Fgf8a induces neural crest indirectly through the activation of Wnt8 in the paraxial mesoderm

Cooperation of TGF-β and FGF signalling pathways in skin development

The skin is a multi-layered structure composed of the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis originates entirely from the ectoderm, whereas the dermis originates from various germ layers depending on its anatomical location; thus, there are different developmental patterns of the skin. Although the regulatory mechanisms of epidermal formation are well understood, mechanisms regulating dermis development are not clear owing to the complex origin. It has been shown that several morphogenetic pathways regulate dermis development. Of these, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signalling pathways are the main modulators regulating skin cell induction, fate decision, migration and differentiation. Recently, the successful generation of human skin by modulating TGF-β and FGF signals further demonstrated the irreplaceable roles of these pathways in skin regeneration. This review provides evidence of the role of TGF-β and FGF signalling pathways in the development of different skin layers, especially the disparate dermis of different body regions. This review also provides new perspectives on the distinct developmental patterns of skin and explores new ideas for clinical applications in the future.

Ndst1, a heparan sulfate modification enzyme, regulates neuroectodermal patterning by enhancing Wnt signaling in Xenopus

Neural tissue is derived from three precursor regions: neural plate, neural crest, and preplacodal ectoderm. These regions are determined by morphogen-mediated signaling. Morphogen distribution is generally regulated by binding to an extracellular matrix component, heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycan. HS is modified by many enzymes, such as N-deacetyl sulfotransferase 1 (Ndst1), which is highly expressed in early development. However, functions of HS modifications in ectodermal patterning are largely unknown. In this study, we analyzed the role of Ndst1 using Xenopus embryos. We found that ndst1 was expressed in anterior neural plate and the trigeminal region at the neurula stage. ndst1 overexpression expanded the neural crest (NC) region, whereas translational inhibition reduced not only the trigeminal region, but also the adjacent NC region, especially the anterior part. At a later stage, ndst1 knocked-down embryos showed defects in cranial ganglion formation. We also found that Ndst1 activates Wnt signaling pathway at the neurula stage. Taken together, our results suggest that N-sulfonated HS accumulates Wnt ligand and activates Wnt signaling in ndst1-expressing cells, but that it inhibits signaling in non-ndst1-expressing cells, leading to proper neuroectodermal patterning.

Neural crest cells development and neuroblastoma progression: Role of Wnt signaling

Neuroblastoma (NB) is one of the most common heterogeneous extracranial cancers in infancy that arises from neural crest (NC) cells of the sympathetic nervous system. The Wnt signaling pathway, both canonical and noncanonical pathway, is a highly conserved signaling pathway that regulates the development and differentiation of the NC cells during embryogenesis. Reports suggest that aberrant activation of Wnt ligands/receptors in Wnt signaling pathways promote progression and relapse of NB. Wnt signaling pathways regulate NC induction and migration in a similar manner; it regulates proliferation and metastasis of NB. Inhibiting the Wnt signaling pathway or its ligands/receptors induces apoptosis and abrogates proliferation and tumorigenicity in all major types of NB cells. Here, we comprehensively discuss the Wnt signaling pathway and its mechanisms in regulating the development of NC and NB pathogenesis. This review highlights the implications of aberrant Wnt signaling in the context of etiology, progression, and relapse of NB. We have also described emerging strategies for Wnt-based therapies against the progression of NB that will provide new insights into the development of Wnt-based therapeutic strategies for NB.

Toxic effects of SiO2NPs in early embryogenesis of Xenopuslaevis

The exposure of organisms to the nanoparticulate is potentially hazardous, particularly when it occurs during embryogenesis. The effects of commercial SiO₂NPs in early development were studied, using Xenopus laevis as a model to investigate their possible future employment by means of the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus test (FETAX). The SiO₂NPs did not change the survival but produced several abnormalities in developing embryos, in particular, the dorsal pigmentation, the cartilages of the head and branchial arches were modified; the encephalon, spinal cord and nerves are anomalous and the intestinal brush border show signs of suffering; these embryos are also bradycardic. In addition, the expression of genes involved in the early pathways of embryo development was modified. Treated embryos showed an increase of reactive oxygen species. This study suggests that SiO₂NPs are toxic but non-lethal and showed potential teratogenic effects in Xenopus. The latter may be due to their cellular accumulation and/or to the effect caused by the interaction of SiO₂NPs with cytoplasmic and/or nuclear components. ROS production could contribute to the observed effects. In conclusion, the data indicates that the use of SiO₂NPs requires close attention and further studies to better clarify their activity in animals, including humans.

Comparative Toxicological Evaluation of Tattoo Inks on Two Model Organisms

Tattooing is a technique that introduces colored substances under the skin in order to color it permanently. Decomposition products of tattoo pigments produce numerous damages for the skin and other organs. We studied the effects of a commercial red ink tattoo, PR170, on Xenopus laevis embryos and Daphnia magna nauplii using concentrations of 10, 20, and 40 mg/L. For Xenopus, we applied the FETAX protocol analyzing survival, malformations, growth, heart rate, and the expression of genes involved in the development. In D. magna, we evaluated the toxicity with an immobilization test. Moreover, we investigated the production of ROS, antioxidant enzymes, and the expression of the ATP-binding cassette in both models. Our results indicate that PR170 pigment has nanoparticle dimensions, modifies the survival and the ATP-binding cassette activity, and induces oxidative stress that probably produces the observed effects in both models. Deformed embryos were observed in Xenopus, probably due to the modification of expression of genes involved in development. The expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was also modified in this amphibian. We think that these effects are due to the accumulation of PR170 and, in particular, to the presence of the azoic group in the chemical structure of this pigment. Further studies needed to better understand the effects of commercial tattoo inks.

From Bipotent Neuromesodermal Progenitors to Neural-Mesodermal Interactions during Embryonic Development

To ensure the formation of a properly patterned embryo, multiple processes must operate harmoniously at sequential phases of development. This is implemented by mutual interactions between cells and tissues that together regulate the segregation and specification of cells, their growth and morphogenesis. The formation of the spinal cord and paraxial mesoderm derivatives exquisitely illustrate these processes. Following early gastrulation, while the vertebrate body elongates, a population of bipotent neuromesodermal progenitors resident in the posterior region of the embryo generate both neural and mesodermal lineages. At later stages, the somitic mesoderm regulates aspects of neural patterning and differentiation of both central and peripheral neural progenitors. Reciprocally, neural precursors influence the paraxial mesoderm to regulate somite-derived myogenesis and additional processes by distinct mechanisms. Central to this crosstalk is the activity of the axial notochord, which, via sonic hedgehog signaling, plays pivotal roles in neural, skeletal muscle and cartilage ontogeny. Here, we discuss the cellular and molecular basis underlying this complex developmental plan, with a focus on the logic of sonic hedgehog activities in the coordination of the neural-mesodermal axis.

