Cellular and molecular aspects of monoamine neurotransmitter transporters

Estrogenic actions of alkaloids: Structural characteristics and molecular mechanisms

This comprehensive review of estrogenic alkaloids reveals that although the number is small, they exhibit a wide range of structures, biosynthesis pathways, mechanisms of action, and applications. Estrogenic alkaloids belong to different classes, different biosynthetic pathways, different estrogenic actions (estrogenic/synergistic, anti-estrogenic/antagonistic, biphasic, and acting as a selective estrogen receptor modulator or SERM), different receptor-initiated signaling pathways, different ways of modulations of estrogen action, and different applications. The future applications of estrogenic alkaloids, such as those for diagnostics, drug development, and therapeutics, are considered with the help of new databases containing comprehensive descriptions of their relationships and more elaborate artificial intelligence-based prediction technologies. Structure-activity studies reveal the significance of the nitrogen atom for their structural and functional diversity, which may help support their broader applications. Based on the summary of previous reports, estrogenic alkaloids have significant potential for future applications.

MPP+-Induced Changes in Cellular Impedance as a Measure for Organic Cation Transporter (SLC22A1-3) Activity and Inhibition

The organic cation transporters OCT1-3 (SLC22A1-3) facilitate the transport of cationic endo- and xenobiotics and are important mediators of drug distribution and elimination. Their polyspecific nature makes OCTs highly susceptible to drug-drug interactions (DDIs). Currently, screening of OCT inhibitors depends on uptake assays that require labeled substrates to detect transport activity. However, these uptake assays have several limitations. Hence, there is a need to develop novel assays to study OCT activity in a physiological relevant environment without the need to label the substrate. Here, a label-free impedance-based transport assay is established that detects OCT-mediated transport activity and inhibition utilizing the neurotoxin MPP⁺. Uptake of MPP⁺ by OCTs induced concentration-dependent changes in cellular impedance that were inhibited by decynium-22, corticosterone, and Tyrosine Kinase inhibitors. OCT-mediated MPP⁺ transport activity and inhibition were quantified on both OCT1-3 overexpressing cells and HeLa cells endogenously expressing OCT3. Moreover, the method presented here is a valuable tool to identify novel inhibitors and potential DDI partners for MPP⁺ transporting solute carrier proteins (SLCs) in general.

Neural basis of individual differences in the response to mental stress: a magnetoencephalography study

Stress is a risk factor for the onset of mental disorders. Although stress response varies across individuals, the mechanism of individual differences remains unclear. Here, we investigated the neural basis of individual differences in response to mental stress using magnetoencephalography (MEG). Twenty healthy male volunteers completed the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). The experiment included two types of tasks: a non-stress-inducing task and a stress-inducing task. During these tasks, participants passively viewed non-stress-inducing images and stress-inducing images, respectively, and MEG was recorded. Before and after each task, MEG and electrocardiography were recorded and subjective ratings were obtained. We grouped participants according to Novelty seeking (NS) - tendency to be exploratory, and Harm avoidance (HA) - tendency to be cautious. Participants with high NS and low HA (n = 10) assessed by TCI had a different neural response to stress than those with low NS and high HA (n = 10). Event-related desynchronization (ERD) in the beta frequency band was observed only in participants with high NS and low HA in the brain region extending from Brodmann's area 31 (including the posterior cingulate cortex and precuneus) from 200 to 350 ms after the onset of picture presentation in the stress-inducing task. Individual variation in personality traits (NS and HA) was associated with the neural response to mental stress. These findings increase our understanding of the psychological and neural basis of individual differences in the stress response, and will contribute to development of the psychotherapeutic approaches to stress-related disorders.

CNS dopamine transmission mediated by noradrenergic innervation

The presynaptic source of dopamine in the CA1 field of dorsal hippocampus is uncertain due to an anatomical mismatch between dopaminergic terminals and receptors. We show, in an in vitro slice preparation from C57BL/6 male mice, that a dopamine (DA) D1 receptor (D1R)-mediated enhancement in glutamate synaptic transmission occurs following release of endogenous DA with amphetamine exposure. It is assumed DA is released from terminals innervating from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) even though DA transporter (DAT)-positive fibers are absent in hippocampus, a region with abundant D1Rs. It has been suggested this results from a lack of DAT expression on VTA terminals rather than a lack of these terminals per se. Neither a knockdown of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in the VTA by THsiRNA, delivered locally, by adeno-associated viral vector, nor localized pharmacological blockade of DAT to prevent amphetamine uptake into DA terminals, has any effect on the D1R synaptic, enhancement response to amphetamine. However, either a decrease in TH expression in the locus ceruleus (LC) or a blockade of the norepinephrine (NE) transporter prevents the DA-mediated response, indicating LC terminals can release both NE and DA. These findings suggest noradrenergic fibers may be the primary source of DA release in hippocampus and corresponding DA-mediated increase in synaptic transmission. Accordingly, these data imply the LC may have a role in DA transmission in the CNS in response to drugs of abuse, and potentially, under physiological conditions.

