiveness/pathology
- Observational Studies as Topic
- Predictive Value of Tests
- Progesterone/metabolism
- Receptors, Estrogen/metabolism
- Receptors, Progesterone/metabolism
- Risk Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Villanueva
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Sandra Grimm
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Sagar Dhamne
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Kimal Rajapakshe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Adriana Visbal
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Christel M Davis
- Avera Institute for Human Genetics, 3720 W 69th St, Sioux Falls, SD, 57108, USA
| | - Erik A Ehli
- Avera Institute for Human Genetics, 3720 W 69th St, Sioux Falls, SD, 57108, USA
| | - Sean M Hartig
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Cristian Coarfa
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Dean P Edwards
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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14
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Toriola AT, Appleton CM, Zong X, Luo J, Weilbaecher K, Tamimi RM, Colditz GA. Circulating Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor-κB (RANK), RANK ligand (RANKL), and Mammographic Density in Premenopausal Women. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2018; 11:789-796. [PMID: 30352839 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-18-0199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANK) pathway plays essential roles in breast development. Mammographic density is a strong risk factor for breast cancer, especially in premenopausal women. We, therefore, investigated the associations of circulating RANK and soluble RANK ligand (sRANKL) with mammographic density in premenopausal women. Mammographic density was measured as volumetric percent density in 365 cancer-free premenopausal women (mean age, 47.5 years) attending screening mammogram at the Washington University School of Medicine (St. Louis, MO). We used linear regression models adjusted for confounders, to compare the least-square means of volumetric percent density across tertiles of circulating RANK and sRANKL. Furthermore, because RANKL levels in mammary tissue are modulated by progesterone, we stratified analyses by progesterone levels. The mean volumetric percent density increased across tertiles of circulating RANK from 8.6% in tertile 1, to 8.8% in tertile 2, and 9.5% in tertile 3 (P trend = 0.02). For sRANKL, the mean volumetric percent density was 8.5% in tertile 1, 9.4% in tertile 2, and 9.0% in tertile 3 (P trend = 0.30). However, when restricted to women with higher progesterone levels, the mean volumetric percent density increased from 9.1% in sRANKL tertile 1 to 9.5% in tertile 2, and 10.1% in tertile 3 (P trend = 0.01). Circulating RANK was positively associated with volumetric percent density, while circulating sRANKL was positively associated with volumetric percent density among women with higher progesterone levels. These findings support the inhibition of RANKL signaling as a pathway to reduce mammographic density and possibly breast cancer incidence in high-risk women with dense breasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adetunji T Toriola
- Department of Surgery, Division of Public Health Sciences, and Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.
| | - Catherine M Appleton
- Division of Diagnostic Radiology, Department of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Xiaoyu Zong
- Department of Surgery, Division of Public Health Sciences, and Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Jingqin Luo
- Department of Surgery, Division of Public Health Sciences, and Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Katherine Weilbaecher
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Rulla M Tamimi
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Graham A Colditz
- Department of Surgery, Division of Public Health Sciences, and Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
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15
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Azam S, Lange T, Huynh S, Aro AR, von Euler-Chelpin M, Vejborg I, Tjønneland A, Lynge E, Andersen ZJ. Hormone replacement therapy, mammographic density, and breast cancer risk: a cohort study. Cancer Causes Control 2018; 29:495-505. [PMID: 29671181 PMCID: PMC5938298 DOI: 10.1007/s10552-018-1033-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) use increases breast cancer risk and mammographic density (MD). We examine whether MD mediates or modifies the association of HRT with the breast cancer. Methods For the 4,501 participants in the Danish diet, cancer and health cohort (1993–1997) who attended mammographic screening in Copenhagen (1993–2001), MD (mixed/dense or fatty) was assessed at the first screening after cohort entry. HRT use was assessed by questionnaire and breast cancer diagnoses until 2012 obtained from the Danish cancer registry. The associations of HRT with MD and with breast cancer were analyzed separately using Cox’s regression. Mediation analyses were used to estimate proportion [with 95% confidence intervals (CI)] of an association between HRT and breast cancer mediated by MD. Results 2,444 (54.3%) women had mixed/dense breasts, 229 (5.4%) developed breast cancer, and 35.9% were current HRT users at enrollment. Compared to never users, current HRT use was statistically significantly associated with having mixed/dense breasts (relative risk and 95% CI 1.24; 1.14–1.35), and higher risk of breast cancer (hazard ratio 1.87; 1.40–2.48). Association between current HRT use and breast cancer risk was partially mediated by MD (percent mediated = 10%; 95% CI 4–22%). The current HRT use-related breast cancer risk was higher in women with mixed/dense (1.94; 1.37–3.87) than fatty (1.37; 0.80–2.35) breasts (p value for interaction = 0.15). Conclusions MD partially mediates some of the association between HRT and breast cancer risk. The association between HRT and breast cancer seems to be stronger in women with dense breasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shadi Azam
- Unit for Health Promotion, Department of Public Health, University of Southern Denmark, Niels Bohrs Vej 9, 6700, Esbjerg, Denmark.
| | - Theis Lange
- Section of Biostatistics, Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1014, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Center for Statistical Science, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Stephanie Huynh
- Section of Environmental Health, Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1014, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Neuroscience, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusets, USA.,Danish Institute for Study Abroad, Vestergade 5-7, 1456, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Arja R Aro
- Unit for Health Promotion, Department of Public Health, University of Southern Denmark, Niels Bohrs Vej 9, 6700, Esbjerg, Denmark
| | - My von Euler-Chelpin
- Section of Environmental Health, Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1014, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ilse Vejborg
- Diagnostic Imaging Centre, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Blegdamsvej 9, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anne Tjønneland
- Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Danish Cancer Society, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Elsebeth Lynge
- Section of Environmental Health, Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1014, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Zorana J Andersen
- Section of Environmental Health, Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1014, Copenhagen, Denmark
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16
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The Proliferative Response to p27 Down-Regulation in Estrogen Plus Progestin Hormonal Therapy is Lost in Breast Tumors. Transl Oncol 2018. [PMID: 29524829 PMCID: PMC5884216 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2018.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased proliferation and breast cancer risk has been observed in postmenopausal women receiving estrogen (E) + progestin hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Progestin action is mediated through two progesterone receptor (PR) isoforms, PRA and PRB, with unique transcriptional activity and function. The current study examines hormonal regulation of PR isoforms in the normal postmenopausal human breast and the mechanism by which progestins increase proliferation and breast cancer risk. Archival benign breast biopsies from postmenopausal and premenopausal women, and luminal breast tumor biopsies from postmenopausal women, were analyzed for regulation of PRA and PRB expression by E and E+medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA). In the postmenopausal breast without HRT, PRA and PRB expression was decreased compared to the premenopausal breast. Both E (n = 12) and E+MPA (n = 13) HRT in the postmenopausal breast were associated with increased PRA and PRB expression, increased nuclear cyclin E expression, and decreased nuclear p27 expression compared to no HRT (n = 16). With E+MPA HRT, there was a further decrease in nuclear p27 and increased Receptor Activator of NF-kappa B Ligand (RANKL) expression compared to E-alone HRT. In luminal breast cancers, E+MPA HRT (n = 6) was also associated with decreased nuclear expression of the cell cycle inhibitor p27 compared to E HRT (n = 6), but was not associated with increased proliferation. These results suggest that p27 mediates progestin-induced proliferation in the normal human breast and that regulation of this proliferative response by E+MPA is lost in breast tumors.