Retinoic acid production, regulation and containment through Zic1, Pitx2c and Cyp26c1 control cranial placode specification

All paired sensory organs arise from a common precursor domain called the pre-placodal region (PPR). In Xenopus, Zic1 non-cell autonomously regulates PPR formation by activating retinoic acid (RA) production. Here, we have identified two Zic1 targets, the RA catabolizing enzyme Cyp26c1 and the transcription factor Pitx2c, expressed in the vicinity of the PPR as being crucially required for maintaining low RA levels in a spatially restricted, PPR-adjacent domain. Morpholino- or CRISPR/Cas9-mediated Cyp26c1 knockdown abrogated PPR gene expression, yielding defective cranial placodes. Direct measurement of RA levels revealed that this is mediated by a mechanism involving excess RA accumulation. Furthermore, we show that pitx2c is activated by RA and required for Cyp26c1 expression in a domain-specific manner through induction of FGF8. We propose that Zic1 anteriorly establishes a program of RA containment and regulation through activation of Cyp26c1 and Pitx2c that cooperates to promote PPR specification in a spatially restricted domain.

Cellular and developmental basis of orofacial clefts

During craniofacial development, defective growth and fusion of the upper lip and/or palate can cause orofacial clefts (OFCs), which are among the most common structural birth defects in humans. The developmental basis of OFCs includes morphogenesis of the upper lip, primary palate, secondary palate, and other orofacial structures, each consisting of diverse cell types originating from all three germ layers: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Cranial neural crest cells and orofacial epithelial cells are two major cell types that interact with various cell lineages and play key roles in orofacial development. The cellular basis of OFCs involves defective execution in any one or several of the following processes: neural crest induction, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, migration, proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, primary cilia formation and its signaling transduction, epithelial seam formation and disappearance, periderm formation and peeling, convergence and extrusion of palatal epithelial seam cells, cell adhesion, cytoskeleton dynamics, and extracellular matrix function. The latest cellular and developmental findings may provide a basis for better understanding of the underlying genetic, epigenetic, environmental, and molecular mechanisms of OFCs.

The anti-epileptic drug valproic acid causes malformations in the developing craniofacial skeleton of zebrafish larvae

Valproic acid (VPA) is an anti-epileptic drug known to cause congenital craniofacial abnormalities, including orofacial clefts (OFC). The exact mechanisms by which VPA leads to craniofacial skeletal malformations are poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of VPA on cartilage and bone formation in the zebrafish larval head during 1-13 hpf (early) and 25-37 hpf (late) development in which cranial neural crest cells (CNCCs) arise and then proliferate and differentiate, respectively. Double-staining for cartilage and bone at 5 dpf revealed that VPA reduced cartilage and bone formation in a dose-dependent manner after both early or late exposure. Several different CNCC-derived cartilage and bone elements were affected in both groups. In the early group (100 μM VPA), the posterior head length and the ethmoid plate were reduced in length (both p < 0.01), while mineralization of 4 out of 9 bone elements was often lacking (all p < 0.01). In the late group (100 μM VPA), also the posterior head length was reduced as well as the length of the ceratohyals (both p < 0.01). Similar to early exposure, mineralization of 3 out of 9 bone elements was often lacking (all p < 0.01). These results indicate that both CNCC formation (early) and differentiation (late) are hampered by VPA treatment, of which the consequences for bone and cartilage formation are persistent at 5 dpf. Indeed, we also found that the expression of several genes related to cartilage and bone was upregulated at 5 dpf. These data indicate a compensatory reaction to the lack of cartilage and bone. Altogether, VPA seems to induce craniofacial malformations via disturbed CNCC function leading to defects in cartilage and bone formation.

Wnt Signaling in Neural Crest Ontogenesis and Oncogenesis

Neural crest (NC) cells are a temporary population of multipotent stem cells that generate a diverse array of cell types, including craniofacial bone and cartilage, smooth muscle cells, melanocytes, and peripheral neurons and glia during embryonic development. Defective neural crest development can cause severe and common structural birth defects, such as craniofacial anomalies and congenital heart disease. In the early vertebrate embryos, NC cells emerge from the dorsal edge of the neural tube during neurulation and then migrate extensively throughout the anterior-posterior body axis to generate numerous derivatives. Wnt signaling plays essential roles in embryonic development and cancer. This review summarizes current understanding of Wnt signaling in NC cell induction, delamination, migration, multipotency, and fate determination, as well as in NC-derived cancers.

WNT/β-catenin modulates the axial identity of embryonic stem cell-derived human neural crest

WNT/β-catenin signaling is crucial for neural crest (NC) formation, yet the effects of the magnitude of the WNT signal remain ill-defined. Using a robust model of human NC formation based on human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), we expose that the WNT signal modulates the axial identity of NCs in a dose-dependent manner, with low WNT leading to anterior OTX⁺ HOX^- NC and high WNT leading to posterior OTX^- HOX⁺ NC. Differentiation tests of posterior NC confirm expected derivatives, including posterior-specific adrenal derivatives, and display partial capacity to generate anterior ectomesenchymal derivatives. Furthermore, unlike anterior NC, posterior NC exhibits a transient TBXT⁺/SOX2⁺ neuromesodermal precursor-like intermediate. Finally, we analyze the contributions of other signaling pathways in posterior NC formation, which suggest a crucial role for FGF in survival/proliferation, and a requirement of BMP for NC maturation. As expected retinoic acid (RA) and FGF are able to modulate HOX expression in the posterior NC. Surprisingly, early RA supplementation prohibits NC formation. This work reveals for the first time that the amplitude of WNT signaling can modulate the axial identity of NC cells in humans.

Integration of Wnt and FGF signaling in the Xenopus gastrula at TCF and Ets binding sites shows the importance of short-range repression by TCF in patterning the marginal zone

During Xenopus gastrulation, Wnt and FGF signaling pathways cooperate to induce posterior structures. Wnt target expression around the blastopore falls into two main categories: a horseshoe shape with a dorsal gap, as in Wnt8 expression; or a ring, as in FGF8 expression. Using ChIP-seq, we show, surprisingly, that the FGF signaling mediator Ets2 binds near all Wnt target genes. However, β-catenin preferentially binds at the promoters of genes with horseshoe patterns, but further from the promoters of genes with ring patterns. Manipulation of FGF or Wnt signaling demonstrated that 'ring' genes are responsive to FGF signaling at the dorsal midline, whereas 'horseshoe' genes are predominantly regulated by Wnt signaling. We suggest that, in the absence of active β-catenin at the dorsal midline, the DNA-binding protein TCF binds and actively represses gene activity only when close to the promoter. In contrast, genes without functional TCF sites at the promoter may be predominantly regulated by Ets at the dorsal midline and are expressed in a ring. These results suggest recruitment of only short-range repressors to potential Wnt targets in the Xenopus gastrula.