Synthesis, in vitro binding studies and docking of long-chain arylpiperazine nitroquipazine analogues, as potential serotonin transporter inhibitors

It is well known that 6-nitroquipazine exhibits about 150-fold higher affinity for the serotonin transporter (SERT) than quipazine and recently we showed quipazine buspirone analogues with high to moderate SERT affinity. Now we have designed and synthesized several 6-nitroquipazine buspirone derivatives. Unexpectedly, their SERT binding affinities were moderate, and much lower than that of the previously studied quipazine buspirone analogues. To explain these findings, docking studies of both groups of compounds into two different homology models of human SERT was performed using a flexible target-ligand docking approach (4D docking). The crystal structures of leucine transporter from Aquifex aeolicus in complex with leucine and with tryptophan were used as templates for the SERT models in closed and outward-facing conformations, respectively. We found that the latter conformation represents the most reliable model for binding of buspirone analogues. Docking into that model showed that the nitrated compounds acquire a rod like shape in the binding pocket with polar groups (nitro- and imido-) at the ends of the rod. 6-Nitro substituents gave steric clashes with amino acids located at the extracellular loop 4, which may explain their lower affinity than corresponding quipazine buspirone analogues. The results from the present study may suggest chemical design strategies to improve the SERT modulators.

Expression and function of variants of human catecholamine transporters lacking the fifth transmembrane region encoded by exon 6

Background

The transporters for dopamine (DAT) and norepinephrine (NET) are members of the Na⁺- and Cl⁻-dependent neurotransmitter transporter family SLC6. There is a line of evidence that alternative splicing results in several isoforms of neurotransmitter transporters including NET. However, its relevance to the physiology and pathology of the neurotransmitter reuptake system has not been fully elucidated.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We found novel isoforms of human DAT and NET produced by alternative splicing in human blood cells (DAT) and placenta (NET), both of which lacked the region encoded by exon 6. RT-PCR analyses showed a difference in expression between the full length (FL) and truncated isoforms in the brain and peripheral tissues, suggesting tissue-specific alternative splicing. Heterologous expression of the FL but not truncated isoforms of DAT and NET in COS-7 cells revealed transport activity. However, immunocytochemistry with confocal microscopy and a cell surface biotinylation assay demonstrated that the truncated as well as FL isoform was expressed at least in part in the plasma membrane at the cell surface, although the truncated DAT was distributed to the cell surface slower than FL DAT. A specific antibody to the C-terminus of DAT labeled the variant but not FL DAT, when cells were not treated with Triton for permeabilization, suggesting the C-terminus of the variant to be located extracellulary. Co-expression of the FL isoform with the truncated isoform in COS-7 cells resulted in a reduced uptake of substrates, indicating a dominant negative effect of the variant. Furthermore, an immunoprecipitation assay revealed physical interaction between the FL and truncated isoforms.

Conclusions/Significance

The unique expression and function and the proposed membrane topology of the variants suggest the importance of isoforms of catecholamine transporters in monoaminergic signaling in the brain and peripheral tissues.

Open-label pilot study of modafinil for methamphetamine dependence

Methamphetamine has become a major public health issue globally, particularly in the United States. Despite this, no effective pharmacotherapy for methamphetamine abuse has been developed to date. This 6-week, open-label pilot clinical trial examined the safety and tolerability of modafinil up to 400 mg/d in 8 methamphetamine-dependent individuals. Subjects were inducted onto modafinil at 400 mg/d for more than 3 days and remained on 400 mg/d for 4.5 weeks. Participants received weekly blister packs and underwent weekly individual cognitive behavioral therapy. Adjunctive contingency management procedures were used to enhance retention. Vital signs and supervised urine samples were obtained thrice weekly, and self-reported drug use and Hamilton anxiety and depression ratings were completed once weekly. Eight subjects (50% female, 100% white, aged 35-52 years) were enrolled. Four completed the 6-week study, 3 completed a portion, and 1 withdrew consent before completing intake. Results showed that systolic blood pressure (t = 1.09, P = 0.28), diastolic blood pressure, (t = 1.18, P = 0.24), and heart rate (t = 1.55, P = 0.13) did not change over time. Scores on the modafinil side effects checklist (t = -2.63, P = 0.01), Hamilton anxiety scale (t = -2.50, P = 0.018), and Hamilton depression scale (t = -3.25, P = 0.003) all decreased over time. The proportion of urine positive for amphetamines did not change over time (t = -0.52, P = 0.61), whereas self-reported methamphetamine use did (t = -2.86, P < 0.005). These results suggest that modafinil at 400 mg/d is safe and tolerable for methamphetamine-dependent individuals.

