Reducing Lissencephaly-1 levels augments mitochondrial transport and has a protective effect in adult Drosophila neurons

Mitochondria in aging and age-associated diseases

Mitochondria, essential for cellular energy, are crucial in neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs) and their age-related progression. This review highlights mitochondrial dynamics, mitovesicles, homeostasis, and organelle communication. We examine mitochondrial impacts from aging and NDDs, focusing on protein aggregation and dysfunction. Prospective therapeutic approaches include enhancing mitophagy, improving respiratory chain function, maintaining calcium and lipid balance, using microRNAs, and mitochondrial transfer to protect function. These strategies underscore the crucial role of mitochondrial health in neuronal survival and cognitive functions, offering new therapeutic opportunities.

Microtubule acetylation is a biomarker of cytoplasmic health during cellular senescence

Cellular senescence is marked by cytoskeletal dysfunction, yet the role of microtubule post-translational modifications (PTMs) remains unclear. We demonstrate that microtubule acetylation increases during drug-induced senescence in human cells and during natural aging in Drosophila . Elevating acetylation via HDAC6 inhibition or α TAT1 overexpression in BEAS-2B cells disrupts anterograde Rab6A vesicle transport, but spares retrograde transport of Rab5 endosomes. Hyperacetylation results in slowed microtubule polymerization and decreased cytoplasmic fluidity, impeding diffusion of micron-sized condensates. These effects are distinct from enhanced detyrosination, and correlate with altered viscoelasticity and resistance to osmotic stress. Modulating cytoplasmic viscosity reciprocally perturbs microtubule dynamics, revealing bidirectional mechanical regulation. Senescent cells phenocopy hyperacetylated cells, exhibiting analogous effects on transport and microtubule polymerization. Our findings establish acetylation as a biomarker for cytoplasmic health and a potential driver of age-related cytoplasmic densification and organelle transport decline, linking microtubule PTMs to biomechanical feedback loops that exacerbate senescence. This work highlights the role of acetylation in bridging cytoskeletal changes to broader aging hallmarks.

Metaxin-2 tunes mitochondrial transportation and neuronal function in Drosophila

Metaxins are a family of evolutionarily conserved proteins that reside on the mitochondria outer membrane (MOM) and participate in the protein import into the mitochondria. Metaxin-2 (Mtx2), a member of this family, has been identified as a key component in the machinery for mitochondrial transport in both C. elegans and human neurons. To deepen our understanding of Mtx2's role in neurons, we examined the homologous genes CG5662 and CG8004 in Drosophila. The CG5662 is a non-essential gene while CG8004 null mutants die at late pupal stages. The CG8004 protein is widely expressed throughout the Drosophila nervous system and is targeted to mitochondria. However, neuronal CG8004 is dispensable for animal survival and is partially required for mitochondrial distribution in certain neuropil regions. Conditional knockout of CG8004 in adult gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) impairs mitochondrial trafficking along GRN axons and diminishes the mitochondrial quantities in axon terminals. The absence of CG8004 also leads to mitochondrial fragmentation within GRN axons, a phenomenon that may be linked to mitochondrial transport through its genetic interaction with the fusion proteins Marf and Opa1. While the removal of neuronal CG8004 is not lethal during the developmental stage, it does have consequences for the lifespan and healthspan of adult Drosophila. At last, double knockout (KO) of CG5662 and CG8004 shows similar phenotypes as the CG8004 single KO, suggesting that CG5662 does not compensate for the loss of CG8004. In summary, our findings suggest that CG8004 plays a conserved and context-dependent role in axonal mitochondrial transport, as well it is important for sustaining neuronal function. Therefore, we refer to CG8004 as the Drosophila Metaxin-2 (dMtx2).

The multifaceted role of mitochondria in autism spectrum disorder

Normal brain functioning relies on high aerobic energy production provided by mitochondria. Failure to supply a sufficient amount of energy, seen in different brain disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), may have a significant negative impact on brain development and support of different brain functions. Mitochondrial dysfunction, manifested in the abnormal activities of the electron transport chain and impaired energy metabolism, greatly contributes to ASD. The aberrant functioning of this organelle is of such high importance that ASD has been proposed as a mitochondrial disease. It should be noted that aerobic energy production is not the only function of the mitochondria. In particular, these organelles are involved in the regulation of Ca2+ homeostasis, different mechanisms of programmed cell death, autophagy, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) production. Several syndromes originated from mitochondria-related mutations display ASD phenotype. Abnormalities in Ca2+ handling and ATP production in the brain mitochondria affect synaptic transmission, plasticity, and synaptic development, contributing to ASD. ROS and Ca2+ regulate the activity of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP). The prolonged opening of this pore affects the redox state of the mitochondria, impairs oxidative phosphorylation, and activates apoptosis, ultimately leading to cell death. A dysregulation between the enhanced mitochondria-related processes of apoptosis and the inhibited autophagy leads to the accumulation of toxic products in the brains of individuals with ASD. Although many mitochondria-related mechanisms still have to be investigated, and whether they are the cause or consequence of this disorder is still unknown, the accumulating data show that the breakdown of any of the mitochondrial functions may contribute to abnormal brain development leading to ASD. In this review, we discuss the multifaceted role of mitochondria in ASD from the various aspects of neuroscience.