Znf703 is a novel RA target in the neural plate border

Znf703 is an RAR- and Wnt-inducible transcription factor that exhibits a complex expression pattern in the developing embryo: Znf703 mRNA is found in the early circumblastoporal ring, then later throughout the neural plate and its border, and subsequently in the mid/hindbrain and somites. We show that Znf703 has a different and separable function in early mesoderm versus neural crest and placode development. Independent of its early knockdown phenotype on Gdf3 and Wnt8, Znf703 disrupts patterning of distinct neural crest migratory streams normally delineated by Sox10, Twist, and Foxd3 and inhibits otocyst formation and otic expression of Sox10 and Eya1. Furthermore, Znf703 promotes massive overgrowth of SOX2+ cells, disrupting the SoxB1 balance at the neural plate border. Despite prominent expression in other neural plate border-derived cranial and sensory domains, Znf703 is selectively absent from the otocyst, suggesting that Znf703 must be specifically cleared or down-regulated for proper otic development. We show that mutation of the putative Groucho-repression domain does not ameliorate Znf703 effects on mesoderm, neural crest, and placodes. We instead provide evidence that Znf703 requires the Buttonhead domain for transcriptional repression.

Specification and formation of the neural crest: Perspectives on lineage segregation

The neural crest is a fascinating embryonic population unique to vertebrates that is endowed with remarkable differentiation capacity. Thought to originate from ectodermal tissue, neural crest cells generate neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system, and melanocytes throughout the body. However, the neural crest also generates many ectomesenchymal derivatives in the cranial region, including cell types considered to be of mesodermal origin such as cartilage, bone, and adipose tissue. These ectomesenchymal derivatives play a critical role in the formation of the vertebrate head, and are thought to be a key attribute at the center of vertebrate evolution and diversity. Further, aberrant neural crest cell development and differentiation is the root cause of many human pathologies, including cancers, rare syndromes, and birth malformations. In this review, we discuss the current findings of neural crest cell ontogeny, and consider tissue, cell, and molecular contributions toward neural crest formation. We further provide current perspectives into the molecular network involved during the segregation of the neural crest lineage.

Activation of Hes1 and Msx1 in Transgenic Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells Increases Differentiation into Neural Crest Derivatives

The neural crest (NC) comprises a multipotent cell population that produces peripheral neurons, cartilage, and smooth muscle cells, among other phenotypes. The participation of Hes1 and Msx1 when expressed in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) undergoing NC differentiation is unexplored. In this work, we generated stable mESCs transfected with constructs encoding chimeric proteins in which the ligand binding domain of glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which is translocated to the nucleus by dexamethasone addition, is fused to either Hes1 (HGR) or Msx1 (MGR), as well as double-transgenic cells (HGR+MGR). These lines continued to express pluripotency markers. Upon NC differentiation, all lines exhibited significantly decreased Sox2 expression and upregulated Sox9, Snai1, and Msx1 expression, indicating NC commitment. Dexamethasone was added to induce nuclear translocation of the chimeric proteins. We found that Collagen IIa transcripts were increased in MGR cells, whereas coactivation of HGR+MGR caused a significant increase in Smooth muscle actin (α-Sma) transcripts. Immunostaining showed that activation in HGR+MGR cells induced higher proportions of β-TUBULIN III⁺, α-SMA⁺ and COL2A1⁺ cells. These findings indicate that nuclear translocation of MSX-1, alone or in combination with HES-1, produce chondrocyte-like cells, and simultaneous activation of HES-1 and MSX-1 increases the generation of smooth muscle and neuronal cells.

Dkk2 promotes neural crest specification by activating Wnt/β-catenin signaling in a GSK3β independent manner

Neural crest progenitors are specified through the modulation of several signaling pathways, among which the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling by Wnt8 is especially critical. Glycoproteins of the Dickkopf (Dkk) family are important modulators of Wnt signaling acting primarily as Wnt antagonists. Here we report that Dkk2 is required for neural crest specification functioning as a positive regulator of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Dkk2 depletion in Xenopus embryos causes a loss of neural crest progenitors, a phenotype that is rescued by expression of Lrp6 or β-catenin. Dkk2 overexpression expands the neural crest territory in a pattern reminiscent of Wnt8, Lrp6 and β-catenin gain-of-function phenotypes. Mechanistically, we show that Dkk2 mediates its neural crest-inducing activity through Lrp6 and β-catenin, however unlike Wnt8, in a GSK3β independent manner. These findings suggest that Wnt8 and Dkk2 converge on β-catenin using distinct transduction pathways both independently required to activate Wnt/β-catenin signaling and induce neural crest cells.

The b-HLH transcription factor Hes3 participates in neural plate border formation by interfering with Wnt/β-catenin signaling

Hes3 belongs to the Hes basic helix-loop-helix family of transcriptional repressors that play central roles in maintaining progenitor cells and regulating binary cell fate decisions in the embryo. During Xenopus laevis development, hes3 is expressed in the embryonic ectoderm in a horseshoe shape domain at the edge of the developing neural pate. Hes3 mis-expression at early neurula stage blocks neural crest (snai2, sox8, sox9 and sox10) and cranial placode (six1 and dmrta1) gene expression, and promotes neural plate (sox2 and sox3) fate. At tailbud stage, these embryos exhibited a massive up-regulation of both sox8 and sox10 expression, associated with an increase in genes important for melanocytes differentiation (mitf and dct). Using a hormone inducible construct we show that Hes3 does not induce a pigment cell differentiation program de novo, rather it maintains progenitor cells in an undifferentiated state, and as Hes3 expression subsides overtime these cells adopt a pigment cell fate. We demonstrate that mechanistically Hes3 mediates its activity through inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, a molecular pathway critical for neural crest specification and pigment cell lineage differentiation. We propose that Hes3 at the edge of the neural plate spatially restricts the response to mesoderm-derived Wnt ligands, thereby contributing to the establishment of sharp boundaries of gene expression at the neural plate border.