Development of active and passive human vaccines to treat methamphetamine addiction

Methamphetamine (METH) abuse is a major worldwide epidemic, with no specific medications for treatment of chronic or acute effects. Anti-METH antibodies have the potential to save lives and reduce the crippling effects of METH abuse. While they are not expected to be the magic bullet to immediately cure addiction, immunotherapy could provide a breakthrough medication to continuously block or attenuate METH effects during a comprehensive addiction recovery plan. A unique challenge for METH antibody antagonists is the need to protect the brain from the complex direct and indirect adverse effects of long-term METH use. To meet this challenge, a new generation of passive monoclonal antibodies and active immunization therapies are at an advanced stage of preclinical development. Both of these vaccines could play an essential role in a well planned recovery program from human METH addiction by providing long-lasting protection from the rewarding and reinforcing effect of METH.

No association of the G1287A polymorphism in the norepinephrine transporter gene and susceptibility to major depressive disorder in a Japanese population

Norepinephrinergic neurotransmission in the central nervous system have a major impact on the symptomatology in major depressive disorder (MDD), and genetic polymorphisms of norepinephrine transporter (NET) have a possibility to be involved in susceptibility to MDD. We investigated the association of the G1287A (rs5569) polymorphism of the NET gene and susceptibility to MDD by comparing 145 major depressive patients with 164 healthy individuals first in a Japanese population. The genotype frequencies in depressed patients and health volunteers of the NET G1287A polymorphism were 52.4% (G/G), 39.3% (G/A) and 8.3% (A/A) in depressed patients, 61.6% (G/G), 29.9% (G/A allele) and 8.5% (A/A) in healthy volunteers, respectively. The allele frequencies in depressed patients and health volunteers of the NET G1287A polymorphism were 72.1% (G allele) and 27.9% (A allele) in depressed patients, 76.5% (G allele) and 23.5% (A allele) in healthy volunteers, respectively. The genotype distribution and allele frequencies were not significantly different between major depressive patients and healthy volunteers. NET G1287A polymorphism appears not to be an important factor in susceptibility to MDD in a Japanese population.

C-terminal region regulates the functional expression of human noradrenaline transporter splice variants

The NET [noradrenaline (norepinephrine) transporter], an Na+/Cl--dependent neurotransmitter transporter, has several isoforms produced by alternative splicing in the C-terminal region, each differing in expression and function. We characterized the two major isoforms of human NET, hNET1, which has seven C-terminal amino acids encoded by exon 15, and hNET2, which has 18 amino acids encoded by exon 16, by site-directed mutagenesis in combination with NE (noradrenaline) uptake assays and cell surface biotinylation. Mutants lacking one third or more of the 24 amino acids encoded by exon 14 exhibited neither cell surface expression nor NE uptake activity, with the exception of the mutant lacking the last eight amino acids of hNET2, whose expression and uptake resembled that of the WT (wild-type). A triple alanine replacement of a candidate motif (ENE) in this region mimicked the influences of the truncation. Deletion of either the last three or another four amino acids of the C-terminus encoded by exon 15 in hNET1 reduced the cell surface expression and NE uptake, whereas deletion of all seven residues reduced the transport activity but did not affect the cell surface expression. Replacement of RRR, an endoplasmic reticulum retention motif, by alanine residues in the C-terminus of hNET2 resulted in a similar expression and function compared with the WT, while partly recovering the effects of the mutation of ENE. These findings suggest that in addition to the function of the C-terminus, the common proximal region encoded by exon 14 regulates the functional expression of splice variants, such as hNET1 and hNET2.

Positive association between T-182C polymorphism in the norepinephrine transporter gene and susceptibility to major depressive disorder in a japanese population

Norepinephrinergic neurotransmission in the central nervous system appears to have a major impact on the symptomatology in major depressive disorder and the human norepinephrine transporter (NET) gene is one of the key candidates for genetic studies in major depressive disorder. The authors established a new allele-specific PCR-based genotyping procedure and examined whether the NET T-182C polymorphism was associated with the susceptibility to major depressive disorder in a Japanese population. This study included 145 patients with major depressive disorder (according to DSM-IV) and 164 healthy volunteers. There was a significant difference in the genotype distribution between major depressive disorder patients and healthy volunteers (p = 0.02), and the C/C genotype was associated with lesser susceptibility to major depressive disorder. The NET T-182C polymorphism may be in part related to the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder in a Japanese population.