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17
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Perinatal Exposure to Bisphenol A or Diethylstilbestrol Increases the Susceptibility to Develop Mammary Gland Lesions After Estrogen Replacement Therapy in Middle-Aged Rats. Discov Oncol 2017; 8:78-89. [DOI: 10.1007/s12672-016-0282-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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18
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Gatti-Mays ME, Venzon D, Galbo CE, Singer A, Reynolds J, Makariou E, Kallakury B, Heckman-Stoddard BM, Korde L, Isaacs C, Warren R, Gallagher A, Eng-Wong J. Exemestane Use in Postmenopausal Women at High Risk for Invasive Breast Cancer: Evaluating Biomarkers of Efficacy and Safety. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2016; 9:225-33. [PMID: 26758879 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-15-0269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This phase II trial evaluated clinical markers of efficacy and safety of exemestane in postmenopausal women at increased risk for breast cancer. Postmenopausal women (n = 42) at risk for invasive breast cancer received 25 mg exemestane daily for 2 years along with calcium and vitamin D. The primary outcome was change in mammographic density (MD) after one year. Secondary outcomes included change in serum steroid hormones as well as change in trefoil protein 1 (TFF1) and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in breast tissue. Safety and tolerability were also assessed. MD decreased at 1 year and was significant at 2 years [mean change = -4.1%; 95% confidence intervals (CI), -7.2 to -1.1; P = 0.009]. Serum estradiol and testosterone levels significantly decreased at 3 months and remained suppressed at 12 months. After 1 year of treatment, TFF1 intensity decreased (mean change -1.32; 95% CI, -1.87 to -0.76; P < 0.001). Exemestane was safe and well tolerated. Exemestane decreased MD and expression of breast tissue TFF1. It was well tolerated with few clinically relevant side effects. MD and breast tissue TFF1 are potential biomarkers of breast cancer-preventive effects of exemestane in high-risk postmenopausal women.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David Venzon
- Biostatistics and Data Management Section, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Claudia E Galbo
- Department of Radiology, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Andrea Singer
- Department of Medicine, Medstar Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC
| | | | - Erini Makariou
- Division of Neuroradiology and Breast Imaging, Department of Radiology, Medstar Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC
| | - Bhaskar Kallakury
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medstar Georgetown University Hospital, Washington DC
| | | | - Larissa Korde
- Division of Oncology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Claudine Isaacs
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC
| | - Robert Warren
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC
| | - Ann Gallagher
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC
| | - Jennifer Eng-Wong
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC
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19
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Chlebowski RT, Anderson GL, Sarto GE, Haque R, Runowicz CD, Aragaki AK, Thomson CA, Howard BV, Wactawski-Wende J, Chen C, Rohan TE, Simon MS, Reed SD, Manson JE. Continuous Combined Estrogen Plus Progestin and Endometrial Cancer: The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 2015; 108:djv350. [PMID: 26668177 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djv350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND While progestin addition to estrogen mitigates endometrial cancer risk, the magnitude of the effect on incidence, specific endometrial cancer histologies, and endometrial cancer mortality remains unsettled. These issues were assessed by analyses after extended follow-up of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) randomized clinical trial evaluating continuous combined estrogen plus progestin use. METHODS The WHI enrolled 16 608 postmenopausal women into a randomly assigned, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Women age 50 to 79 years with intact uteri with normal endometrial biopsy at entry were randomly assigned to once-daily 0.625 mg conjugated equine estrogen plus 2.5mg medroxyprogesterone acetate (n = 8506) as a single pill or matching placebo (n = 8102). Follow-up beyond the original trial completion date required reconsent, obtained from 12 788 (83%) of surviving participants. Analyses were by intent-to-treat. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS After 5.6 years' median intervention and 13 years' median cumulative follow-up, there were fewer endometrial cancers in the combined hormone therapy compared with the placebo group (66 vs 95 case patients, yearly incidence, 0.06% vs 0.10%; hazard ratio [HR] = 0.65, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.48 to 0.89, P = .007). While there were somewhat fewer endometrial cancers during intervention (25 vs 30, respectively; HR = 0.77, 95% CI = 0.45 to 1.31), the difference became statistically significant postintervention (41 vs 65, respectively; HR = 0.59, 95% CI = 0.40 to 0.88, P = .008), but hazard ratios did not differ between phases (P difference = .46). There was a statistically nonsignificant reduction in deaths from endometrial cancer in the estrogen plus progestin group (5 vs 11 deaths, HR = 0.42, 95% CI = 0.15 to 1.22). CONCLUSION In postmenopausal women, continuous combined estrogen plus progestin decreases endometrial cancer incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- R T Chlebowski
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - G L Anderson
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - G E Sarto
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - R Haque
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - C D Runowicz
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - A K Aragaki
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - C A Thomson
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - B V Howard
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - J Wactawski-Wende
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - C Chen
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - T E Rohan
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - M S Simon
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - S D Reed
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
| | - J E Manson
- Affiliations of authors: Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA (RTC); Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA (GLA, AKA, CC ); Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA (GES, SDR); Department of Research and Evaluation, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Pasadena, CA (RH); Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Florida International University, Miami, FL (CDR); Department of Nutritional Sciences and Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ (CAT); Star Research Institute / Howard University, Washington, DC (BVH); Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, State University of New York, Memphis, TN (JWW); Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY (TER); Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI (MSS); Brigham and Women's Health Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (JEM)
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Hilton HN, Graham JD, Clarke CL. Minireview: Progesterone Regulation of Proliferation in the Normal Human Breast and in Breast Cancer: A Tale of Two Scenarios? Mol Endocrinol 2015; 29:1230-42. [PMID: 26266959 DOI: 10.1210/me.2015-1152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Progesterone (P), which signals through the P receptor (PR), is critical in normal development of the breast, but its signaling axis is also a major driver of breast cancer risk. Here we review recent advances in the understanding of P signaling in the normal human breast, with a focus on the importance of the balance between autocrine and paracrine signaling. To date, most data (which derive largely from mouse models or human breast cancer cell line studies) have demonstrated that the vast majority of PR+ cells appear to act as "sensor" cells, which respond to P stimulation by translating these hormonal cues into paracrine signals. However, growing evidence suggests that, dependent on the cellular context, P may also signal in an autocrine manner in a subset of cells in the normal mouse mammary gland and human breast. It has been suggested that it may be dysregulation of this autocrine signaling, resulting in a "switch" from a predominance of paracrine signaling to autocrine signaling in PR+ cells, which is an early event during breast tumorigenesis. This review summarizes current evidence in the literature that demonstrates the mechanisms through which P acts in the normal human breast, as well as highlighting the important questions that remain unanswered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi N Hilton
- Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, New South Wales, 2145, Australia
| | - J Dinny Graham
- Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, New South Wales, 2145, Australia
| | - Christine L Clarke
- Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, New South Wales, 2145, Australia
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21
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Boopalan T, Arumugam A, Parada J, Saltzstein E, Lakshmanaswamy R. Receptor activator for nuclear factor-κB ligand signaling promotes progesterone-mediated estrogen-induced mammary carcinogenesis. Cancer Sci 2015; 106:25-33. [PMID: 25412610 PMCID: PMC4317778 DOI: 10.1111/cas.12571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related death in women. Prolonged exposure to the ovarian hormones estrogen and progesterone increases the risk of breast cancer. Although estrogen is known as a primary factor in mammary carcinogenesis, very few studies have investigated the role of progesterone. Receptor activator for nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) ligand (RANKL) plays an important role in progesterone-induced mammary carcinogenesis. However, the molecular mechanism underlying RANKL-induced mammary carcinogenesis remains unknown. In our current study, we show that RANKL induces glioma-associated oncogene homolog 1 (GLI-1) in estrogen-induced progesterone-mediated mammary carcinogenesis. In vivo experiments were carried out using ACI rats and in vitro experiments were carried out in MCF-7 cells. In ACI rats, mifepristone significantly reduced the incidence of mammary tumors. Likewise, mifepristone also inhibited the proliferation of MCF-7 cells. Hormone treatments induced RANKL, receptor activator of NF-κB (RANK), and NF-κB in a protein kinase B-dependent manner and inhibited apoptosis by activation of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2 in mammary tumors and MCF-7 cells. Mechanistic studies in MCF-7 cells reveal that RANKL induced upstream stimulatory factor-1 and NF-κB, resulting in subsequent activation of their downstream target GLI-1. We have identified that progesterone mediates estrogen-induced mammary carcinogenesis through activation of GLI-1 in a RANKL-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiyagarajan Boopalan
- Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, El Paso, Texas, USA
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22
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De Melo J, Tang D. Elevation of SIPL1 (SHARPIN) Increases Breast Cancer Risk. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0127546. [PMID: 25992689 PMCID: PMC4438068 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
SIPL1 (Sharpin) or Sharpin plays a role in tumorigenesis. However, its involvement in breast cancer tumorigenesis remains largely unknown. To investigate this issue, we have systemically analyzed SIPL1 gene amplification and expression data available from Oncomine datasets, which were derived from 17 studies and contained approximately 20,000 genes, 3438 breast cancer cases, and 228 normal individuals. We found a SIPL1 gene amplification in invasive ductal breast cancers compared to normal breast tissues and a significant elevation of SIPL1 mRNA in breast cancers in comparison to non-tumor breast tissues. These results collectively reveal that increases in SIPL1 expression occur during breast cancer tumorigenesis. To further investigate this association, we observed increases in the SIPL1 gene and mRNA in the breast cancer subtypes of estrogen receptor (ER)+, progesterone receptor (PR)+, HER2+, or triple negative. Additionally, a gain of the SIPL1 gene correlated with breast cancer grade and the levels of SIPL1 mRNA associated with both breast cancer stages and grades. Elevation of SIPL1 gene copy and mRNA is linked to a decrease in patient survival, especially for those with PR+, ER+, or HER2- breast cancers. These results are supported by our analysis of SIPL1 protein expression using a tissue microarray containing 224 breast cancer cases, in which higher levels of SIPL1 relate to ER+ and PR+ tumors and AKT activation. Furthermore, we were able to show that progesterone significantly reduced SIPL1 mRNA and protein expression in MCF7 cells. As progesterone enhances breast cancer tumorigenesis in a context dependent manner, inhibition of SIPL1 expression may contribute to progesterone's non-tumorigenic function which might be countered by SIPL1 upregulation. Taken together, we demonstrate a positive correlation of SIPL1 with BC tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason De Melo
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Ontario, Canada
- Father Sean O’Sullivan Research Institute, Ontario, Canada
- The Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph’s Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Damu Tang
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Ontario, Canada
- Father Sean O’Sullivan Research Institute, Ontario, Canada
- The Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph’s Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Wood CE, Branstetter D, Jacob AP, Cline JM, Register TC, Rohrbach K, Huang LY, Borgerink H, Dougall WC. Progestin effects on cell proliferation pathways in the postmenopausal mammary gland. Breast Cancer Res 2014; 15:R62. [PMID: 23938070 PMCID: PMC3978455 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Menopausal hormone therapies vary widely in their effects on breast cancer risk, and the mechanisms underlying these differences are unclear. The primary goals of this study were to characterize the mammary gland transcriptional profile of estrogen + progestin therapy in comparison with estrogen-alone or tibolone and investigate pathways of cell proliferation in a postmenopausal primate model. Methods Ovariectomized female cynomolgus macaque monkeys were randomized into the following groups: placebo (Con), oral conjugated equine estrogens (CEE), CEE with medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) (CEE + MPA), and tibolone given at a low or high dose (Lo or Hi Tib). All study treatment doses represented human clinical dose equivalents and were administered in the diet over a period of 2 years. Results Treatment with CEE + MPA had the greatest effect on global mRNA profiles and markers of mammary gland proliferation compared to CEE or tibolone treatment. Changes in the transcriptional patterns resulting from the addition of MPA to CEE were related to increased growth factors and decreased estrogen receptor (ER) signaling. Specific genes induced by CEE + MPA treatment included key members of prolactin receptor (PRLR)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B (RANK)/receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL) pathways that were highly associated with breast tissue proliferation. In contrast, tibolone did not affect breast tissue proliferation but did elicit a mixed pattern of ER agonist activity. Conclusion Our findings indicate that estrogen + progestin therapy results in a distinct molecular profile compared to estrogen-alone or tibolone therapy, including upregulation of key growth factor targets associated with mammary carcinogenesis in mouse models. These changes may contribute to the promotional effects of estrogen + progestin therapy on breast cancer risk.
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Hagan CR, Lange CA. Molecular determinants of context-dependent progesterone receptor action in breast cancer. BMC Med 2014; 12:32. [PMID: 24552158 PMCID: PMC3929904 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-12-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The ovarian steroid hormone, progesterone, and its nuclear receptor, the progesterone receptor, are implicated in the progression of breast cancer. Clinical trial data on the effects of hormone replacement therapy underscore the importance of understanding how progestins influence breast cancer growth. The progesterone receptor regulation of distinct target genes is mediated by complex interactions between the progesterone receptor and other regulatory factors that determine the context-dependent transcriptional action of the progesterone receptor. These interactions often lead to post-translational modifications to the progesterone receptor that can dramatically alter receptor function, both in the normal mammary gland and in breast cancer. This review highlights the molecular components that regulate progesterone receptor transcriptional action and describes how a better understanding of the complex interactions between the progesterone receptor and other regulatory factors may be critical to enhancing the clinical efficacy of anti-progestins for use in the treatment of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carol A Lange
- Department of Medicine (Hematology, Oncology, and Transplantation) and the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Masonic Cancer Center, 420 Delaware St SE, MMC 806, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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Fabian CJ, Kimler BF, Donnelly JE, Sullivan DK, Klemp JR, Petroff BK, Phillips TA, Metheny T, Aversman S, Yeh HW, Zalles CM, Mills GB, Hursting SD. Favorable modulation of benign breast tissue and serum risk biomarkers is associated with > 10 % weight loss in postmenopausal women. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2013; 142:119-32. [PMID: 24141897 PMCID: PMC3921968 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-013-2730-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Accepted: 10/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
We conducted a phase II feasibility study of a 6-month behavioral weight loss intervention in postmenopausal overweight and obese women at increased risk for breast cancer and the effects of weight loss on anthropomorphic, blood, and benign breast tissue biomarkers. 67 women were screened by random peri-areolar fine-needle aspiration, 27 were registered and 24 participated in the interventional phase. The 24 biomarker evaluable women had a median baseline BMI of 34.2 kg/m(2) and lost a median of 11 % of their initial weight. Significant tissue biomarker modulation after the 6-month intervention was noted for Ki-67 (if restricted to the 15 women with any Ki-67 at baseline, p = 0.041), adiponectin to leptin ratio (p = 0.003); and cyclin B1 (p = 0.001), phosphorylated retinoblastoma (p = 0.005), and ribosomal S6 (p = 0.004) proteins. Favorable modulation for serum markers was observed for sex hormone-binding globulin (p < 0.001), bioavailable estradiol (p < 0.001), bioavailable testosterone (p = 0.033), insulin (p = 0.018), adiponectin (p = 0.001), leptin (p < 0.001), the adiponectin to leptin ratio (p < 0.001), C-reactive protein (p = 0.002), and hepatocyte growth factor (p = 0.011). When subdivided by <10 or >10 % weight loss, change in percent total body and android (visceral) fat, physical activity, and the majority of the serum and tissue biomarkers were significantly modulated only for women with >10 % weight loss from baseline. Some factors such as serum PAI-1 and breast tissue pS2 (estrogen-inducible gene) mRNA were not significantly modulated overall but were when considering only those with >10 % weight loss. In conclusion, a median weight loss of 11 % over 6 months resulted in favorable modulation of a number of anthropomorphic, breast tissue and serum risk and mechanistic markers. Weight loss of 10 % or more should likely be the goal for breast cancer risk reduction studies in obese women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol J Fabian
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA,
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Abstract
Understanding the biology of the breast and how ovarian hormones impinge on it is key to rational new approaches in breast cancer prevention and therapy. Because of the success of selective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), such as tamoxifen, and aromatase inhibitors in breast cancer treatment, oestrogens have long received the most attention. Early progesterone receptor (PR) antagonists, however, were dismissed because of severe side effects, but awareness is now increasing that progesterone is an important hormone in breast cancer. Oestrogen receptor-α (ERα) signalling and PR signalling have distinct roles in normal mammary gland biology in mice; both ERα and PR delegate many of their biological functions to distinct paracrine mediators. If the findings in the mouse model translate to humans, new preventive and therapeutic perspectives might open up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathrin Brisken
- ISREC - Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, National Center of Competence for Molecular Oncology, School of Life Sciences, Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), SV2.832 Station 19, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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27