Axonal distribution of mitochondria maintains neuronal autophagy during aging via eIF2β

Neuronal aging and neurodegenerative diseases are accompanied by proteostasis collapse, while cellular factors that trigger it are not identified. Impaired mitochondrial transport in the axon is another feature of aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Using Drosophila, we found that genetic depletion of axonal mitochondria causes dysregulation of protein degradation. Axons with mitochondrial depletion showed abnormal protein accumulation and autophagic defects. Lowering neuronal ATP levels by blocking glycolysis did not reduce autophagy, suggesting that autophagic defects are associated with mitochondrial distribution. We found that eIF2β was increased by the depletion of axonal mitochondria via proteome analysis. Phosphorylation of eIF2α, another subunit of eIF2, was lowered, and global translation was suppressed. Neuronal overexpression of eIF2β phenocopied the autophagic defects and neuronal dysfunctions, and lowering eIF2β expression rescued those perturbations caused by depletion of axonal mitochondria. These results indicate the mitochondria-eIF2β axis maintains proteostasis in the axon, of which disruption may underly the onset and progression of age-related neurodegenerative diseases.

A force-sensitive mutation reveals a non-canonical role for dynein in anaphase progression

The diverse roles of the dynein motor in shaping microtubule networks and cargo transport complicate in vivo analysis of its functions significantly. To address this issue, we have generated a series of missense mutations in Drosophila Dynein heavy chain. We show that mutations associated with human neurological disease cause a range of defects, including impaired cargo trafficking in neurons. We also describe a novel microtubule-binding domain mutation that specifically blocks the metaphase-anaphase transition during mitosis in the embryo. This effect is independent from dynein's canonical role in silencing the spindle assembly checkpoint. Optical trapping of purified dynein complexes reveals that this mutation only compromises motor performance under load, a finding rationalized by the results of all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. We propose that dynein has a novel function in anaphase progression that depends on it operating in a specific load regime. More broadly, our work illustrates how in vivo functions of motors can be dissected by manipulating their mechanical properties.

Age-specific and compartment-dependent changes in mitochondrial homeostasis and cytoplasmic viscosity in mouse peripheral neurons

Mitochondria are dynamic bioenergetic hubs that become compromised with age. In neurons, declining mitochondrial axonal transport has been associated with reduced cellular health. However, it is still unclear to what extent the decline of mitochondrial transport and function observed during ageing are coupled, and if somal and axonal mitochondria display compartment-specific features that make them more susceptible to the ageing process. It is also not known whether the biophysical state of the cytoplasm, thought to affect many cellular functions, changes with age to impact mitochondrial trafficking and homeostasis. Focusing on the mouse peripheral nervous system, we show that age-dependent decline in mitochondrial trafficking is accompanied by reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential and intramitochondrial viscosity, but not calcium buffering, in both somal and axonal mitochondria. Intriguingly, we observe a specific increase in cytoplasmic viscosity in the neuronal cell body, where mitochondria are most polarised, which correlates with decreased cytoplasmic diffusiveness. Increasing cytoplasmic crowding in the somatic compartment of DRG neurons grown in microfluidic chambers reduces mitochondrial axonal trafficking, suggesting a mechanistic link between the regulation of cytoplasmic viscosity and mitochondrial dynamics. Our work provides a reference for studying the relationship between neuronal mitochondrial homeostasis and the viscoelasticity of the cytoplasm in a compartment-dependent manner during ageing.

The role of kinesin-1 in neuronal dense core vesicle transport, locomotion and lifespan regulation in C. elegans

Fast axonal transport is crucial for neuronal function and is driven by kinesins and cytoplasmic dynein. Here, we investigated the role of kinesin-1 in dense core vesicle (DCV) transport in C. elegans, using mutants in the kinesin light chains (klc-1 and klc-2) and the motor subunit (unc-116) expressing an ida-1::gfp transgene that labels DCVs. DCV transport in both directions was greatly impaired in an unc-116 mutant and had reduced velocity in a klc-2 mutant. In contrast, the speed of retrograde DCV transport was increased in a klc-1 mutant whereas anterograde transport was unaffected. We identified striking differences between the klc mutants in their effects on worm locomotion and responses to drugs affecting neuromuscular junction activity. We also determined lifespan, finding that unc-116 mutant was short-lived whereas the klc single mutant lifespan was wild type. The ida-1::gfp transgenic strain was also short-lived, but surprisingly, klc-1 and klc-2 extended the ida-1::gfp lifespan beyond that of wild type. Our findings suggest that kinesin-1 not only influences anterograde and retrograde DCV transport but is also involved in regulating lifespan and locomotion, with the two kinesin light chains playing distinct roles.

Changes in mitochondrial distribution occur at the axon initial segment in association with neurodegeneration in Drosophila

Changes in mitochondrial distribution are a feature of numerous age-related neurodegenerative diseases. In Drosophila, reducing the activity of Cdk5 causes a neurodegenerative phenotype and is known to affect several mitochondrial properties. Therefore, we investigated whether alterations of mitochondrial distribution are involved in Cdk5-associated neurodegeneration. We find that reducing Cdk5 activity does not alter the balance of mitochondrial localization to the somatodendritic versus axonal neuronal compartments of the mushroom body, the learning and memory center of the Drosophila brain. We do, however, observe changes in mitochondrial distribution at the axon initial segment (AIS), a neuronal compartment located in the proximal axon involved in neuronal polarization and action potential initiation. Specifically, we observe that mitochondria are partially excluded from the AIS in wild-type neurons, but that this exclusion is lost upon reduction of Cdk5 activity, concomitant with the shrinkage of the AIS domain that is known to occur in this condition. This mitochondrial redistribution into the AIS is not likely due to the shortening of the AIS domain itself but rather due to altered Cdk5 activity. Furthermore, mitochondrial redistribution into the AIS is unlikely to be an early driver of neurodegeneration in the context of reduced Cdk5 activity.