Modulation of monoamine transporter expression and function by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a new tool for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. However, the mechanisms underlying the effects of rTMS are still unclear. In this study, we analyzed mRNA expression changes of monoamine transporter (MAT) genes, which are targets for antidepressants and psychostimulants. Following a 20-day rTMS treatment, these genes were found to be differentially expressed in the mouse brain. Down-regulation of serotonin transporter (SERT) mRNA levels and the subsequent decrease in serotonin uptake and binding were observed after chronic rTMS. In contrast to the SERT changes, increased mRNA levels of dopamine transporter (DAT) and norepinephrine transporter (NET) were observed. For NET, but not DAT, there were accompanying changes in uptake and binding. Similar effect on NET was observed in PC12 cells stimulated by rTMS for 15 days. These results indicate that modulation of MATs by chronic rTMS may be one therapeutic mechanism for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.

A comprehensive atlas of the topography of functional groups of the dopamine transporter

The neuronal dopamine transporter (DAT) is a transmembrane transporter that clears DA from the synaptic cleft. Knowledge of DAT functional group topography is a prerequisite for understanding the molecular basis of transporter function, the actions of psychostimulant drugs, and mechanisms of dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Information concerning the molecular interactions of drugs of abuse (such as cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine) with the DAT at the functional group level may also aid in the development of compounds useful as therapeutic agents for the treatment of drug abuse. This review will provide a cumulative and comprehensive focus on the amino acid functional group topography of the rat and human DATs, as revealed by protein chemical modification and the techniques of site-directed mutagenesis. The results from these studies, represented mostly by site-directed mutagenesis, can be classified into several main categories: modifications without substantial affects on substrate transport, DAT membrane expression, or cocaine analog binding; those modifications which alter both substrate transport and cocaine analog binding; and those that affect DAT membrane expression. Finally, some modifications can selectively affect either substrate transport or cocaine analog binding. Taken together, these literature results show that domains for substrates and cocaine analogs are formed by interactions with multiple and sometimes distinct DAT functional groups.

Regulated Expression and Function of the Somatodendritic Catecholamine Neurotransmitter Transporters

Termination of neurotransmission at catecholaminergic synapses is well documented by the transporters for dopamine and norepinephrine, members of the Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent neurotransmitter transporter family, which accumulates released transmitters within their nerve endings, respectively. Although somatodendritic expression of the transporters and the effects of cocaine and amphetamine on those have been reported, their role is still obscure. Recent findings of the transporter function as an ion channel and/or its reverse transport property provide a clue to identify the role of these transporters in the somatodendrites and their consequential interaction with uptake inhibitors. Differences in ionic environment and maturity of the release machinery in the somatodendrites at developmental stages influence the transporter functions, resulting in the formation of both positive and negative feedback loop of catecholaminergic neurons.

chi-Conopeptide MrIA partially overlaps desipramine and cocaine binding sites on the human norepinephrine transporter

The interactions of chi-conopeptide MrIA with the human norepinephrine transporter (hNET) were investigated by determining the effects of hNET point mutations on the inhibitory potency of MrIA. The mutants were produced by site-directed mutagenesis and expressed in COS-7 cells. The potency of MrIA was greater for inhibition of uptake by hNET of [3H]norepinephrine (Ki 1.89 microM) than [3H]dopamine (Ki 4.33 microM), and the human dopamine transporter and serotonin transporter were not inhibited by MrIA (to 7 microM). Of 18 mutations where hNET amino acid residues were exchanged with those of the human dopamine transporter, MrIA had increased potency for inhibition of [3H]norepinephrine uptake for three mutations (in predicted extracellular loops 3 and 4 and transmembrane domain (TMD) 8) and decreased potency for one mutation (in TMD6 and intracellular loop (IL) 3). Of the 12 additional mutations in TMDs 2, 4, 5, and 11 and IL1, three mutations (in TMD2 and IL1) had reduced MrIA inhibitory potency. All of the other mutations tested had no influence on MrIA potency. A comparison of the results with previous data for desipramine and cocaine inhibition of norepinephrine uptake by the mutant hNETs reveals that MrIA binding to hNET occurs at a site that is distinct from but overlaps with the binding sites for tricyclic antidepressants and cocaine.

Norepinephrine transporter splice variants and their interaction with substrates and blockers

Norepinephrine transporter (NET), a member of the Na+/Cl--dependent neurotransmitter transporter family, displays species-specific isoforms produced by alternative RNA splicing. This occurs at 3'-flanking coding and noncoding regions, resulting in different carboxy-terminals. When these NET splice variants were expressed in cultured cell lines, the characteristics of substrate transport and the sensitivity to uptake inhibitors differed between isoforms. The different functional expression suggests the physiological importance of the action and interaction of NET splice variants in synaptic transmission.