Early specification and development of rabbit neural crest cells

The phenomenal migratory and differentiation capacity of neural crest cells has been well established across model organisms. While the earliest stages of neural crest development have been investigated in non-mammalian model systems such as Xenopus and Aves, the early specification of this cell population has not been evaluated in mammalian embryos, of which the murine model is the most prevalent. Towards a more comprehensive understanding of mammalian neural crest formation and human comparative studies, we have used the rabbit as a mammalian system for the study of early neural crest specification and development. We examine the expression profile of well-characterized neural crest markers in rabbit embryos across developmental time from early gastrula to later neurula stages, and provide a comparison to markers of migratory neural crest in the chick. Importantly, we apply explant specification assays to address the pivotal question of mammalian neural crest ontogeny, and provide the first evidence that a specified population of neural crest cells exists in the rabbit gastrula prior to the overt expression of neural crest markers. Finally, we demonstrate that FGF signaling is necessary for early rabbit neural crest formation, as SU5402 treatment strongly represses neural crest marker expression in explant assays. This study pioneers the rabbit as a model for neural crest development, and provides the first demonstration of mammalian neural crest specification and the requirement of FGF signaling in this process.

The neural border: Induction, specification and maturation of the territory that generates neural crest cells

The neural crest is induced at the edge between the neural plate and the nonneural ectoderm, in an area called the neural (plate) border, during gastrulation and neurulation. In recent years, many studies have explored how this domain is patterned, and how the neural crest is induced within this territory, that also participates to the prospective dorsal neural tube, the dorsalmost nonneural ectoderm, as well as placode derivatives in the anterior area. This review highlights the tissue interactions, the cell-cell signaling and the molecular mechanisms involved in this dynamic spatiotemporal patterning, resulting in the induction of the premigratory neural crest. Collectively, these studies allow building a complex neural border and early neural crest gene regulatory network, mostly composed by transcriptional regulations but also, more recently, including novel signaling interactions.

Specifying neural crest cells: From chromatin to morphogens and factors in between

Neural crest (NC) cells are a stem-like multipotent population of progenitor cells that are present in vertebrate embryos, traveling to various regions in the developing organism. Known as the "fourth germ layer," these cells originate in the ectoderm between the neural plate (NP), which will become the brain and spinal cord, and nonneural tissues that will become the skin and the sensory organs. NC cells can differentiate into more than 30 different derivatives in response to the appropriate signals including, but not limited to, craniofacial bone and cartilage, sensory nerves and ganglia, pigment cells, and connective tissue. The molecular and cellular mechanisms that control the induction and specification of NC cells include epigenetic control, multiple interactive and redundant transcriptional pathways, secreted signaling molecules, and adhesion molecules. NC cells are important not only because they transform into a wide variety of tissue types, but also because their ability to detach from their epithelial neighbors and migrate throughout developing embryos utilizes mechanisms similar to those used by metastatic cancer cells. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms required for the induction and specification of NC cells in various vertebrate species, focusing on the roles of early morphogenesis, cell adhesion, signaling from adjacent tissues, and the massive transcriptional network that controls the formation of these amazing cells. This article is categorized under: Nervous System Development > Vertebrates: General Principles Gene Expression and Transcriptional Hierarchies > Regulatory Mechanisms Gene Expression and Transcriptional Hierarchies > Gene Networks and Genomics Signaling Pathways > Cell Fate Signaling.

Xenopus ADAM19 regulates Wnt signaling and neural crest specification by stabilizing ADAM13

During vertebrate gastrulation, canonical Wnt signaling induces the formation of neural plate border (NPB). Wnt is also thought to be required for the subsequent specification of neural crest (NC) lineage at the NPB, but the direct evidence is lacking. We found previously that the disintegrin metalloproteinase ADAM13 is required for Wnt activation and NC induction in Xenopus Here, we report that knockdown of ADAM13 or its close paralog ADAM19 severely downregulates Wnt activity at the NPB, inhibiting NC specification without affecting earlier NPB formation. Surprisingly, ADAM19 functions nonproteolytically in NC specification by interacting with ADAM13 and inhibiting its proteasomal degradation. Ectopic expression of stabilized ADAM13 mutants that function independently of ADAM19 can induce the NC marker/specifier snail2 in the future epidermis via Wnt signaling. These results unveil the essential roles of a novel protease-protease interaction in regulating a distinct wave of Wnt signaling, which directly specifies the NC lineage.

FGF mediated MAPK and PI3K/Akt Signals make distinct contributions to pluripotency and the establishment of Neural Crest

Early vertebrate embryos possess cells with the potential to generate all embryonic cell types. While this pluripotency is progressively lost as cells become lineage restricted, Neural Crest cells retain broad developmental potential. Here, we provide novel insights into signals essential for both pluripotency and neural crest formation in Xenopus. We show that FGF signaling controls a subset of genes expressed by pluripotent blastula cells, and find a striking switch in the signaling cascades activated by FGF signaling as cells lose pluripotency and commence lineage restriction. Pluripotent cells display and require Map Kinase signaling, whereas PI3 Kinase/Akt signals increase as developmental potential is restricted, and are required for transit to certain lineage restricted states. Importantly, retaining a high Map Kinase/low Akt signaling profile is essential for establishing Neural Crest stem cells. These findings shed important light on the signal-mediated control of pluripotency and the molecular mechanisms governing genesis of Neural Crest.

Anosmin-1 is essential for neural crest and cranial placodes formation in Xenopus

During embryogenesis vertebrates develop a complex craniofacial skeleton associated with sensory organs. These structures are primarily derived from two embryonic cell populations the neural crest and cranial placodes, respectively. Neural crest cells and cranial placodes are specified through the integrated action of several families of signaling molecules, and the subsequent activation of a complex network of transcription factors. Here we describe the expression and function of Anosmin-1 (Anos1), an extracellular matrix protein, during neural crest and cranial placodes development in Xenopus laevis. Anos1 was identified as a target of Pax3 and Zic1, two transcription factors necessary and sufficient to generate neural crest and cranial placodes. Anos1 is expressed in cranial neural crest progenitors at early neurula stage and in cranial placode derivatives later in development. We show that Anos1 function is required for neural crest and sensory organs development in Xenopus, consistent with the defects observed in Kallmann syndrome patients carrying a mutation in ANOS1. These findings indicate that anos1 has a conserved function in the development of craniofacial structures, and indicate that anos1-depleted Xenopus embryos represent a useful model to analyze the pathogenesis of Kallmann syndrome.