Changes in mitochondrial distribution occur at the axon initial segment in association with neurodegeneration in Drosophila

Changes in mitochondrial distribution are a feature of numerous age-related neurodegenerative diseases. In Drosophila, reducing the activity of Cdk5 causes a neurodegenerative phenotype and is known to affect several mitochondrial properties. Therefore, we investigated whether alterations of mitochondrial distribution are involved in Cdk5-associated neurodegeneration. We find that reducing Cdk5 activity does not alter the balance of mitochondrial localization to the somatodendritic vs. axonal neuronal compartments of the mushroom body, the learning and memory center of the Drosophila brain. We do, however, observe changes in mitochondrial distribution at the axon initial segment (AIS), a neuronal compartment located in the proximal axon involved in neuronal polarization and action potential initiation. Specifically, we observe that mitochondria are partially excluded from the AIS in wild-type neurons, but that this exclusion is lost upon reduction of Cdk5 activity, concomitant with the shrinkage of the AIS domain that is known to occur in this condition. This mitochondrial redistribution into the AIS is not likely due to the shortening of the AIS domain itself but rather due to altered Cdk5 activity. Furthermore, mitochondrial redistribution into the AIS is unlikely to be an early driver of neurodegeneration in the context of reduced Cdk5 activity.

A force-sensitive mutation reveals a spindle assembly checkpoint-independent role for dynein in anaphase progression

The cytoplasmic dynein-1 (dynein) motor organizes cells by shaping microtubule networks and moving a large variety of cargoes along them. However, dynein's diverse roles complicate in vivo studies of its functions significantly. To address this issue, we have used gene editing to generate a series of missense mutations in Drosophila Dynein heavy chain (Dhc). We find that mutations associated with human neurological disease cause a range of defects in larval and adult flies, including impaired cargo trafficking in neurons. We also describe a novel mutation in the microtubule-binding domain (MTBD) of Dhc that, remarkably, causes metaphase arrest of mitotic spindles in the embryo but does not impair other dynein-dependent processes. We demonstrate that the mitotic arrest is independent of dynein's well-established roles in silencing the spindle assembly checkpoint. In vitro reconstitution and optical trapping assays reveal that the mutation only impairs the performance of dynein under load. In silico all-atom molecular dynamics simulations show that this effect correlates with increased flexibility of the MTBD, as well as an altered orientation of the stalk domain, with respect to the microtubule. Collectively, our data point to a novel role of dynein in anaphase progression that depends on the motor operating in a specific load regime. More broadly, our work illustrates how cytoskeletal transport processes can be dissected in vivo by manipulating mechanical properties of motors.

Axonal energy metabolism, and the effects in aging and neurodegenerative diseases

Human studies consistently identify bioenergetic maladaptations in brains upon aging and neurodegenerative disorders of aging (NDAs), such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Glucose is the major brain fuel and glucose hypometabolism has been observed in brain regions vulnerable to aging and NDAs. Many neurodegenerative susceptible regions are in the topological central hub of the brain connectome, linked by densely interconnected long-range axons. Axons, key components of the connectome, have high metabolic needs to support neurotransmission and other essential activities. Long-range axons are particularly vulnerable to injury, neurotoxin exposure, protein stress, lysosomal dysfunction, etc. Axonopathy is often an early sign of neurodegeneration. Recent studies ascribe axonal maintenance failures to local bioenergetic dysregulation. With this review, we aim to stimulate research in exploring metabolically oriented neuroprotection strategies to enhance or normalize bioenergetics in NDA models. Here we start by summarizing evidence from human patients and animal models to reveal the correlation between glucose hypometabolism and connectomic disintegration upon aging/NDAs. To encourage mechanistic investigations on how axonal bioenergetic dysregulation occurs during aging/NDAs, we first review the current literature on axonal bioenergetics in distinct axonal subdomains: axon initial segments, myelinated axonal segments, and axonal arbors harboring pre-synaptic boutons. In each subdomain, we focus on the organization, activity-dependent regulation of the bioenergetic system, and external glial support. Second, we review the mechanisms regulating axonal nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) homeostasis, an essential molecule for energy metabolism processes, including NAD+ biosynthetic, recycling, and consuming pathways. Third, we highlight the innate metabolic vulnerability of the brain connectome and discuss its perturbation during aging and NDAs. As axonal bioenergetic deficits are developing into NDAs, especially in asymptomatic phase, they are likely exaggerated further by impaired NAD+ homeostasis, the high energetic cost of neural network hyperactivity, and glial pathology. Future research in interrogating the causal relationship between metabolic vulnerability, axonopathy, amyloid/tau pathology, and cognitive decline will provide fundamental knowledge for developing therapeutic interventions.

Live Imaging of Mitochondria in the Intact Fly Wing

Detailed mechanisms governing the transport of mitochondria in neurons have recently emerged, although it is still poorly understood how the regulation of transport is coordinated in space and time within the physiological context of an organism. Here, we provide a protocol to study the intracellular dynamics of mitochondria in the wing neurons of adult Drosophila in situ. The mounting and imaging procedures that we describe are suitable for use on most microscopes, and they can be easily implemented in any laboratory. Our noninvasive mounting procedures, combined with the translucency of the wing cuticle in adult animals, makes the wing nervous system accessible to advanced microscopy studies in a physiological environment. Combining the powerful genetics of Drosophila with time-lapse live imaging, users of this protocol will be able to analyze mitochondrial dynamics over time in a subset of sensory neurons in the wing. These cells extend long axons with a stereotypical plus-end-out microtubule orientation that represents a unique model to understand the logic of neuronal cargo transport, including the mitochondria. Finally, the neurons in this tissue respond to mechanical and chemical stimulation of the sensory organs of the wing, opening up the possibility of coupling the study of mitochondrial dynamics with the modulation of neuronal activity in aging Drosophila We anticipate that the unique characteristics of this in vivo system will contribute to the discovery of novel mechanisms that regulate mitochondrial dynamics within an organismal context with relevant implications for the pathogenesis of age-dependent neurological disorders.