Suppressive effects of trihexyphenidyl on methamphetamine-induced dopamine release as measured by in vivo microdialysis

Abuse of methamphetamine (MAP) and cocaine causes severe medical and social problems throughout the world. Our previous study found that trihexyphenidyl (THP), a muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist, specifically suppressed the rewarding properties of MAP but not of cocaine, as measured by conditioned place preference in mice. The present study examined using in vivo microdialysis whether THP differentially affects the extracellular dopamine (DA) levels in the nucleus accumbens and striatum of mice injected with MAP and cocaine in comparison with another antimuscarinic agent, scopolamine (SCP). In addition, locomotor activity was simultaneously measured during microdialysis. In vivo microdialysis experiments revealed that during the initial hour after injection of MAP (1 mg/kg) DA levels increased up to 698% in the nucleus accumbens and 367% in the striatum as compared to the basal level. These increases were reduced to 293% in the nucleus accumbens and 207% in the striatum by treatment with 5 mg/kg THP. However, SCP (3 mg/kg) had no effect on the increases in extracellular DA levels in both regions after MAP injection. Cocaine (10 mg/kg) increased DA levels during the initial hour to 254% in the nucleus accumbens and 220% in the striatum as compared to the basal level. These increases were unaffected by treatment with either THP or SCP. On the contrary, both THP and SCP enhanced the locomotor-stimulant action of MAP and cocaine. These results, together with our previous finding, suggest that THP may specifically antagonize the rewarding properties of MAP through suppression of DA release in the mesolimbic area without retarding locomotor activity.

Evidence that acidosis alters the high-affinity dopamine uptake in rat striatal slices and synaptosomes by different mechanisms partially related to oxidative damage

Several experimental studies have shown that acidosis impairs neurotransmitter uptake processes. The purpose of this study was to determine the mechanism underlying acidosis-induced alterations of the high-affinity dopamine (DA) uptake in rat striatal synaptosomes and slices. Acidosis (pH 5.5) performed either by lactic acid or phosphoric acid induced a decrease in the high-affinity DA uptake in the two striatal models, slices being lesser affected than synaptosomes. Addition of the acid prior to uptake measurement led to a strong reduction of the DA uptake velocity. This early inhibitory effect was completely reversed when acid was removed from the medium by washings. Conversely, when slices and synaptosomes were pre-incubated for different times with each acid, DA uptake remained inhibited in spite of washings. This later inhibition was accompanied by the production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, a marker of lipid peroxidation, and was partially prevented by the antioxidant Trolox. Taken together, these results suggest that acidosis, in a degree encountered during ischemia, alters the high-affinity DA uptake by at least two ways: an early and direct effect of H(+) ions on the DA transporters, and subsequently an inhibition partially mediated by free radical damage.

A putative three-dimensional arrangement of the human serotonin transporter transmembrane helices: a tool to aid experimental studies

The human serotonin transporter is the molecular target for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor drugs which are being used for treatment of depression. A three-dimensional model of the membrane spanning parts of the transporter was constructed. The transporter was assumed to consist of 12 transmembrane alpha-helices. The model was based on published experimental data of cocaine binding to mutant transporters, amino acid sequence analysis, and interactive molecular graphics. The model suggests that a high affinity cocaine binding site is situated in a region of the model where Asp98 acts like an anchor, while a putative low affinity site is situated in another region with Glu508 as the anchoring amino acid. A series of docking experiments with various reuptake inhibitors were conducted, using interactive molecular graphics techniques combined with energy calculations and analysis of the transporter-ligand complexes. Experiments involving molecular mapping of ligand binding areas may benefit from using the current model in experimental design. From the current model, several amino acids were proposed as prime candidates for mutagenesis and subsequent ligand binding studies. Also for evaluation of results from site directed mutagenesis experiments with SERT and similar transporters we assume the model will be helpful.

Identification and functional characterization of the novel isoforms of bovine norepinephrine transporter produced by alternative splicing

Analyzing variation of bovine norepinephrine transporter (NET) at the 3'-region by RT-PCR in the adrenal glands and the brain revealed four isoforms of NET produced by alternative splicing of four cassettes (C0, C1, C2 and C3) encoded by exons 12-15, designated bNET1a (C0-C1-C2, formerly designated bNET1), bNET1b (C0-C2), bNET2a (C0-C1-C3) and bNET2b (C0-C3, formerly designated bNET2), respectively. Expression of these isoforms in COS-7 cells revealed that the isoforms that contain the C1 cassette encoded by exon 13 (bNET1a and bNET2a) showed a significant increase in [(3)H]norepinephrine uptake and [(3)H]nisoxetine binding, whereas the isoforms which lack the C1 cassette (bNET1b and bNET2b) failed to display those activities despite the selection of either exon 14 or exon 15. These results suggest that the region encoded by exon 13 is indispensable for NET functional expression.