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Moore MR, King RA. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on progestin stimulation of invasive properties in breast cancer. Discov Oncol 2012; 3:205-17. [PMID: 22833172 DOI: 10.1007/s12672-012-0118-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical studies have shown that progestins increase breast cancer risk in hormone replacement therapy, while we and others have previously reported that progestins stimulate invasive properties in progesterone receptor (PR)-rich human breast cancer cell lines. Based on others' reports that omega-3 fatty acids inhibit metastatic properties of breast cancer, we have reviewed the literature for possible connections between omega-3 fatty-acid-driven pathways and progestin-stimulated pathways in an attempt to suggest theoretical mechanisms for possible omega-3 fatty acid inhibition of progestin stimulation of breast cancer invasion. We also present some data suggesting that fatty acids regulate progestin stimulation of invasive properties in PR-rich T47D human breast cancer cells, and that an appropriate concentration of the omega-3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid inhibits progestin stimulation of invasive properties. It is hoped that focus on the inter-relationship between pathways by which omega-3 fatty acids inhibit and progestins stimulate breast cancer invasive properties will lead to further in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies testing the hypothesis that omega-3 fatty acids can inhibit progestin stimulation of invasive properties in breast cancer, and ameliorate harmful effects of progestins which occur in combined progestin-estrogen hormone replacement therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Moore
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, 1 John Marshall Drive BBSC, Huntington, WV 25755, USA.
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Progestogen levels, progesterone receptor gene polymorphisms, and mammographic density changes: results from the Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions Mammographic Density Study. Menopause 2012; 19:302-10. [PMID: 22105149 DOI: 10.1097/gme.0b013e3182310f9f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Estrogen plus progestin therapy (EPT) in postmenopausal women increases breast cancer risk and mammographic density to a higher extent than does estrogen therapy alone. Data from the randomized placebo-controlled Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestinv Interventions trial showed that EPT-induced increases in serum estrone and estrone sulfate levels were positively correlated with increases in mammographic density. Here, after adjusting for serum estrone and estrone sulfate levels, we investigated the roles of posttreatment serum progestogen increase and of progesterone receptor gene (PGR) genetic variations on changes in mammographic density. METHODS We measured the percent mammographic density and serum progestogen levels in 280 Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions trial participants randomized to EPT treatment. Analyses of genetic variations in PGR were limited to 260 white women for whom we successfully obtained PGR genotypes. We used linear regression analyses to determine how an increase in progestogen levels and PGR genetic variation influenced mammographic density change after EPT. RESULTS The increase in posttreatment serum progestogen level was positively associated with greater increases in mammographic density after adjustment for covariates (P trend = 0.044). Compared with women in the lowest quartile of serum progestogen level, women in the highest quartile experienced a 3.5% greater increase in mammographic density (P = 0.046). We did not find a strong indication that genetic variation in PGR was associated with mammographic density increase or modified the association with serum progestogen; however, confidence in these null findings is constrained by our small sample size. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that higher serum progestogen levels resulting from EPT treatment lead to greater increases in mammographic density.
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Obr A, Edwards DP. The biology of progesterone receptor in the normal mammary gland and in breast cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 357:4-17. [PMID: 22193050 PMCID: PMC3318965 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2011] [Revised: 09/23/2011] [Accepted: 10/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This paper reviews work on progesterone and the progesterone receptor (PR) in the mouse mammary gland that has been used extensively as an experimental model. Studies have led to the concept that progesterone controls proliferation and morphogenesis of the luminal epithelium in a tightly orchestrated manner at distinct stages of development by paracrine signaling pathways, including receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL) as a major paracrine factor. Progesterone also drives expansion of stem cells by paracrine signals to generate progenitors required for alveologenesis. During mid-to-late pregnancy, progesterone has another role to suppress secretory activation until parturition mediated in part by crosstalk between PR and prolactin/Stat5 signaling to inhibit induction of milk protein gene expression, and by inhibiting tight junction closure. In models of hormone-dependent mouse mammary tumors, the progesterone/PR signaling axis enhances pre-neoplastic progression by a switch from a paracrine to an autocrine mode of proliferation and dysregulation of the RANKL signaling pathway. Limited experiments with normal human breast show that progesterone/PR signaling also stimulates epithelial cell proliferation by a paracrine mechanism; however, the signaling pathways and whether RANKL is a major mediator remains unknown. Work with human breast cancer cell lines, patient tumor samples and clinical studies indicates that progesterone is a risk factor for breast cancer and that alteration in progesterone/PR signaling pathways contributes to early stage human breast cancer progression. However, loss of PR expression in primary tumors is associated with a less differentiated more invasive phenotype and worse prognosis, suggesting that PR may limit later stages of tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Obr
- Departments of Molecular & Cellular Biology and Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Dean P. Edwards
- Departments of Molecular & Cellular Biology and Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
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Fernandez-Valdivia R, Lydon JP. From the ranks of mammary progesterone mediators, RANKL takes the spotlight. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 357:91-100. [PMID: 21964466 PMCID: PMC3253322 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2011] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Whether during the diestrus phase of the estrous cycle or with pregnancy onset, the mitogenic effects of progesterone are well-established in the murine mammary epithelium. Importantly, progesterone-induced mitogenicity is critical for mammary tumor promotion, providing one explanation for the increase in breast cancer-risk observed with prolonged progestin-based hormone therapy. At the cellular level, progesterone projects its mitogenic influence through an evolutionary conserved paracrine mechanism of action. In this regard, recent studies provide compelling support for receptor activator of NF-kB ligand (RANKL) as a key paracrine mediator of the progesterone mitogenic signal. Induction of RANKL is sufficient to elicit mammary ductal side-branching and alveologenesis, the very morphogenetic responses elicited by progesterone during pregnancy and at diestrus. Significantly, the proliferative and pro-survival signals triggered by RANKL are also required for progestin-promotion of mammary tumorigenesis, underscoring a dual role for RANKL in progesterone-dependent mammary morphogenesis and tumorigenesis. Recently, RANKL has been shown to be critical for progesterone-induced expansion of the mammary stem cell population (and its lineal descendents), thereby advancing our conceptual understanding not only of RANKL's involvement in normal mammary morphogenesis but also in breast cancer risk associated with sustained hormone exposure. Finally, these studies together suggest that chemotherapeutic intervention of RANKL signaling represents a feasible approach for the effective prevention and/or treatment of hormone-responsive breast cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Fernandez-Valdivia
- Brown Foundation, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, 77030
| | - John P. Lydon
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, 77030
- Corresponding Author: Telephone: 713-798-3534 Fax: 713-790-1275
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Chlebowski RT, Anderson GL. Changing concepts: Menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2012; 104:517-27. [PMID: 22427684 PMCID: PMC3317878 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djs014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2011] [Revised: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 01/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hormone therapy is still used by millions of women for menopausal symptoms. Concerns regarding hormone therapy and breast cancer were initially based on case reports and retrospective case-control studies. However, recent results from large prospective cohort studies and the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) randomized placebo-controlled hormone therapy trials have substantially changed concepts regarding how estrogen alone and estrogen plus progestin influence breast cancer. The preponderance of observational studies suggested that estrogen alone and estrogen plus progestin both increased the risk of breast cancer, with cancers commonly diagnosed at an early stage. However, substantially different results emerged from the WHI randomized hormone therapy trials. In the WHI trial evaluating estrogen plus progestin in postmenopausal women with an intact uterus, combined hormone therapy statistically significantly increased the risk of breast cancer and hindered breast cancer detection, leading to delayed diagnosis and a statistically significant increase in breast cancer mortality. By contrast, estrogen alone use by postmenopausal women with prior hysterectomy in the WHI trial did not substantially interfere with breast cancer detection and statistically significantly decreased the risk of breast cancer. Differential mammography usage patterns may explain differences between observational study and randomized trial results. In clinical practice, hormone therapy users have mammograms more frequently than nonusers, leading to more and earlier stage cancer detection. By contrast, in the WHI randomized trials, mammogram frequency was protocol mandated and balanced between comparison groups. Currently, the different effects of estrogen plus progestin vs estrogen alone on breast cancer are not completely understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan T Chlebowski
- Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor, UCLA Medical Center, 1124 W. Carson St, Torrance, CA 90502, USA.