Analysis of Mitochondrial Dynamics in Adult Drosophila Axons

Neuronal survival depends on the generation of ATP from an ever-changing mitochondrial network. This requires a fine balance between the constant degradation of damaged mitochondria, biogenesis of new mitochondria, movement along microtubules, dynamic processes, and adequate functional capacity to meet firing demands. The distribution of mitochondria needs to be tightly controlled throughout the entire neuron, including its projections. Axons in particular can be enormous structures compared to the size of the cell soma, and how mitochondria are maintained in these compartments is poorly defined. Mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons is associated with aging and neurodegenerative diseases, with the axon being preferentially vulnerable to destruction. Drosophila offer a unique way to study these organelles in fully differentiated adult neurons in vivo. Here, we briefly review the regulation of neuronal mitochondria in health, aging, and disease and introduce two methodological approaches to study mitochondrial dynamics and transport in axons using the Drosophila wing system.

Decreasing pdzd8-mediated mito-ER contacts improves organismal fitness and mitigates Aβ42 toxicity

Mitochondria-ER contact sites (MERCs) orchestrate many important cellular functions including regulating mitochondrial quality control through mitophagy and mediating mitochondrial calcium uptake. Here, we identify and functionally characterize the Drosophila ortholog of the recently identified mammalian MERC protein, Pdzd8. We find that reducing pdzd8-mediated MERCs in neurons slows age-associated decline in locomotor activity and increases lifespan in Drosophila. The protective effects of pdzd8 knockdown in neurons correlate with an increase in mitophagy, suggesting that increased mitochondrial turnover may support healthy aging of neurons. In contrast, increasing MERCs by expressing a constitutive, synthetic ER-mitochondria tether disrupts mitochondrial transport and synapse formation, accelerates age-related decline in locomotion, and reduces lifespan. Although depletion of pdzd8 prolongs the survival of flies fed with mitochondrial toxins, it is also sufficient to rescue locomotor defects of a fly model of Alzheimer's disease expressing Amyloid β₄₂ (Aβ₄₂). Together, our results provide the first in vivo evidence that MERCs mediated by the tethering protein pdzd8 play a critical role in the regulation of mitochondrial quality control and neuronal homeostasis.

LIS1 and NDEL1 Regulate Axonal Trafficking of Mitochondria in Mature Neurons

Defective mitochondrial dynamics in axons have been linked to both developmental and late-onset neurological disorders. Axonal trafficking is in large part governed by the microtubule motors kinesin-1 and cytoplasmic dynein 1 (dynein). Dynein is the primary retrograde transport motor in axons, and mutations in dynein and many of its regulators also cause neurological diseases. Depletion of LIS1, famous for linking dynein deregulation to lissencephaly (smooth brain), in adult mice leads to severe neurological phenotypes, demonstrating post-developmental roles. LIS1 stimulates retrograde transport of acidic organelles in cultured adult rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) axons but findings on its role in mitochondrial trafficking have been inconsistent and have not been reported for adult axons. Here we report that there is an increased number of mitochondria in cross-sections of sciatic nerve axons from adult LIS1^+/– mice. This is probably related to reduced dynein activity as axons from adult rat nerves exposed to the dynein inhibitor, ciliobrevin D also had increased numbers of mitochondria. Moreover, LIS1 overexpression (OE) in cultured adult rat DRG axons stimulated retrograde mitochondrial transport while LIS1 knockdown (KD) or expression of a LIS1 dynein-binding mutant (LIS1-K147A) inhibited retrograde transport, as did KD of dynein heavy chain (DHC). These findings are consistent with our report on acidic organelles. However, KD of NDEL1, a LIS1 and dynein binding protein, or expression of a LIS1 NDEL1-binding mutant (LIS1-R212A) also dramatically impacted retrograde mitochondrial transport, which was not the case for acidic organelles. Manipulations that disrupted retrograde mitochondrial transport also increased the average length of axonal mitochondria, suggesting a role for dynein in fusion or fission events. Our data point to cargo specificity in NDEL1 function and raise the possibility that defects in the LIS1/NDEL1 dynein regulatory pathway could contribute to mitochondrial diseases with axonal pathologies.

Detailed Imaging of Mitochondrial Transport and Precise Manipulation of Mitochondrial Function with Genetically Encoded Photosensitizers in Adult Drosophila Neurons

Precise distribution of mitochondria is essential for maintaining neuronal homeostasis. Although detailed mechanisms governing the transport of mitochondria have emerged, it is still poorly understood how the regulation of transport is coordinated in space and time within the physiological context of an organism. How alteration in mitochondrial functionality may trigger changes in organellar dynamics also remains unclear in this context. Therefore, the use of genetically encoded tools to perturb mitochondrial functionality in real time would be desirable. Here we describe methods to interfere with mitochondrial function with high spatiotemporal precision with the use of photosensitizers in vivo in the intact wing nerve of adult Drosophila. We also provide details on how to visualize the transport of mitochondria and to improve the quality of the imaging to attain super-resolution in this tissue.

High-Resolution Imaging of Mitochondria and Mitochondrial Nucleoids in Differentiated SH-SY5Y Cells

Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles which form intricate networks with complex dynamics. Mitochondrial transport and distribution are essential to ensure proper cell function, especially in cells with an extremely polarised morphology such as neurons. A layer of complexity is added when considering mitochondria have their own genome, packaged into nucleoids. Major mitochondrial morphological transitions, for example mitochondrial division, often occur in conjunction with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) replication and changes in the dynamic behaviour of the nucleoids. However, the relationship between mtDNA dynamics and mitochondrial motility in the processes of neurons has been largely overlooked. In this chapter, we describe a method for live imaging of mitochondria and nucleoids in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells by instant structured illumination microscopy (iSIM). We also include a detailed protocol for the differentiation of SH-SY5Y cells into cells with a pronounced neuronal-like morphology and show examples of coordinated mitochondrial and nucleoid motility in the long processes of these cells.