Neuroblastoma pathogenesis: deregulation of embryonic neural crest development

Neuroblastoma (NB) is an aggressive pediatric cancer that originates from neural crest tissues of the sympathetic nervous system. NB is highly heterogeneous both from a clinical and a molecular perspective. Clinically, this cancer represents a wide range of phenotypes ranging from spontaneous regression of 4S disease to unremitting treatment-refractory progression and death of high-risk metastatic disease. At a cellular level, the heterogeneous behavior of NB likely arises from an arrest and deregulation of normal neural crest development. In the present review, we summarize our current knowledge of neural crest development as it relates to pathways promoting 'stemness' and how deregulation may contribute to the development of tumor-initiating CSCs. There is an emerging consensus that such tumor subpopulations contribute to the evolution of drug resistance, metastasis and relapse in other equally aggressive malignancies. As relapsed, refractory disease remains the primary cause of death for neuroblastoma, the identification and targeting of CSCs or other primary drivers of tumor progression remains a critical, clinically significant goal for neuroblastoma. We will critically review recent and past evidence in the literature supporting the concept of CSCs as drivers of neuroblastoma pathogenesis.

Roles of two types of heparan sulfate clusters in Wnt distribution and signaling in Xenopus

Wnt proteins direct embryonic patterning, but the regulatory basis of their distribution and signal reception remain unclear. Here, we show that endogenous Wnt8 protein is distributed in a graded manner in Xenopus embryo and accumulated on the cell surface in a punctate manner in association with “N-sulfo-rich heparan sulfate (HS),” not with “N-acetyl-rich HS”. These two types of HS are differentially clustered by attaching to different glypicans as core proteins. N-sulfo-rich HS is frequently internalized and associated with the signaling vesicle, known as the Frizzled/Wnt/LRP6 signalosome, in the presence of Wnt8. Conversely, N-acetyl-rich HS is rarely internalized and accumulates Frzb, a secreted Wnt antagonist. Upon interaction with Frzb, Wnt8 associates with N-acetyl-rich HS, suggesting that N-acetyl-rich HS supports Frzb-mediated antagonism by sequestering Wnt8 from N-sulfo-rich HS. Thus, these two types of HS clusters may constitute a cellular platform for the distribution and signaling of Wnt8.

Wnt proteins mediate embryonic development but how protein localization and patterning is regulated is unclear. Here, the authors show that distinct structures with different heparan sulfate modifications (‘N-sulfo-rich’ and ‘N-acetyl-rich’) regulate cellular localization and signal transduction of Wnt8 in Xenopus.

A chemical screen in zebrafish embryonic cells establishes that Akt activation is required for neural crest development

The neural crest is a dynamic progenitor cell population that arises at the border of neural and non-neural ectoderm. The inductive roles of FGF, Wnt, and BMP at the neural plate border are well established, but the signals required for subsequent neural crest development remain poorly characterized. Here, we conducted a screen in primary zebrafish embryo cultures for chemicals that disrupt neural crest development, as read out by crestin:EGFP expression. We found that the natural product caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) disrupts neural crest gene expression, migration, and melanocytic differentiation by reducing Sox10 activity. CAPE inhibits FGF-stimulated PI3K/Akt signaling, and neural crest defects in CAPE-treated embryos are suppressed by constitutively active Akt1. Inhibition of Akt activity by constitutively active PTEN similarly decreases crestin expression and Sox10 activity. Our study has identified Akt as a novel intracellular pathway required for neural crest differentiation.

Early Craniofacial Defects in Zebrafish that Have Reduced Function of a Wnt-Interacting Extracellular Matrix Protein, Tinagl1

Objective

Tinagl1 has a weak genetic association with craniosynostosis, but its functions in cartilage and bone development are unknown. Knockdown of Tinagl1 in zebrafish embryos allowed an initial characterization of its potential effects on craniofacial cartilage development and a test of whether these effects could involve Wnt signaling.

Results

Tinagl1 knockdown resulted in dose-dependent reductions and defects in ventral pharyngeal arch cartilages as well as the ethmoid plate, a zebrafish correlate to the palate. These defects could be correlated to reduced numbers of cranial neural crest cells in the pharyngeal arches and could be reproduced with comanipulation of Tinagl1 and Wnt3a by morpholino-based knockdown.

Conclusions

These results suggest that Tinagl1 is required early in the proliferation or migration of cranial neural crest cells and that its effects are mediated via Wnt3a signaling. Because Wnt3a is among the Wnts that contribute to nonsyndromic cleft lip and cleft palate in mouse and man, further investigation of Tinagl1 may help to elucidate mechanisms underlying these disorders.

Signaling pathways and tissue interactions in neural plate border formation

The neural crest is a transient cell population that gives rise to various cell types of multiple tissues and organs in the vertebrate embryo. Neural crest cells arise from the neural plate border, a region localized at the lateral borders of the prospective neural plate. Temporally and spatially coordinated interaction with the adjacent tissues, the non-neural ectoderm, the neural plate and the prospective dorsolateral mesoderm, is required for neural plate border specification. Signaling molecules, namely BMP, Wnt and FGF ligands and corresponding antagonists are derived from these tissues and interact to induce the expression of neural plate border specific genes. The present mini-review focuses on the current understanding of how the NPB territory is formed and accentuates the need for coordinated interaction of BMP and Wnt signaling pathways and precise tissue communication that are required for the definition of the prospective NC in the competent ectoderm.

Morphogenesis and maturation of the embryonic and postnatal intestine

The intestine is a vital organ responsible for nutrient absorption, bile and waste excretion, and a major site of host immunity. In order to keep up with daily demands, the intestine has evolved a mechanism to expand the absorptive surface area by undergoing a morphogenetic process to generate finger-like units called villi. These villi house specialized cell types critical for both absorbing nutrients from food, and for protecting the host from commensal and pathogenic microbes present in the adult gut. In this review, we will discuss mechanisms that coordinate intestinal development, growth, and maturation of the small intestine, starting from the formation of the early gut tube, through villus morphogenesis and into early postnatal life when the intestine must adapt to the acquisition of nutrients through food intake, and to interactions with microbes.