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Progesterone receptor activates Msx2 expression by downregulating TNAP/Akp2 and activating the Bmp pathway in EpH4 mouse mammary epithelial cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34058. [PMID: 22457812 PMCID: PMC3310875 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2011] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously we demonstrated that EpH4 mouse mammary epithelial cells induced the homeobox transcription factor Msx2 either when transfected with the progesterone receptor (PR) or when treated with Bmp2/4. Msx2 upregulation was unaffected by Wnt inhibitors s-FRP or Dkk1, but was inhibited by the Bmp antagonist Noggin. We therefore hypothesized that PR signaling to Msx2 acts through the Bmp receptor pathway. Herein, we confirm that transcripts for Alk2/ActR1A, a non-canonical BmpR Type I, are upregulated in mammary epithelial cells overexpressing PR (EpH4-PR). Increased phosphorylation of Smads 1,5, 8, known substrates for Alk2 and other BmpR Type I proteins, was observed as was their translocation to the nucleus in EpH4-PR cells. Analysis also showed that Tissue Non-Specific Alkaline Phosphatase (TNAP/Akp2) was also found to be downregulated in EpH4-PR cells. When an Akp2 promoter-reporter construct containing a ½PRE site was transfected into EpH4-PR cells, its expression was downregulated. Moreover, siRNA mediated knockdown of Akp2 increased both Alk2 and Msx2 expression. Collectively these data suggest that PR inhibition of Akp2 results in increased Alk2 activity, increased phosphorylation of Smads 1,5,8, and ultimately upregulation of Msx2. These studies imply that re-activation of the Akp2 gene could be helpful in downregulating aberrant Msx2 expression in PR+ breast cancers.
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Morrow PKH, Mattair DN, Hortobagyi GN. Hot flashes: a review of pathophysiology and treatment modalities. Oncologist 2011; 16:1658-64. [PMID: 22042786 DOI: 10.1634/theoncologist.2011-0174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Many therapies are being studied for the treatment of hot flashes for individuals with cancer, yet few studies have demonstrated safe and effective clinical benefit for those who suffer from this distressing symptom. The purpose of this paper is to assess the current options for the management of hot flashes, examining key endpoints from recent clinical trials and reviewing future directions. Hot flashes are a common stressful symptom for individuals with cancer, particularly women with a history of breast cancer and men with prostate cancer. Lifestyle modifications are proposed as the first step in the management of less severe hot flashes. Several publications have addressed nonhormonal agents as a treatment option for hot flashes. Newer antidepressant and anticonvulsant agents have been studied and show potential in treating vasomotor symptoms. Although many complementary and alternative therapies, including herbal medications and phytoestrogens, have been studied for the treatment of hot flashes, none are clinically recommended at this time. Additionally, further evidence is needed for supportive exercise such as yoga and relaxation techniques. Acupuncture may warrant further investigation in the reduction and severity of hot flashes in both men and women. Hormonal therapies, including estrogens and progestogens, are the most well-known and efficient agents in alleviating hot flashes; however, the safety of these agents is disputable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phuong Khanh H Morrow
- Department of Breast Medical Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.
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Daniel AR, Hagan CR, Lange CA. Progesterone receptor action: defining a role in breast cancer. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2011; 6:359-369. [PMID: 21857868 PMCID: PMC3156468 DOI: 10.1586/eem.11.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The ovarian steroid hormones, estradiol and progesterone, and their nuclear receptors (estrogen receptor [ER] and progesterone receptor [PR]), are involved in breast cancer development. As ER-positive/PR-positive tumors progress, they are likely to become steroid hormone-resistant/independent, yet often retain expression of their steroid receptors. Notably, up to 40% of women with steroid receptor-positive tumors exhibit de novo resistance or eventually fail on estrogen- or ERα-blocking therapies (acquired resistance). Indeed, most of the research on this topic has centered on mechanisms of ER 'escape' from endocrine therapy and the design of better ER-blocking strategies; signaling pathways that mediate endocrine (i.e., anti-estrogen) resistance are also excellent therapeutic targets. However, serious consideration of PR isoforms as important drivers of early breast cancer progression and ER modulators is timely and significant. Indeed, progress has been hindered by ER-centric experimental approaches. This article will focus on defining a role for PR in breast cancer with hopes of providing a refreshing PR-focused perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea R Daniel
- Departments of Medicine (Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation) and Pharmacology, and The Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Christy R Hagan
- Departments of Medicine (Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation) and Pharmacology, and The Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Carol A Lange
- Departments of Medicine (Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation) and Pharmacology, and The Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Kariagina A, Xie J, Leipprandt JR, Haslam SZ. Amphiregulin mediates estrogen, progesterone, and EGFR signaling in the normal rat mammary gland and in hormone-dependent rat mammary cancers. Discov Oncol 2010; 1:229-44. [PMID: 21258428 PMCID: PMC3000471 DOI: 10.1007/s12672-010-0048-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Both estrogen (E) and progesterone (P) are implicated in the etiology of human breast cancer. Defining their mechanisms of action, particularly in vivo, is relevant to the prevention and therapy of breast cancer. We investigated the molecular and cellular mechanisms of E and/or P-induced in vivo proliferation, in the normal rat mammary gland and in hormone-dependent rat mammary cancers which share many characteristics with the normal human breast and hormone-dependent breast cancers. We show that E+P treatment induced significantly greater proliferation in both the normal gland and mammary cancers compared to E alone. In both the normal gland and tumors, E+P-induced proliferation was mediated through the increased production of amphiregulin (Areg), an epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) ligand, and the activation of intracellular signaling pathways (Erk, Akt, JNK) downstream of EGFR that regulate proliferation. In vitro experiments using rat primary mammary organoids or T47D breast cancer cells confirmed that Areg and the synthetic progestin, R5020, synergize to promote cell proliferation through EGFR signaling. Iressa, an EGFR inhibitor, effectively blocked this proliferation. These results indicate that mediators of cross talk between E, P, and EGFR pathways may be considered as relevant molecular targets for the therapy of hormone-dependent breast cancers, especially in premenopausal women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Kariagina