C9orf72-derived arginine-containing dipeptide repeats associate with axonal transport machinery and impede microtubule-based motility

A hexanucleotide repeat expansion in the C9orf72 gene is the most common genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). How this mutation leads to these neurodegenerative diseases remains unclear. Here, we show using patient stem cell-derived motor neurons that the repeat expansion impairs microtubule-based transport, a process critical for neuronal survival. Cargo transport defects are recapitulated by treating neurons from healthy individuals with proline-arginine and glycine-arginine dipeptide repeats (DPRs) produced from the repeat expansion. Both arginine-rich DPRs similarly inhibit axonal trafficking in adult Drosophila neurons in vivo. Physical interaction studies demonstrate that arginine-rich DPRs associate with motor complexes and the unstructured tubulin tails of microtubules. Single-molecule imaging reveals that microtubule-bound arginine-rich DPRs directly impede translocation of purified dynein and kinesin-1 motor complexes. Collectively, our study implicates inhibitory interactions of arginine-rich DPRs with axonal transport machinery in C9orf72-associated ALS/FTD and thereby points to potential therapeutic strategies.

α-synuclein impairs autophagosome maturation through abnormal actin stabilization

Vesicular trafficking defects, particularly those in the autophagolysosomal system, have been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease and related α-synucleinopathies. However, mechanisms mediating dysfunction of membrane trafficking remain incompletely understood. Using a Drosophila model of α-synuclein neurotoxicity with widespread and robust pathology, we find that human α-synuclein expression impairs autophagic flux in aging adult neurons. Genetic destabilization of the actin cytoskeleton rescues F-actin accumulation, promotes autophagosome clearance, normalizes the autophagolysosomal system, and rescues neurotoxicity in α-synuclein transgenic animals through an Arp2/3 dependent mechanism. Similarly, mitophagosomes accumulate in human α-synuclein-expressing neurons, and reversal of excessive actin stabilization promotes both clearance of these abnormal mitochondria-containing organelles and rescue of mitochondrial dysfunction. These results suggest that Arp2/3 dependent actin cytoskeleton stabilization mediates autophagic and mitophagic dysfunction and implicate failure of autophagosome maturation as a pathological mechanism in Parkinson’s disease and related α-synucleinopathies.

Vesicle trafficking is a central cell biological pathway perturbed in Parkinson’s disease. Here we use a genetic approach to define an underlying mechanism by demonstrating that the key Parkinson’s disease protein α-synuclein impairs maturation of autophagosomes and mitophagosomes through Arp2/3 dependent excess stabilization of cellular actin networks.

Targeting Mitophagy in Alzheimer's Disease

Mitochondria perform many essential cellular functions including energy production, calcium homeostasis, transduction of metabolic and stress signals, and mediating cell survival and death. Maintaining viable populations of mitochondria is therefore critical for normal cell function. The selective disposal of damaged mitochondria, by a pathway known as mitophagy, plays a key role in preserving mitochondrial integrity and quality. Mitophagy reduces the formation of reactive oxygen species and is considered as a protective cellular process. Mitochondrial dysfunction and deficits of mitophagy have important roles in aging and especially in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Targeting mitophagy pathways has been suggested to have potential therapeutic effects against AD. In this review, we aim to briefly discuss the emerging concepts on mitophagy, molecular regulation of the mitophagy process, current mitophagy detection methods, and mitophagy dysfunction in AD. Finally, we will also briefly examine the stimulation of mitophagy as an approach for attenuating neurodegeneration in AD.

CENP-F stabilizes kinetochore-microtubule attachments and limits dynein stripping of corona cargoes

Accurate chromosome segregation demands efficient capture of microtubules by kinetochores and their conversion to stable bioriented attachments that can congress and then segregate chromosomes. An early event is the shedding of the outermost fibrous corona layer of the kinetochore following microtubule attachment. Centromere protein F (CENP-F) is part of the corona, contains two microtubule-binding domains, and physically associates with dynein motor regulators. Here, we have combined CRISPR gene editing and engineered separation-of-function mutants to define how CENP-F contributes to kinetochore function. We show that the two microtubule-binding domains make distinct contributions to attachment stability and force transduction but are dispensable for chromosome congression. We further identify a specialized domain that functions to limit the dynein-mediated stripping of corona cargoes through a direct interaction with Nde1. This antagonistic activity is crucial for maintaining the required corona composition and ensuring efficient kinetochore biorientation.

Long-lived post-mitotic cell aging: is a telomere clock at play?

Senescence is a cellular response to stress for both dividing and post-mitotic cells. Noteworthy, long-lived post-mitotic cells (collectively named LLPMCs), which can live for decades in the organism, can exhibit a distinct type of cellular aging characterized by a progressive functional decline not associated to an overt senescence phenotype. The age-related drivers of senescence and aging in LLPMCs remain largely unknown. There is evidence that an increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to dysfunctional mitochondria, coupled with an inherent inability of cellular-degradation mechanisms to remove damaged molecules, is responsible for senescence and aging in LLPMC. Although telomeric DNA shortening, by nature linked to cell division, is generally not considered as a driver of LLPMC aging and senescence, we discuss recent reports revealing the existence of age-related telomere changes in LLPMC. These findings reveal unexpected roles for telomeres in LLPMC function and invite us to consider the hypothesis of a complex telomere clock involved in both dividing and non-dividing cell aging.