Tyrosine residue 271 of the norepinephrine transporter is an important determinant of its pharmacology

The aim was to examine the functional importance in the norepinephrine transporter (NET) of (i) the phenylalanine residue at position 531 in transmembrane domain (TMD) 11 by mutating it to tyrosine in the rat (rF531Y) and human (hF531Y) NETs and (ii) the highly conserved tyrosine residues at positions 249 in TMD 4 of human NET (hNET) (mutated to alanine: hY249A) and 271 in TMD 5, by mutating to alanine (hY271A), phenylalanine (hY271F) and histidine (hY271H). The effects of the mutations on NET function were examined by expressing the mutant and wildtype NETs in COS-7 cells and measuring the K(m) and V(max) for uptake of the substrates, [3H]norepinephrine, [3H]MPP(+) and [3H]dopamine, the K(D) and B(max) for [3H]nisoxetine binding and the K(i) of the inhibitors, nisoxetine, desipramine and cocaine, for inhibition of [3H]norepinephrine uptake. The K(m) values of the substrates were lower for the mutants at amino acid 271 than hNET and unaffected for the other mutants, and each mutant had a significantly lower V(max) than NET for substrate uptake. The mutations at position 271 caused an increase in the K(i) or K(D) values of nisoxetine, desipramine and cocaine, but there were no effects for the other mutations. Hence, the 271 tyrosine residue in TMD 5 is an important determinant of NET function, with the mutants showing an increase in the apparent affinities of substrates and a decrease in the apparent affinities of inhibitors, but the 249 tyrosine and 531 phenylalanine residues do not have a major role in determining NET function.

Involvement of the NH2 terminal domain of catecholamine transporters in the Na(2+) and Cl(-)-dependence of a [3H]-dopamine uptake

The ionic dependence of the [3H]-dopamine uptake was studied in transfected cells expressing the human neuronal transporter for dopamine (hDAT) or noradrenaline (hNET), and chimeric transporters resulting from the symmetrical exchange of the region from the NH2 terminal through the first two transmembrane domains (cassette I). Chimera A is formed by hDAT comprising cassette I from hNET, whereas chimera B corresponds to the reverse construct. The appearance or the intensity of a Cl(-)-independent component of transport was linked to the presence of the COOH terminal part of hNET in both monoclonal and polyclonal Ltk(-) cells (Cl(-) substituted by isethionate and NO3(-), respectively), and in transiently transfected COS-7 cells. Cassette I was also involved in the Cl(-)-dependence because the transport activity of polyclonal Ltk(-) cells expressing A was partly Cl(-)-independent and because Ltk(-) cells expressing transporters containing cassette I of hDAT displayed higher K(mCl)- values than cells expressing the reverse constructs. In monoclonal Ltk(-) cell lines, K(mNa)+ values and biphasic vs monophasic dependence upon Na(+) concentrations differentiate transporters containing cassette I of hNET from those containing cassette I of hDAT. In COS-7 cells, the exchange of cassette I produced a significant change in Hill number values. In Na(+)-dependence studies, exchange of the COOH terminal part significantly modified Hill number values in both Ltk(-) and COS-7 cells. Hill number values close to two were found for hNET and hDAT when sucrose was used as substitute for NaCl. The NH2 terminal part of the transporters bears some of the differences in the Na(+) and Cl(-)-dependence of the uptake that are observed between hDAT and hNET. Present results also support a role of the COOH terminal part in the ionic dependence.

Endocrine regulation of neurotransmitter transporters

Aminergic signalling in the CNS is terminated by clearance of neurotransmitters from the synapse via high affinity transporter molecules in the presynaptic membrane. Relatively recent sequence identification of these molecules has now permitted the initiation of studies of regulation of transporter function at the cellular and systems levels. In vitro studies provide evidence that the transporters for dopamine, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) may be substrates for regulation by protein kinase C and protein kinase A signalling. Changes in energy balance and metabolic status, such as starvation, result in major shifts in hormonal output. It is now recognized that metabolic hormones such as insulin or the adrenal steroids can have significant acute and chronic effects on several aspects of CNS function. Data from this laboratory and others now provide evidence that insulin and adrenal and gonadal steroid hormones may regulate the synthesis and activity of the transporters. Future studies should permit elucidation of the cellular basis for endocrine regulation of neurotransmitter clearance, and thus, the role of endocrines in the maintenance of normal CNS aminergic signalling. The potential relevance of transporter regulation for the ketogenic diet is discussed.