- Department of Physiology, Breast Cancer and the Environment Research Center, Michigan State University, 2201 Biomedical & Physical Sciences Bldg, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Jianwei Xie
- Department of Physiology, Breast Cancer and the Environment Research Center, Michigan State University, 2201 Biomedical & Physical Sciences Bldg, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Jeffrey R. Leipprandt
- Department of Physiology, Breast Cancer and the Environment Research Center, Michigan State University, 2201 Biomedical & Physical Sciences Bldg, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Sandra Z. Haslam
- Department of Physiology, Breast Cancer and the Environment Research Center, Michigan State University, 2201 Biomedical & Physical Sciences Bldg, East Lansing, MI USA
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Schramek D, Leibbrandt A, Sigl V, Kenner L, Pospisilik JA, Lee HJ, Hanada R, Joshi PA, Aliprantis A, Glimcher L, Pasparakis M, Khokha R, Ormandy CJ, Widschwendter M, Schett G, Penninger JM. Osteoclast differentiation factor RANKL controls development of progestin-driven mammary cancer. Nature 2010; 468:98-102. [PMID: 20881962 DOI: 10.1038/nature09387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 438] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2009] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers in humans and will on average affect up to one in eight women in their lifetime in the United States and Europe. The Women's Health Initiative and the Million Women Study have shown that hormone replacement therapy is associated with an increased risk of incident and fatal breast cancer. In particular, synthetic progesterone derivatives (progestins) such as medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), used in millions of women for hormone replacement therapy and contraceptives, markedly increase the risk of developing breast cancer. Here we show that the in vivo administration of MPA triggers massive induction of the key osteoclast differentiation factor RANKL (receptor activator of NF-κB ligand) in mammary-gland epithelial cells. Genetic inactivation of the RANKL receptor RANK in mammary-gland epithelial cells prevents MPA-induced epithelial proliferation, impairs expansion of the CD49f(hi) stem-cell-enriched population, and sensitizes these cells to DNA-damage-induced cell death. Deletion of RANK from the mammary epithelium results in a markedly decreased incidence and delayed onset of MPA-driven mammary cancer. These data show that the RANKL/RANK system controls the incidence and onset of progestin-driven breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Schramek
- IMBA, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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RANK ligand mediates progestin-induced mammary epithelial proliferation and carcinogenesis. Nature 2010; 468:103-7. [PMID: 20881963 DOI: 10.1038/nature09495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 437] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2009] [Accepted: 09/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
RANK ligand (RANKL), a TNF-related molecule, is essential for osteoclast formation, function and survival through interaction with its receptor RANK. Mammary glands of RANK- and RANKL-deficient mice develop normally during sexual maturation, but fail to form lobuloalveolar structures during pregnancy because of defective proliferation and increased apoptosis of mammary epithelium. It has been shown that RANKL is responsible for the major proliferative response of mouse mammary epithelium to progesterone during mammary lactational morphogenesis, and in mouse models, manipulated to induce activation of the RANK/RANKL pathway in the absence of strict hormonal control, inappropriate mammary proliferation is observed. However, there is no evidence so far of a functional contribution of RANKL to tumorigenesis. Here we show that RANK and RANKL are expressed within normal, pre-malignant and neoplastic mammary epithelium, and using complementary gain-of-function (mouse mammary tumour virus (MMTV)-RANK transgenic mice) and loss-of function (pharmacological inhibition of RANKL) approaches, define a direct contribution of this pathway in mammary tumorigenesis. Accelerated pre-neoplasias and increased mammary tumour formation were observed in MMTV-RANK transgenic mice after multiparity or treatment with carcinogen and hormone (progesterone). Reciprocally, selective pharmacological inhibition of RANKL attenuated mammary tumour development not only in hormone- and carcinogen-treated MMTV-RANK and wild-type mice, but also in the MMTV-neu transgenic spontaneous tumour model. The reduction in tumorigenesis upon RANKL inhibition was preceded by a reduction in pre-neoplasias as well as rapid and sustained reductions in hormone- and carcinogen-induced mammary epithelial proliferation and cyclin D1 levels. Collectively, our results indicate that RANKL inhibition is acting directly on hormone-induced mammary epithelium at early stages in tumorigenesis, and the permissive contribution of progesterone to increased mammary cancer incidence is due to RANKL-dependent proliferative changes in the mammary epithelium. The current study highlights a potential role for RANKL inhibition in the management of proliferative breast disease.
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Pachman DR, Jones JM, Loprinzi CL. Management of menopause-associated vasomotor symptoms: Current treatment options, challenges and future directions. Int J Womens Health 2010; 2:123-35. [PMID: 21072305 PMCID: PMC2971731 DOI: 10.2147/ijwh.s7721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Hot flashes are one of the most common and distressing symptoms associated with menopause, occurring in more than 75% of postmenopausal women. They are especially problematic in breast cancer patients since some breast cancer therapies can induce hot flashes. For mild hot flashes, it is proposed that behavioral modifications are the first step in management. Hormonal therapies, including estrogens and progestogens, are the most well known effective agents in relieving hot flashes; however, the safety of these agents is controversial. There is an increasing amount of literature on nonhormonal agents for the treatment of hot flashes. The most promising data regard newer antidepressant agents such as venlafaxine, which reduces hot flashes by about 60%. Gabapentin is another nonhormonal agent that is effective in reducing hot flashes. While many complimentary therapies, including phytoestrogens, black cohosh, and dehydroepiandrosterone, have been explored for the treatment of hot flashes; none can be recommended at this time. Furthermore, there is a lack of strong evidence to support exercise, yoga, or relaxation for the treatment of hot flashes. Paced respirations and hypnosis appear to be promising enough to warrant further investigation. Another promising nonpharmacological therapy, currently under investigation, involves a stellate ganglion block.