Inhibition of FGF signaling accelerates neural crest cell differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells

Neural crest (NC) is a transient population, arising during embryonic development and capable of differentiating into various somatic cells. The defects of neural crest development leads to neurocristopathy. Several signaling pathways were revealed their significance in NC cell specification. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) is recognized as an important signaling during NC development, for instance Xenopus and avian; however, its contributions in human species are remained elusive. Here we used human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) to investigate the consequences of FGF inhibition during NC cell differentiation. The specific-FGF receptor inhibitor, SU5402, was used in this investigation. The inhibition of FGF did not found to affect the proliferation or death of hPSC-derived NC cells, but promoted hPSCs to commit NC cell fate. NC-specific genes, including PAX3, SLUG, and TWIST1, were highly upregulated, while hPSC genes, such as OCT4, and E-CAD, rapidly reduced upon FGF signaling blockage. Noteworthy, TFAP-2α, a marker of migratory NC cells, abundantly presented in SU5402-induced cells. This accelerated NC cell differentiation could be due to the activation of Notch signaling upon the blockage of ERK1/2 phosphorylation, since NICD was increased by SU5402. Altogether, this study proposed the contributions of FGF signaling in controlling human NC cell differentiation from hPSCs, the crosstalk between FGF and Notch, and might imply to the influences of FGF signaling in neurocristophatic diseases.

Ror2 signaling is required for local upregulation of GDF6 and activation of BMP signaling at the neural plate border

The receptor tyrosine kinase Ror2 is a major Wnt receptor that activates β-catenin-independent signaling and plays a conserved role in the regulation of convergent extension movements and planar cell polarity in vertebrates. Mutations in the ROR2 gene cause recessive Robinow syndrome in humans, a short-limbed dwarfism associated with craniofacial malformations. Here, we show that Ror2 is required for local upregulation of gdf6 at the neural plate border in Xenopus embryos. Ror2 morphant embryos fail to upregulate neural plate border genes and show defects in the induction of neural crest cell fate. These embryos lack the spatially restricted activation of BMP signaling at the neural plate border at early neurula stages, which is required for neural crest induction. Ror2-dependent planar cell polarity signaling is required in the dorsolateral marginal zone during gastrulation indirectly to upregulate the BMP ligand Gdf6 at the neural plate border and Gdf6 is sufficient to rescue neural plate border specification in Ror2 morphant embryos. Thereby, Ror2 links Wnt/planar cell polarity signaling to BMP signaling in neural plate border specification and neural crest induction.

Neural crest specification by Prohibitin1 depends on transcriptional regulation of prl3 and vangl1

A complex network of transcription factors regulates specification of neural crest cells at early neurula stage by stabilizing neural crest identity and activating neural crest effector genes so that distinct subpopulations evolve. In this network, c-myc acts on top of the gene hierarchy controlling snail2, AP2 and prohibitin1 (phb1) expression. While snail2 and AP2 are well studied neural crest specifier genes little is known about the role of phb1 in this process. To identify phb1 regulated genes we analyzed the transcriptome of neural crest explants of phb1 morphant Xenopus embryos. Among 147 phb1 regulated genes we identified the membrane-associated protein-tyrosine phosphatase PRP4A3 (prl3) and the atypical cadherin and Wnt-PCP component van gogh like1 (vangl1). Gain of function, loss of function and epistasis experiments allowed us to allocate both genes in the neural crest specification network between phb1 and twist. Interestingly, both, vangl1 and prl3 regulate only a small subset of neural crest marker genes. The identification of two membrane-associated proteins as novel neural crest specifiers indicates that in addition to gene regulation by combinatory effects of transcription factors also post-translational modifications (prl3) and cell-cell adhesion and/or regulation of cell-polarity (vangl1) specify the identity of neural crest cell populations. genesis 53:627-639, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The Proto-oncogene Transcription Factor Ets1 Regulates Neural Crest Development through Histone Deacetylase 1 to Mediate Output of Bone Morphogenetic Protein Signaling

The neural crest (NC) is a transient, migratory cell population that differentiates into a large variety of tissues including craniofacial cartilage, melanocytes, and peripheral nervous system. NC is initially induced at the border of neural plate and non-neural ectoderm by balanced regulation of multiple signaling pathways among which an intermediate bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling is essential for NC formation. ets1, a proto-oncogene playing important roles in tumor invasion, has also been implicated in delamination of NC cells. In this study, we investigated Ets1 function in NC formation using Xenopus. Overexpression of ets1 repressed NC formation through down-regulation of BMP signaling. Moreover, ets1 repressed the BMP-responsive gene id3 that is essential for NC formation. Conversely, overexpression of id3 can partially rescue the phenotype of NC inhibition induced by ectopic ets1. Mechanistically, we found that Ets1 binds to id3 promoter as well as histone deacetylase 1, suggesting that Ets1 recruits histone deacetylase 1 to the promoter of id3, thereby inducing histone deacetylation of the id3 promoter. Thus, our studies indicate that Ets1 regulates NC formation through attenuating BMP signaling epigenetically.

Xenopus Nkx6.3 is a neural plate border specifier required for neural crest development

In vertebrates, the neural plate border (NPB) is established by a group of transcription factors including Dlx3, Msx1 and Zic1. The crosstalk between these NPB specifiers governs the separation of the NPB region into placode and neural crest (NC) territories and also their further differentiation. Understanding the mechanisms of NPB formation and NC development is critical for our knowledge of related human diseases. Here we identified Nkx6.3, a transcription factor of the Nkx family, as a new NPB specifier required for neural crest development in Xenopus embryos. XNkx6.3 is expressed in the ectoderm of the neural plate border region at neurula stages, covering the epidermis, placode and neural crest territories, but not the neural plate. Inhibition of Nkx6.3 by dominant negative construct or specific morpholino leads to neural crest defects, while overexpression of Nkx6.3 induces ectopic neural crest in the anterior neural fold. In animal caps, Nkx6.3 alone is able to initiate the whole neural crest regulatory network and induces neural crest fate robustly. We showed that overexpression of Nkx6.3 affects multiple signaling pathways, creating a high-Wnt, low-BMP environment required for neural crest development. Gain- and loss-of-function of Nkx6.3 have compound effects on the expression of known NPB genes, which is largely opposite to that of Dlx3. Overexpression of Dlx3 blocks the NC inducing activity of Nkx6.3. The crosstalk between Nkx6.3, Dlx3 and Msx1 is likely crucial for proper NPB formation and neural crest development in Xenopus.