Kinesin light chain-1 serine-460 phosphorylation is altered in Alzheimer's disease and regulates axonal transport and processing of the amyloid precursor protein

Damage to axonal transport is an early pathogenic event in Alzheimer’s disease. The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a key axonal transport cargo since disruption to APP transport promotes amyloidogenic processing of APP. Moreover, altered APP processing itself disrupts axonal transport. The mechanisms that regulate axonal transport of APP are therefore directly relevant to Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis. APP is transported anterogradely through axons on kinesin-1 motors and one route for this transport involves calsyntenin-1, a type-1 membrane spanning protein that acts as a direct ligand for kinesin-1 light chains (KLCs). Thus, loss of calsyntenin-1 disrupts APP axonal transport and promotes amyloidogenic processing of APP. Phosphorylation of KLC1 on serine-460 has been shown to reduce anterograde axonal transport of calsyntenin-1 by inhibiting the KLC1-calsyntenin-1 interaction. Here we demonstrate that in Alzheimer’s disease frontal cortex, KLC1 levels are reduced and the relative levels of KLC1 serine-460 phosphorylation are increased; these changes occur relatively early in the disease process. We also show that a KLC1 serine-460 phosphomimetic mutant inhibits axonal transport of APP in both mammalian neurons in culture and in Drosophila neurons in vivo. Finally, we demonstrate that expression of the KLC1 serine-460 phosphomimetic mutant promotes amyloidogenic processing of APP. Together, these results suggest that increased KLC1 serine-460 phosphorylation contributes to Alzheimer’s disease.

ToolBox: Live Imaging of intracellular organelle transport in induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) hold promise to revolutionize studies of intracellular transport in live human neurons and to shed new light on the role of dysfunctional transport in neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we describe an approach for live imaging of axonal and dendritic transport in iPSC-derived cortical neurons. We use transfection and transient expression of genetically-encoded fluorescent markers to characterize the motility of Rab-positive vesicles, including early, late and recycling endosomes, as well as autophagosomes and mitochondria in iPSC-derived neurons. Comparing transport parameters of these organelles with data from primary rat hippocampal neurons, we uncover remarkable similarities. In addition, we generated lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1)-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) knock-in iPSCs and show that knock-in neurons can be used to study the transport of endogenously labeled vesicles, as a parallel approach to the transient overexpression of fluorescently labeled organelle markers.

Axonal transport defects and neurodegeneration: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications

Because of the extremely polarized morphology, the proper functioning of neurons largely relies on the efficient cargo transport along the axon. Axonal transport defects have been reported in multiple neurodegenerative diseases as an early pathological feature. The discovery of mutations in human genes involved in the transport machinery provide a direct causative relationship between axonal transport defects and neurodegeneration. Here, we summarize the current genetic findings related to axonal transport in neurodegenerative diseases, and we discuss the relationship between axonal transport defects and other pathological changes observed in neurodegeneration. In addition, we summarize the therapeutic approaches targeting the axonal transport machinery in studies of neurodegenerative diseases. Finally, we review the technical advances in tracking axonal transport both in vivo and in vitro.

Temporal Control of Axonal Transport: The Extreme Case of Organismal Ageing

A fundamental question in cell biology is how cellular components are delivered to their destination with spatial and temporal precision within the crowded cytoplasmic environment. The long processes of neurons represent a significant spatial challenge and make these cells particularly dependent on mechanisms for long-range cytoskeletal transport of proteins, RNA and organelles. Although many studies have substantiated a role for defective transport of axonal cargoes in the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases, remarkably little is known about how transport is regulated throughout ageing. The scale of the challenge posed by ageing is considerable because, in this case, the temporal regulation of transport is ultimately dictated by the length of organismal lifespan, which can extend to days, years or decades. Recent methodological advances to study live axonal transport during ageing in situ have provided new tools to scratch beneath the surface of this complex problem and revealed that age-dependent decline in the transport of mitochondria is a common feature across different neuronal populations of several model organisms. In certain instances, the molecular pathways that affect transport in ageing animals have begun to emerge. However, the functional implications of these observations are still not fully understood. Whether transport decline is a significant determinant of neuronal ageing or a mere consequence of decreased cellular fitness remains an open question. In this review, we discuss the latest developments in axonal trafficking in the ageing nervous system, along with the early studies that inaugurated this new area of research. We explore the possibility that the interplay between mitochondrial function and motility represents a crucial driver of ageing in neurons and put forward the hypothesis that declining axonal transport may be legitimately considered a hallmark of neuronal ageing.

Glutathione S-Transferase Regulates Mitochondrial Populations in Axons through Increased Glutathione Oxidation

Mitochondria are essential in long axons to provide metabolic support and sustain neuron integrity. A healthy mitochondrial pool is maintained by biogenesis, transport, mitophagy, fission, and fusion, but how these events are regulated in axons is not well defined. Here, we show that the Drosophila glutathione S-transferase (GST) Gfzf prevents mitochondrial hyperfusion in axons. Gfzf loss altered redox balance between glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and initiated mitochondrial fusion through the coordinated action of Mfn and Opa1. Gfzf functioned epistatically with the thioredoxin peroxidase Jafrac1 and the thioredoxin reductase 1 TrxR-1 to regulate mitochondrial dynamics. Altering GSH:GSSG ratios in mouse primary neurons in vitro also induced hyperfusion. Mitochondrial changes caused deficits in trafficking, the metabolome, and neuronal physiology. Changes in GSH and oxidative state are associated with neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's. Our demonstration that GSTs are key in vivo regulators of axonal mitochondrial length and number provides a potential mechanistic link.