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Li S, Han B, Liu G, Li S, Ouellet J, Labrie F, Pelletier G. Immunocytochemical localization of sex steroid hormone receptors in normal human mammary gland. J Histochem Cytochem 2009; 58:509-15. [PMID: 20026671 DOI: 10.1369/jhc.2009.954644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The sex steroids, estrogens, progesterone, and androgens, all play a role in mammary development and function. To precisely identify the sites of action of these steroids, we studied the localization of the estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) and ERbeta, the progesterone receptor A (PRA) and PRB, and androgen receptors (AR) in the normal human mammary gland. Immunocytochemical localization of ERalpha, ERbeta, PRA, PRB, and AR was performed with reduction mammoplasty specimens from premenopausal women. ERalpha, PRA, PRB, and AR were localized mostly to the inner layer of epithelial cells lining acini and intralobular ducts, as well as to myoepithelial cells scattered in the external layer of interlobular ducts. AR was also found in some stromal cells. ERbeta staining was more widespread, resulting in epithelial and myoepithelial cells being labeled in acini and ducts as well as stromal cells. These results suggest that all sex steroids can directly act on epithelial cells to modulate development and function of the human mammary gland. Estrogens and androgens can also indirectly influence epithelial cell activity by an action on stromal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sijie Li
- Molecular Endocrinology and Oncology Research Center, Laval University Hospital Research Center, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
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Uterotrophic effects of cow milk in immature ovariectomized Sprague-Dawley rats. Environ Health Prev Med 2009; 15:162-8. [PMID: 19957059 DOI: 10.1007/s12199-009-0123-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2009] [Accepted: 11/05/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Milk contains considerable quantities of estrogens and progesterone and as such may be one of the risk factors for hormone-related cancers. To determine the hormonal effects of commercial and traditional types of milk, we performed uterotrophic tests. METHODS Forty-five rats were ovariectomized and divided into three groups of 15 animals each. The animals were kept for 7 days on powdered chow and one of three different liquids: commercial milk (C), traditional milk (T), or water. At autopsy, wet and dry uterine weights were determined. The cell heights of the uterine epithelium and endometrium were determined. The uterine 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling index of the epithelium and endometrium gland epithelium was also assessed. RESULTS The weights of wet and dry uterus were 142 ± 13 and 112 ± 10 mg in the C group, 114 ± 30 and 91 ± 24 mg in the T group, and 87 ± 6 and 69 ± 5 mg in the W group. Significant differences in wet and dry uterus weights were found between all pairs of groups. The ratio of the wet uterine weight to body weight was significantly higher in the C and T groups than in the W group. The heights of the uterine epithelium and endometrium were higher and BrdU labeling index was greater in the C group than in the T and W groups. CONCLUSIONS Commercially available milk and traditional milk have uterotrophic effects on young ovariectomized rats. Our findings indicate that these uterotrophic effects in the milk groups were partly due to the estrogen and progesterone in the milk.
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Crandall CJ, Aragaki AK, Chlebowski RT, McTiernan A, Anderson G, Hendrix SL, Cochrane BB, Kuller LH, Cauley JA. New-onset breast tenderness after initiation of estrogen plus progestin therapy and breast cancer risk. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 169:1684-91. [PMID: 19822825 DOI: 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Estrogen plus progestin therapy increases breast cancer incidence and breast tenderness. Whether breast tenderness during estrogen plus progestin therapy is associated with breast cancer risk is uncertain. METHODS We analyzed data from the Women's Health Initiative Estrogen + Progestin Trial, which randomized postmenopausal women with an intact uterus to receive daily conjugated equine estrogens, 0.625 mg, plus medroxyprogesterone acetate, 2.5 mg (n = 8506), or placebo (n = 8102). At baseline and annually, participants underwent mammography and clinical breast examination. Self-reported breast tenderness was assessed at baseline and at 12 months. The incidence of invasive breast cancer was confirmed by medical record review (mean follow-up of 5.6 years). RESULTS Of women without baseline breast tenderness (n = 14,538), significantly more assigned to receive conjugated equine estrogens plus medroxyprogesterone vs placebo experienced new-onset breast tenderness after 12 months (36.1% vs 11.8%, P < .001). Of women in the conjugated equine estrogens plus medroxyprogesterone group, breast cancer risk was significantly higher in those with new-onset breast tenderness compared with those without (hazard ratio, 1.48; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-2.03; P = .02). In the placebo group, breast cancer risk was not significantly associated with new-onset breast tenderness (P = .97). CONCLUSIONS New-onset breast tenderness during conjugated equine estrogens plus medroxyprogesterone therapy was associated with increased breast cancer risk. The sensitivity and specificity of the association between breast tenderness and breast cancer were similar in magnitude to those of the Gail model. Trial Registration clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00000611.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn J Crandall
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, UCLA Medicine/GIM, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA.
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Behera MA, Dai Q, Garde R, Saner C, Jungheim E, Price TM. Progesterone stimulates mitochondrial activity with subsequent inhibition of apoptosis in MCF-10A benign breast epithelial cells. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2009; 297:E1089-96. [PMID: 19690070 PMCID: PMC2781356 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00209.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The effects of progesterone on breast epithelial cells remain poorly defined with observations showing both proliferative and antiproliferative effects. As an example, progesterone levels correlate with increased epithelial cell proliferation, but there is discordance between the dividing cells and the cells with nuclear progesterone receptor expression. The release of paracrine growth factors from nuclear receptor-positive cells has been postulated as a mechanism, since in vitro studies show a lack of growth effect by progesterone in breast epithelial cells lacking nuclear receptors. This study examined possible nongenomic effects of progesterone in breast epithelia by using MCF-10A cells known to lack nuclear progesterone receptor expression. Treatment for 30-60 min with progesterone or the progestin, R5020, increased mitochondrial activity as shown by an increase in mitochondrial membrane potential (hyperpolarization) with a concordant increase in total cellular ATP. The reaction was inhibited by a specific progesterone receptor antagonist and not affected by the translation inhibitor cycloheximide. Progestin treatment inhibited apoptosis induced by activation of the FasL pathway, as shown by a decrease in sub-G(1) cell fraction during fluorescence-activated cell sorting and a decrease in caspase 3/7 levels. Progestin treatment did not alter the cell cycle over 48 h. Our study demonstrates a nongenomic action of progesterone on benign breast epithelial cells, resulting in enhanced cellular respiration and protection from apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Lydon
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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Abstract
Progesterone is an ovarian steroid hormone that is essential for normal breast development during puberty and in preparation for lactation and breastfeeding. The actions of progesterone are primarily mediated by its high-affinity receptors, which include the classical progesterone receptor (PR)-A and -B isoforms, located in diverse tissues, including the brain, where progesterone controls reproductive behavior, and the breast and reproductive organs. Progestins are frequently prescribed for contraception or during postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy, in which progestins are combined with estrogen as a means to block estrogen-induced endometrial growth. The role of estrogen as a potent breast mitogen is undisputed, and inhibitors of the estrogen receptor and estrogen-producing enzymes (aromatases) are effective first-line cancer therapies. However, PR action in breast cancer is grossly understudied and remains controversial. Herein, we review existing evidence and discuss the challenges to defining a role for progesterone in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol A Lange
- University of Minnesota, Cancer Center, Department of Medicine (Hematology, Oncology & Transplantation), 420 Delaware Street SE, MMC 806, MN 55455, USA.