Serotonin transporter production and degradation rates: studies with RTI-76

The objective of this study was to examine the turnover of the serotonin transporter (SERT) by determining its production rate (r), degradation rate constant (k) and half-life of recovery (t1/2). The turnover of SERT was determined from the rate of recovery of binding after administration of RTI-76, an irreversible inhibitor of ligand binding. In preliminary studies, in vitro incubation of rat cerebral cortex with RTI-76 produced a wash and temperature resistant inhibition of SERT binding densities (Bmax). Citalopram protected against the RTI-76-induced inhibition of SERT binding. Following 6 h of in vivo intracerebroventricular injections of 100 nmol of RTI-76, there was a dose- and time-dependent reduction (- 60%) of SERT binding in hippocampus and striatum, without a change in the Kd. SERT binding densities recovered over several days, reaching control levels by day 14. The recovery curve fit the standard model of protein synthesis and degradation. The turnover parameters of SERT were determined in hippocampus and striatum, regions that receive serotonergic innervation from the dorsal and median midbrain raphe nuclei, respectively. In the hippocampus, the production rate constant was 2.36 fmol mg protein (-1)h(-1); the degradation rate constant was 0.0077 h(-1); and the half-life of the SERT recovery was 3.4 days. The values in the striatum were similar. The decrease and recovery of [3H]-5-HT uptake correlated highly (r = 0.93) with the recovery of SERT binding.

Frontal lobe dysfunction in patients with non-frontal malignant gliomas: a monoaminergic dysregulation?

Previous investigations concerned with the neuropsychological function of patients with intracerebral supratentorial malignant gliomas has revealed the frequent occurrence of signs suggestive of an inhibitory frontal lobe dysfunction regardless of the intracerebral localization of the tumor and before the diagnosis was known to either the investigator or the patient. Upon closer analysis, the frontal lobe dysfunction has been verified by the demonstration of reduced blood flow in frontal areas in these patients. Since many of the findings can be related to a dysfunction of dopaminergic neurotransmission, we hypothesize that abnormal astrocytes interfere with the metabolism, transport and release of various neurotransmitters of which dopamine may be the one responsible for the most striking neuropsychological abnormalities in patients with malignant gliomas.

Dominant negative isoform of rat norepinephrine transporter produced by alternative RNA splicing

We have cloned from rat brain a family of alternatively spliced cDNAs from a single gene, which encodes a norepinephrine transporter (NET) having variations at the 3'-region including both coding and noncoding regions. This produces two transporter isoforms, rNETa and rNETb, which differ at their COOH termini. The rNETa isoform reveals a COOH terminus homologous to human NET and transports norepinephrine. In contrast, rNETb revealed no detectable transport function but reduced functional expression of rNETa when both isoforms were expressed in the same cell. Thus, rNETb potentially functions as a dominant negative inhibitor of rNETa activity. Co-expression of rNETb with a gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter (rGAT1), a serotonin transporter (rSERT), and a dopamine transporter (rDAT) reduced their transport activity. No reduction was found with the glutamate/aspartate transporter (rGLAST). Alternative RNA splicing of NET suggests a novel mechanism for the regulation of synaptic transmission.

Epitope tagging

Epitope tagging is a recombinant DNA method by which a protein encoded by a cloned gene is made immunoreactive to a known antibody. This review discusses the major advantages and limitations of epitope tagging and describes a number of recent applications. Major areas of application include monitoring protein expression, localizing proteins at the cellular and subcellular levels, and protein purification, as well as the analysis of protein topology, dynamics and interactions. Recently the method has also found use in transgenic and gene therapy studies and in the emerging fields of functional genomics and proteomics.

Ca(2+)-dependent enhancement of [3H]noradrenaline uptake in PC12 cells through calmodulin-dependent kinases