Early embryonic specification of vertebrate cranial placodes

Cranial placodes contribute to many sensory organs and ganglia of the vertebrate head. The olfactory, otic, and lateral line placodes form the sensory receptor cells and neurons of the nose, ear, and lateral line system; the lens placode develops into the lens of the eye; epibranchial, profundal, and trigeminal placodes contribute sensory neurons to cranial nerve ganglia; and the adenohypophyseal placode gives rise to the anterior pituitary, a major endocrine control organ. Despite these differences in fate, all placodes are now known to originate from a common precursor, the preplacodal ectoderm (PPE). The latter is a horseshoe-shaped domain of ectoderm surrounding the anterior neural plate and neural crest and is defined by expression of transcription factor Six1, its cofactor Eya1, and other members of the Six and Eya families. Studies in zebrafish, Xenopus, and chick reveal that the PPE is specified together with other ectodermal territories (epidermis, neural crest, and neural plate) during early embryogenesis. During gastrulation, domains of ventrally (e.g., Dlx3/Dlx5, GATA2/GATA3, AP2, Msx1, FoxI1, and Vent1/Vent2) and dorsally (e.g., Zic1, Sox3, and Geminin) restricted transcription factors are established in response to a gradient of BMP and help to define non-neural and neural competence territories, respectively. At neural plate stages, the PPE is then induced in the non-neural competence territory by signals from the adjacent neural plate and mesoderm including FGF, BMP inhibitors, and Wnt inhibitors. Subsequently, signals from more localized signaling centers induce restricted expression domains of various transcription factors within the PPE, which specify multiplacodal areas and ultimately individual placodes. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The author has declared no conflicts of interest for this article.

PleiotRHOpic: Rho pathways are essential for all stages of Neural Crest development

Neural Crest (NC) cells are a multipotent migratory stem cell population unique to vertebrates, which contributes extensively to the formation of a wide array of neural and non-neural structures in the embryo. NC cells originate in the ectoderm at the border of the neural tube, undergo an epithelial-mesenchymal transition and acquire outstanding individual and collective migratory properties that allow them to disseminate and differentiate to different parts of the body. This exquisite capacity to switch from an epithelium to motile cells represents both a puzzling biological issue and an attractive model to address the basic mechanisms of cell migration and their alteration during cancer progression. Here we review how signaling pathways controlled by Rho GTPases, key players in cell adhesion, contraction, migration and polarity, contribute to the control the different phases of NC development.

Transcription factor AP2 epsilon (Tfap2e) regulates neural crest specification in Xenopus

Transcription factors Pax3 and Zic1 are two important regulators of cell fate decision at the neural plate border, where they act synergistically to promote neural crest (NC) formation. To understand the role of these factors in NC development, we performed a microarray analysis to identify downstream targets of Pax3 and Zic1 in Xenopus embryos. Among the genes identified was a member of transcription factor activator protein 2 (Tfap2) family, Tfap2 epsilon (Tfap2e). Tfap2e is first expressed at early neurula stage in NC progenitors and Rohon-Beard sensory neurons, and persists in a subset of migrating cranial NC cells as they populate the pharyngeal arches. This is in contrast to other species in which Tfap2e is not detected in the early NC lineage. Tfap2e morpholino-mediated knockdown results in a loss of NC progenitors and an expansion of the neural plate. Tfap2e is also sufficient to activate NC-specific genes in animal cap explants, and gain-of-function experiments in the whole embryo indicate that Tfap2e can promote NC formation. We propose that Tfap2e is a novel player in the gene regulatory network controlling NC specification in Xenopus downstream of Pax3 and Zic1.

Identification of Pax3 and Zic1 targets in the developing neural crest

The neural crest (NC) is a multipotent population of migratory cells unique to the vertebrate embryo, contributing to the development of multiple organ systems. Transcription factors pax3 and zic1 are among the earliest genes activated in NC progenitors, and they are both necessary and sufficient to promote NC fate. In order to further characterize the function of these transcription factors during NC development we have used hormone inducible fusion proteins in a Xenopus animal cap assay, and DNA microarray to identify downstream targets of Pax3 and Zic1. Here we present the results of this screen and the initial validation of these targets using quantitative RT-PCR, in situ hybridization and morpholinos-mediated knockdown. Among the targets identified we found several well-characterized NC-specific genes, including snail2, foxd3, gbx2, twist, sox8 and sox9, which validate our approach. We also obtained several factors with no known function in Xenopus NC, which represent novel regulators of NC fate. The comprehensive characterization of Pax3 and Zic1 targets function in the NC gene regulatory network, are essential to understanding the mechanisms regulating the emergence of this important cell population.

Regulation of neurogenesis by Fgf8a requires Cdc42 signaling and a novel Cdc42 effector protein

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling is required for numerous aspects of neural development, including neural induction, CNS patterning and neurogenesis. The ability of FGFs to activate Ras/MAPK signaling is thought to be critical for these functions. However, it is unlikely that MAPK signaling can fully explain the diversity of responses to FGFs. We have characterized a Cdc42-dependent signaling pathway operating downstream of the Fgf8a splice isoform. We show that a Cdc42 effector 4-like protein (Cdc42ep4-l or Cep4l) has robust neuronal-inducing activity in Xenopus embryos. Furthermore, we find that Cep4l and Cdc42 itself are necessary and sufficient for sensory neurogenesis in vivo. Furthermore, both proteins are involved in Fgf8a-induced neuronal induction, and Cdc42/Cep4l association is promoted specifically by the Fgf8a isoform of Fgf8, but not by Fgf8b, which lacks neuronal inducing activity. Overall, these data suggest a novel role for Cdc42 in an Fgf8a-specific signaling pathway essential for vertebrate neuronal development.

Role of Sp5 as an essential early regulator of neural crest specification in xenopus

BACKGROUND

The neural crest (NC) is a multipotent embryonic cell population, which is induced by an integration of secreted signals including BMP, Wnt, and FGF and, subsequently, NC cell fates are specified by a regulatory network of specific transcription factors. This study was undertaken to identify a role of Sp5 transcription factor in vertebrates.

RESULTS

Xenopus Sp5 is expressed in the prospective neural crest regions from gastrulation through the tadpole stages in early development. Knockdown of Sp5 caused severe defects in craniofacial cartilage, pigmentation, and dorsal fin. Gain- and loss-of-function of Sp5 led to up- and down-regulation of the expression of NC markers in the neural fold, respectively. In contrast, Sp5 had no effect on neural induction and patterning. Sp5 regulated the expression of neural plate border (NPB) specifiers, Msx1 and Pax3, and these regulatory factors recovered the expression of NC marker in the Sp5-deficient embryos. Depletion of Sp5 impaired NC induction by Wnt/β-catenin or FGF signal, whereas its co-expression rescued NC markers in embryos in which either signal was blocked.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that Sp5 functions as a critical early factor in the genetic cascade to regulate NC induction downstream of Wnt and FGF pathways.