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Aupperlee MD, Drolet AA, Durairaj S, Wang W, Schwartz RC, Haslam SZ. Strain-specific differences in the mechanisms of progesterone regulation of murine mammary gland development. Endocrinology 2009; 150:1485-94. [PMID: 18988671 PMCID: PMC2654739 DOI: 10.1210/en.2008-1459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Progesterone (P) is required for normal mammary gland development, and is implicated in the etiology of mammary cancer in rodents and humans. We analyzed mammary gland developmental responses to P and estrogen (E) in two strains of mice (BALB/c and C57BL/6) that exhibit differences in ductal development at sexual maturity and alveologenesis during pregnancy. C57BL/6 mice exhibited reduced proliferative and morphological responses to P. Analysis of known mediators of sidebranching and alveologenesis revealed that reduced P-induced expression of P receptor isoform B and receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand (RANKL), as well as altered expression and regulation of cyclin D1, CCAAT/enhancer binding protein beta, and the downstream effectors of RANKL, nuclear Id2 and p21, contribute significantly to the reduced P responsiveness of the C57BL/6 mammary gland. In contrast, E responsiveness was greater in C57BL/6 than in BALB/c glands. E may play a compensatory role in C57BL/6 alveologenesis through its effect on the induction and activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 5a, a known regulator of RANKL. These observations suggest that in human populations with heterogeneous genetic backgrounds, individuals may respond differentially to the same hormone. Thus, genetic diversity may have a role in determining the effects of P in normal mammary development and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Aupperlee
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
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Abstract
Progesterone is an ovarian steroid hormone that is essential for normal breast development during puberty and in preparation for lactation. The actions of progesterone are primarily mediated by its high affinity receptors, including the classical progesterone receptor (PR) -A and -B isoforms, located in diverse tissues such as the brain where progesterone controls reproductive behavior, and the breast and reproductive organs. Progestins are frequently prescribed as contraceptives or to alleviate menopausal symptoms, wherein progestin is combined with estrogen as a means to block estrogen-induced endometrial growth. Estrogen is undisputed as a potent breast mitogen, and inhibitors of the estrogen receptor (ER) and estrogen producing enzymes (aromatases) are effective first-line cancer therapies. However, PR action in breast cancer remains controversial. Herein, we review existing evidence from in vitro and in vivo models, and discuss the challenges to defining a role for progesterone in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol A Lange
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, 420 Delaware Street SE, MMC 806, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
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Otto C, Fuchs I, Altmann H, Klewer M, Walter A, Prelle K, Vonk R, Fritzemeier KH. Comparative analysis of the uterine and mammary gland effects of drospirenone and medroxyprogesterone acetate. Endocrinology 2008; 149:3952-9. [PMID: 18420741 PMCID: PMC2488242 DOI: 10.1210/en.2007-1612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The role of progestins in combined hormone therapy is the inhibition of uterine epithelial cell proliferation. The Women's Health Initiative study provided evidence for an increased risk of breast cancer in women treated with conjugated equine estrogens plus the synthetic progestin medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), compared with conjugated equine estrogens-only treatment. These findings continue to be discussed, and it remains to be clarified whether the results obtained for MPA in the Women's Health Initiative study are directly applicable to other progestins used in hormone therapy. In this study we compared in a mouse model the effects of the synthetic progestins, MPA, and drospirenone in two major target organs: the uterus and mammary gland. As quantitative measures of progestin activity, we analyzed maintenance of pregnancy, ductal side branching in the mammary gland, and proliferation of mammary and uterine epithelial cells as well as target gene induction in both organs. The outcome of this study is that not all synthetic progestins exhibit the same effects. MPA demonstrated uterine activity and mitogenic activity in the mammary gland at the same doses. In contrast, drospirenone behaved similarly to the natural hormone, progesterone, and exhibited uterine activity at doses lower than those leading to considerable proliferative effects in the mammary gland. We hypothesize that the safety of combined hormone therapy in postmenopausal women may be associated with a dissociation between the uterine and mammary gland activities of the progestin component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Otto
- TRG Women's Healthcare, Bayer Schering Pharma AG, Müllerstrasse 178, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
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Messina MJ, Wood CE. Soy isoflavones, estrogen therapy, and breast cancer risk: analysis and commentary. Nutr J 2008; 7:17. [PMID: 18522734 PMCID: PMC2443803 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2891-7-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2008] [Accepted: 06/03/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There has been considerable investigation of the potential for soyfoods to reduce risk of cancer, and in particular cancer of the breast. Most interest in this relationship is because soyfoods are essentially a unique dietary source of isoflavones, compounds which bind to estrogen receptors and exhibit weak estrogen-like effects under certain experimental conditions. In recent years the relationship between soyfoods and breast cancer has become controversial because of concerns – based mostly on in vitro and rodent data – that isoflavones may stimulate the growth of existing estrogen-sensitive breast tumors. This controversy carries considerable public health significance because of the increasing popularity of soyfoods and the commercial availability of isoflavone supplements. In this analysis and commentary we attempt to outline current concerns regarding the estrogen-like effects of isoflavones in the breast focusing primarily on the clinical trial data and place these concerns in the context of recent evidence regarding estrogen therapy use in postmenopausal women. Overall, there is little clinical evidence to suggest that isoflavones will increase breast cancer risk in healthy women or worsen the prognosis of breast cancer patients. Although relatively limited research has been conducted, and the clinical trials often involved small numbers of subjects, there is no evidence that isoflavone intake increases breast tissue density in pre- or postmenopausal women or increases breast cell proliferation in postmenopausal women with or without a history of breast cancer. The epidemiologic data are generally consistent with the clinical data, showing no indication of increased risk. Furthermore, these clinical and epidemiologic data are consistent with what appears to be a low overall breast cancer risk associated with pharmacologic unopposed estrogen exposure in postmenopausal women. While more research is required to definitively allay concerns, the existing data should provide some degree of assurance that isoflavone exposure at levels consistent with historical Asian soyfood intake does not result in adverse stimulatory effects on breast tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Messina
- Nutrition Matters, Inc, 439 Calhoun Street, Port Townsend, WA 98368, USA.
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Cork DMW, Lennard TWJ, Tyson-Capper AJ. Alternative splicing and the progesterone receptor in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2008; 10:207. [PMID: 18557990 PMCID: PMC2481493 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Progesterone receptor status is a marker for hormone responsiveness and disease prognosis in breast cancer. Progesterone receptor negative tumours have generally been shown to have a poorer prognosis than progesterone receptor positive tumours. The observed loss of progesterone receptor could be through a range of mechanisms, including the generation of alternatively spliced progesterone receptor variants that are not detectable by current screening methods. Many progesterone receptor mRNA variants have been described with deletions of various whole, multiple or partial exons that encode differing protein functional domains. These variants may alter the progestin responsiveness of a tissue and contribute to the abnormal growth associated with breast cancer. Absence of specific functional domains from these spliced variants may also make them undetectable or indistinguishable from full length progesterone receptor by conventional antibodies. A comprehensive investigation into the expression profile and activity of progesterone receptor spliced variants in breast cancer is required to advance our understanding of tumour hormone receptor status. This, in turn, may aid the development of new biomarkers of disease prognosis and improve adjuvant treatment decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M W Cork
- Surgical and Reproductive Sciences, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
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Harvey JA, Santen RJ, Petroni GR, Bovbjerg VE, Smolkin ME, Sheriff FS, Russo J. Histologic changes in the breast with menopausal hormone therapy use: correlation with breast density, estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and proliferation indices. Menopause 2008; 15:67-73. [PMID: 17558338 PMCID: PMC4567838 DOI: 10.1097/gme.0b013e318054e29a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This retrospective study systematically compared mammographic density with histology in women receiving or not receiving menopausal hormone therapy (HT). DESIGN This study was approved by the institutional review board. Twenty-eight postmenopausal women using HT were matched with 28 postmenopausal women not using HT at the time of breast cancer diagnosis. Noncancerous tissue from mastectomy specimens was examined histologically to quantitate the content of fibrous stroma, ducts, and lobule types 1, 2, and 3. Tissue samples were also evaluated for estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and Ki67 activity in the ducts and lobules. Breast density was quantified by digitizing the contralateral mammogram and computer-assisted interactive thresholding. RESULTS High breast density in women using HT was correlated with greater fibrous stroma (P = 0.020) and lobule type 1 (P = 0.016). Breast density also correlated with Ki67 activity in the ducts (P = 0.031) and lobules (P= 0.023) for both groups combined. Estrogen and progesterone receptors did not correlate with either breast density or HT use. CONCLUSIONS Increased fibrous stroma and lobule type 1 are associated with increasing mammographic density in women using HT, independent of estrogen and progesterone receptor up-regulation. These findings suggest that increased breast density may be mediated through a paracrine effect. The increase in breast cancer risk with HT use may be due to an increase in target lobule type 1 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Harvey
- Department of Radiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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