Enhancing folic acid metabolism suppresses defects associated with loss of Drosophila mitofusin

Mutations in the mitochondrial GTPase mitofusin 2 (MFN2) cause Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2 (CMT2A), a form of peripheral neuropathy that compromises axonal function. Mitofusins promote mitochondrial fusion and regulate mitochondrial dynamics. They are also reported to be involved in forming contacts between mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is a powerful tool to model human neurodegenerative diseases, including CMT2A. Here, we have downregulated the expression of the Drosophila mitofusin (dMfn RNAi) in adult flies and showed that this activates mitochondrial retrograde signalling and is associated with an upregulation of genes involved in folic acid (FA) metabolism. Additionally, we demonstrated that pharmacological and genetic interventions designed to increase the FA metabolism pathway suppresses the phenotype of the dMfn RNAi flies. We conclude that strategies to increase FA metabolism may ameliorate diseases, such as peripheral neuropathies, that are associated with loss of mitochondrial function. A video abstract for this article is available at https://youtu.be/fs1G-QRo6xI.

The Role of the Microtubule Cytoskeleton in Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurons depend on the highly dynamic microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton for many different processes during early embryonic development including cell division and migration, intracellular trafficking and signal transduction, as well as proper axon guidance and synapse formation. The coordination and support from MTs is crucial for newly formed neurons to migrate appropriately in order to establish neural connections. Once connections are made, MTs provide structural integrity and support to maintain neural connectivity throughout development. Abnormalities in neural migration and connectivity due to genetic mutations of MT-associated proteins can lead to detrimental developmental defects. Growing evidence suggests that these mutations are associated with many different neurodevelopmental disorders, including intellectual disabilities (ID) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In this review article, we highlight the crucial role of the MT cytoskeleton in the context of neurodevelopment and summarize genetic mutations of various MT related proteins that may underlie or contribute to neurodevelopmental disorders.

Emerging roles of mitochondria in synaptic transmission and neurodegeneration

Mitochondria play numerous critical physiological functions in neurons including ATP production, Ca2+ regulation, lipid synthesis, ROS signaling, and the ability to trigger apoptosis. Recently developed technologies, including in vivo 2-photon imaging in awake behaving mice revealed that unlike in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), mitochondrial transport decreases strikingly along the axons of adult neurons of the central nervous system (CNS). Furthermore, the improvements of genetically-encoded biosensors have enabled precise monitoring of the spatial and temporal impact of mitochondria on Ca2+, ATP and ROS homeostasis in a compartment-specific manner. Here, we discuss recent findings that begin to unravel novel physiological and pathophysiological properties of neuronal mitochondria at synapses. We also suggest new directions in the exploration of mitochondrial function in synaptic transmission, plasticity and neurodegeneration.

A cAMP/PKA/Kinesin-1 Axis Promotes the Axonal Transport of Mitochondria in Aging Drosophila Neurons

Mitochondria play fundamental roles within cells, including energy provision, calcium homeostasis, and the regulation of apoptosis. The transport of mitochondria by microtubule-based motors is critical for neuronal structure and function. This process allows local requirements for mitochondrial functions to be met and also facilitates recycling of these organelles [1, 2]. An age-related reduction in mitochondrial transport has been observed in neurons of mammalian and non-mammalian organisms [3, 4, 5, 6], and has been proposed to contribute to the broader decline in neuronal function that occurs during aging [3, 5, 6, 7]. However, the factors that influence mitochondrial transport in aging neurons are poorly understood. Here we provide evidence using the tractable Drosophila wing nerve system that the cyclic AMP/protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA) pathway promotes the axonal transport of mitochondria in adult neurons. The level of the catalytic subunit of PKA decreases during aging, and acute activation of the cAMP/PKA pathway in aged flies strongly stimulates mitochondrial motility. Thus, the age-related impairment of transport is reversible. The expression of many genes is increased by PKA activation in aged flies. However, our results indicate that elevated mitochondrial transport is due in part to upregulation of the heavy chain of the kinesin-1 motor, the level of which declines during aging. Our study identifies evolutionarily conserved factors that can strongly influence mitochondrial motility in aging neurons.

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cAMP/PKA pathway promotes mitochondrial transport in adult Drosophila wing neurons

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Pathway activation in aged flies suppresses age-related reduction in transport

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Levels of PKAc and kinesin-1 motor decline during aging

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Kinesin-1 upregulation is an important output of PKA activation in aged flies

An Essential Postdevelopmental Role for Lis1 in Mice

LIS1 mutations cause lissencephaly (LIS), a severe developmental brain malformation. Much less is known about its role in the mature nervous system. LIS1 regulates the microtubule motor cytoplasmic dynein 1 (dynein), and as LIS1 and dynein are both expressed in the adult nervous system, Lis1 could potentially regulate dynein-dependent processes such as axonal transport. We therefore knocked out Lis1 in adult mice using tamoxifen-induced, Cre-ER-mediated recombination. When an actin promoter was used to drive Cre-ER expression (Act-Cre-ER), heterozygous Lis1 knockout (KO) caused no obvious change in viability or behavior, despite evidence of widespread recombination by a Cre reporter three weeks after tamoxifen exposure. In contrast, homozygous Lis1 KO caused the rapid onset of neurological symptoms in both male and female mice. One tamoxifen-dosing regimen caused prominent recombination in the midbrain/hindbrain, PNS, and cardiac/skeletal muscle within a week; these mice developed severe symptoms in that time frame and were killed. A different tamoxifen regimen resulted in delayed recombination in midbrain/hindbrain, but not in other tissues, and also delayed the onset of symptoms. This indicates that Lis1 loss in the midbrain/hindbrain causes the severe phenotype. In support of this, brainstem regions known to house cardiorespiratory centers showed signs of axonal dysfunction in KO animals. Transport defects, neurofilament (NF) alterations, and varicosities were observed in axons in cultured DRG neurons from KO animals. Because no symptoms were observed when a cardiac specific Cre-ER promoter was used, we propose a vital role for Lis1 in autonomic neurons and implicate defective axonal transport in the KO phenotype.