Loss of Xenopus cadherin-11 leads to increased Wnt/β-catenin signaling and up-regulation of target genes c-myc and cyclin D1 in neural crest

Xenopus cadherin-11 (Xcadherin-11) is an exceptional cadherin family member, which is predominantly expressed in cranial neural crest cells (NCCs). Apart from mediating cell-cell adhesion it promotes cranial NCC migration by initiating filopodia and lamellipodia formation. Here, we demonstrate an unexpected function of Xcadherin-11 in NCC specification by interfering with canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Loss-of-function experiments, using a specific antisense morpholino oligonucleotide against Xcadherin-11, display a nuclear β-catenin localization in cranial NCCs and a broader expression domain of the proto-oncogene cyclin D1 which proceeds c-myc up-regulation. Additionally, we observe an enhanced NCC proliferation and an expansion of specific NCC genes like AP2 and Sox10. Thereby, we could allocate NCC proliferation and specification to different gene functions. To clarify which domain in Xcadherin-11 is required for early NCC development we tested different deletion mutants for their rescue ability in Xcadherin-11 morphants. We identified the cytoplasmic tail, specifically the β-catenin binding domain, to be necessary for proper NCC development. We propose that Xcadherin-11 is necessary for controlled NCC proliferation and early NCC specification in tuning the expression of the canonical Wnt/β-catenin target genes cyclin D1 and c-myc by regulating the concentration of the nuclear pool of β-catenin.

FGF signaling regulates Wnt ligand expression to control vulval cell lineage polarity in C. elegans

The interpretation of extracellular cues leading to the polarization of intracellular components and asymmetric cell divisions is a fundamental part of metazoan organogenesis. The Caenorhabditis elegans vulva, with its invariant cell lineage and interaction of multiple cell signaling pathways, provides an excellent model for the study of cell polarity within an organized epithelial tissue. Here, we show that the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) pathway acts in concert with the Frizzled homolog LIN-17 to influence the localization of SYS-1, a component of the Wnt/β-catenin asymmetry pathway, indirectly through the regulation of cwn-1. The source of the FGF ligand is the primary vulval precursor cell (VPC) P6.p, which controls the orientation of the neighboring secondary VPC P7.p by signaling through the sex myoblasts (SMs), activating the FGF pathway. The Wnt CWN-1 is expressed in the posterior body wall muscle of the worm as well as in the SMs, making it the only Wnt expressed on the posterior and anterior sides of P7.p at the time of the polarity decision. Both sources of cwn-1 act instructively to influence P7.p polarity in the direction of the highest Wnt signal. Using single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization, we show that the FGF pathway regulates the expression of cwn-1 in the SMs. These results demonstrate an interaction between FGF and Wnt in C. elegans development and vulval cell lineage polarity, and highlight the promiscuous nature of Wnts and the importance of Wnt gradient directionality within C. elegans.

Wnt signaling in vertebrate axis specification

The Wnt pathway is a major embryonic signaling pathway that controls cell proliferation, cell fate, and body-axis determination in vertebrate embryos. Soon after egg fertilization, Wnt pathway components play a role in microtubule-dependent dorsoventral axis specification. Later in embryogenesis, another conserved function of the pathway is to specify the anteroposterior axis. The dual role of Wnt signaling in Xenopus and zebrafish embryos is regulated at different developmental stages by distinct sets of Wnt target genes. This review highlights recent progress in the discrimination of different signaling branches and the identification of specific pathway targets during vertebrate axial development.

Extracellular matrix protein anosmin promotes neural crest formation and regulates FGF, BMP, and WNT activities

Neural crest cells are a transient stem cell-like population appearing during vertebrate embryonic development. Generation of the cranial neural crest is known to require a balanced combination of FGF and BMP levels. However, it is poorly understood how the functions of such growth factors are controlled in the extracellular space. Anosmin is an extracellular matrix protein implicated in FGF signaling and mutated in Kallmann syndrome. Here, we demonstrate that anosmin is synthesized locally in the cranial neural crest of chicken embryos and is essential for cranial neural crest formation. Anosmin upregulates FGF8 and BMP5 gene expression; it also enhances FGF8 activity while inhibiting BMP5 and WNT3a signaling. Taken together, our data establish that the matrix protein anosmin is required for cranial neural crest formation, with functional modulation of FGF, BMP, and WNT.

Neural crest and somitic mesoderm as paradigms to investigate cell fate decisions during development

The dorsal domains of the neural tube and somites are transient embryonic epithelia; they constitute the source of neural crest progenitors that generate the peripheral nervous system, pigment cells and ectomesenchyme, and of the dermomyotome that develops into myocytes, dermis and vascular cells, respectively. Based on the variety of derivatives produced by each type of epithelium, a classical yet still highly relevant question is whether these embryonic epithelia are composed of homogeneous multipotent progenitors or, alternatively, of subsets of fate-restricted cells. Growing evidence substantiates the notion that both the dorsal tube and the dermomyotome are heterogeneous epithelia composed of multipotent as well as fate-restricted precursors that emerge as such in a spatio-temporally regulated manner. Elucidation of the state of commitment of the precedent progenitors is of utmost significance for deciphering the mechanisms that regulate fate segregation during embryogenesis. In addition, it will contribute to understanding the nature of well documented neural crest-somite interactions shown to modulate the timing of neural crest cell emigration, their segmental migration, and myogenesis.

BMP, Wnt and FGF signals are integrated through evolutionarily conserved enhancers to achieve robust expression of Pax3 and Zic genes at the zebrafish neural plate border

Neural crest cells generate a range of cells and tissues in the vertebrate head and trunk, including peripheral neurons, pigment cells, and cartilage. Neural crest cells arise from the edges of the nascent central nervous system, a domain called the neural plate border (NPB). NPB induction is known to involve the BMP, Wnt and FGF signaling pathways. However, little is known about how these signals are integrated to achieve temporally and spatially specific expression of genes in NPB cells. Furthermore, the timing and relative importance of these signals in NPB formation appears to differ between vertebrate species. Here, we use heat-shock overexpression and chemical inhibitors to determine whether, and when, BMP, Wnt and FGF signaling are needed for expression of the NPB specifiers pax3a and zic3 in zebrafish. We then identify four evolutionarily conserved enhancers from the pax3a and zic3 loci and test their response to BMP, Wnt and FGF perturbations. We find that all three signaling pathways are required during gastrulation for the proper expression of pax3a and zic3 in the zebrafish NPB. We also find that, although the expression patterns driven by the pax3a and zic3 enhancers largely overlap, they respond to different combinations of BMP, Wnt and FGF signals. Finally, we show that the combination of the two pax3a enhancers is less susceptible to signaling perturbations than either enhancer alone. Taken together, our results reveal how BMPs, FGFs and Wnts act cooperatively and redundantly through partially redundant enhancers to achieve robust, specific gene expression in the zebrafish NPB.