Regulation of long-distance transport of mitochondria along microtubules

Mitochondria are cellular organelles of crucial importance, playing roles in cellular life and death. In certain cell types, such as neurons, mitochondria must travel long distances so as to meet metabolic demands of the cell. Mitochondrial movement is essentially microtubule (MT) based and is executed by two main motor proteins, Dynein and Kinesin. The organization of the cellular MT network and the identity of motors dictate mitochondrial transport. Tight coupling between MTs, motors, and the mitochondria is needed for the organelle precise localization. Two adaptor proteins are involved directly in mitochondria-motor coupling, namely Milton known also as TRAK, which is the motor adaptor, and Miro, which is the mitochondrial protein. Here, we discuss the active mitochondria transport process, as well as motor-mitochondria coupling in the context of MT organization in different cell types. We focus on mitochondrial trafficking in different cell types, specifically neurons, migrating cells, and polarized epithelial cells.

Combinatorial regulation of the balance between dynein microtubule end accumulation and initiation of directed motility

Cytoplasmic dynein is involved in a multitude of essential cellular functions. Dynein's activity is controlled by the combinatorial action of several regulatory proteins. The molecular mechanism of this regulation is still poorly understood. Using purified proteins, we reconstitute the regulation of the human dynein complex by three prominent regulators on dynamic microtubules in the presence of end binding proteins (EBs). We find that dynein can be in biochemically and functionally distinct pools: either tracking dynamic microtubule plus-ends in an EB-dependent manner or moving processively towards minus ends in an adaptor protein-dependent manner. Whereas both dynein pools share the dynactin complex, they have opposite preferences for binding other regulators, either the adaptor protein Bicaudal-D2 (BicD2) or the multifunctional regulator Lissencephaly-1 (Lis1). BicD2 and Lis1 together control the overall efficiency of motility initiation. Remarkably, dynactin can bias motility initiation locally from microtubule plus ends by autonomous plus-end recognition. This bias is further enhanced by EBs and Lis1. Our study provides insight into the mechanism of dynein regulation by dissecting the distinct functional contributions of the individual members of a dynein regulatory network.

Lis1 Has Two Opposing Modes of Regulating Cytoplasmic Dynein

Regulation is central to the functional versatility of cytoplasmic dynein, a motor involved in intracellular transport, cell division, and neurodevelopment. Previous work established that Lis1, a conserved regulator of dynein, binds to its motor domain and induces a tight microtubule-binding state in dynein. The work we present here-a combination of biochemistry, single-molecule assays, and cryoelectron microscopy-led to the surprising discovery that Lis1 has two opposing modes of regulating dynein, being capable of inducing both low and high affinity for the microtubule. We show that these opposing modes depend on the stoichiometry of Lis1 binding to dynein and that this stoichiometry is regulated by the nucleotide state of dynein's AAA3 domain. The low-affinity state requires Lis1 to also bind to dynein at a novel conserved site, mutation of which disrupts Lis1's function in vivo. We propose a new model for the regulation of dynein by Lis1.

Neurobiology of axonal transport defects in motor neuron diseases: Opportunities for translational research?

Intracellular trafficking of cargoes is an essential process to maintain the structure and function of all mammalian cell types, but especially of neurons because of their extreme axon/dendrite polarisation. Axonal transport mediates the movement of cargoes such as proteins, mRNA, lipids, membrane-bound vesicles and organelles that are mostly synthesised in the cell body and in doing so is responsible for their correct spatiotemporal distribution in the axon, for example at specialised sites such as nodes of Ranvier and synaptic terminals. In addition, axonal transport maintains the essential long-distance communication between the cell body and synaptic terminals that allows neurons to react to their surroundings via trafficking of for example signalling endosomes. Axonal transport defects are a common observation in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, and mutations in components of the axonal transport machinery have unequivocally shown that impaired axonal transport can cause neurodegeneration (reviewed in El-Kadi et al., 2007, De Vos et al., 2008; Millecamps and Julien, 2013). Here we review our current understanding of axonal transport defects and the role they play in motor neuron diseases (MNDs) with a specific focus on the most common form of MND, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

Methodological advances in imaging intravital axonal transport

Axonal transport is the active process whereby neurons transport cargoes such as organelles and proteins anterogradely from the cell body to the axon terminal and retrogradely in the opposite direction. Bi-directional transport in axons is absolutely essential for the functioning and survival of neurons and appears to be negatively impacted by both aging and diseases of the nervous system, such as Alzheimer’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The movement of individual cargoes along axons has been studied in vitro in live neurons and tissue explants for a number of years; however, it is currently unclear as to whether these systems faithfully and consistently replicate the in vivo situation. A number of intravital techniques originally developed for studying diverse biological events have recently been adapted to monitor axonal transport in real-time in a range of live organisms and are providing novel insight into this dynamic process. Here, we highlight these methodological advances in intravital imaging of axonal transport, outlining key strengths and limitations while discussing findings, possible improvements, and outstanding questions.

A simple method for imaging axonal transport in aging neurons using the adult Drosophila wing

There is growing interest in the link between axonal cargo transport and age-associated neuronal dysfunction. The study of axonal transport in neurons of adult animals requires intravital or ex vivo imaging approaches, which are laborious and expensive in vertebrate models. We describe simple, noninvasive procedures for imaging cargo motility within axons using sensory neurons of the translucent Drosophila wing. A key aspect is a method for mounting the intact fly that allows detailed imaging of transport in wing neurons. Coupled with existing genetic tools in Drosophila, this is a tractable system for studying axonal transport over the life span of an animal and thus for characterization of the relationship between cargo dynamics, neuronal aging and disease. Preparation of a sample for imaging takes ∼5 min, with transport typically filmed for 2-3 min per wing. We also document procedures for the quantification of transport parameters from the acquired images and describe how the protocol can be adapted to study other cell biological processes in aging neurons.