Ca(2+)-dependent regulation of [3H]noradrenaline ([3H]NA) uptake through the NA transporter was studied using PC12 cells. Preincubation for 10 min in the presence of 0.3-10 mM ca2+ in Krebs-Ringer (KR) buffer induced marked enhancement of the uptake (at 1 mM Ca2+, 6.6 times greater than that observed in the absence of Ca2+), which reflected both an increase in Vmax and a decrease in K(m) of the uptake process. Preincubation with 1 mM Ca2+ also induced a significant increase in the Bmax and Kd of [3H]desipramine binding. The uptake was still enhanced after washing cells with Ca(2+)-free buffer following preincubation with 1 mM Ca2+. 1-[N, O-bis(5-Isoquinolinesulfonyl)-N-methyl-L-tyrosyl]-4-phenylpiperazine (KN-62), 2-[N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-N-(4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl)]amino-N-(4-c hlo rocinnamyl) -N-methylbenzylamine (KN-93) (inhibitors of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II), N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulonamide (W-7) (a calmodulin antagonist), wortmannin (a myosin light chain kinase inhibitor) significantly reduced Ca(2+)-dependent enhancement of the uptake. Mycalolide B (an inhibitor of actin-myosin interaction) also inhibited the enhancement. Although calphostin C (a protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor) did not affect the enhancement, 12-o-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA) inhibited the uptake. A synthetic peptide with a sequence (KKVIYKFFS579 IRGSLW) contained in the intracellular COOH-terminal domain of a rat NA transporter was phosphorylated by purified brain Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II. These results suggest that Ca(2+)-dependent enhancement of the [3H]NA uptake in PC12 cells are mediated by activation of calmodulin-dependent protein kinases, probably through stimulation of translocation of the NA transporter to the plasma membrane and/or direct phosphorylation of the transporter itself.

MPP+ toxicity and plasma membrane dopamine transporter: study using cell lines expressing the wild-type and mutant rat dopamine transporters

The Parkinsonism-inducing neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) causes specific cell death in dopaminergic neurons after accumulation by the dopamine transporter (DAT). COS cells, a non-neuronal cell line insensitive to high doses of MPP+, becomes sensitive to MPP+ when transfected with the rat DAT cDNA. We analyzed the bi-directional transport of MPP+ and its toxicity in several cell lines expressing wild or mutant DATs. Cell death in COS cells expressing wild DAT by exposure to MPP+ was concentration-dependent and cocaine-reversible. Increased wild DAT expression caused higher sensitivities to the toxin in HeLa cells. Although several mutant DATs demonstrated greater transport activity than the wild-type, they displayed similar or lower sensitivity to MPP+ toxicity. Reverse transport of preloaded [3H]MPP+ through DAT was facilitated in COS cells expressing certain mutant DATs, which consistently displayed less sensitivity to MPP+ toxicity. These results suggest that re-distribution of MPP+ due to influx/efflux turnover through the transporter is a key factor in MPP+ toxicity.

Polymorphisms in the dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine transporter genes and their relationships to monoamine metabolite concentrations in CSF of healthy volunteers

Concentrations of monoamine metabolites (MM) in lumbar cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) have been used extensively as indirect estimates of monoamine turnover in the brain. We investigated the possible relationships between DNA polymorphisms in the dopamine transporter (DAT), serotonin transporter (SERT), and norepinephrine transporter (NET) genes and CSF concentrations of homovanillic acid (HVA), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG) in healthy volunteers (n = 66). The DAT polymorphism was not significantly associated with any of the monoamine metabolites, but a tendency for relationship with 5-HIAA was found in women. For both of the two SERT polymorphisms investigated, a functional promoter polymorphism and an intronic polymorphism without known function, significant relationships were found with CSF MHPG levels. No relationship was found between the SERT polymorphisms and CSF HVA and 5-HIAA. The NET polymorphism was associated with CSF MHPG levels but not HVA and 5-HIAA concentrations. The results suggest that SERT and NET genotypes may participate differentially in the regulation of the norepinephrine turnover rate under presumed steady-state conditions in the central nervous system. As only limited data so far indicate interactions between the serotonin and norepinephrine systems in the brain, and the NET polymorphism investigated is not known to be of functional significance, the results should be interpreted with caution until replicated.

Role of organic cation transporters in drug absorption and elimination

Organic cation transporters are critical in drug absorption, targeting, and disposition. It has become increasingly clear that multiple mechanisms are involved in organic cation transport in the key tissues responsible for drug absorption and disposition: the kidney, liver, and intestine. In this review, we discuss current models of transepithelial flux of organic cations in these three tissues. Particular emphasis is placed on the more recent molecular studies that have paved the way for a more complete understanding of the physiological and pharmacological roles of the organic cation transporters. Such information is essential in predicting pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics and in the design and development of cationic drugs.

Tyrosine-533 of rat dopamine transporter: involvement in interactions with 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium and cocaine

To improve our understanding of structure-function relationships for neurotransmitter transporters, we performed site-directed mutagenesis of the rat dopamine transporter (DAT) and assessed the functions of the mutants in transiently-expressing COS cells. Tyrosine-533 of rat DAT lies in the 11th transmembrane region, where the corresponding amino acid of human DAT is phenylalanine. Alanine substitution of tyrosine-533 (Y533A) conferred an increased affinity for 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+). Phenylalanine substitution of tyrosine-533 (Y533F) increased the velocity of MPP+ uptake but decreased DAT's affinity for MPP+. Cocaine's potency in inhibiting dopamine uptake was unchanged with Y533A, but increased with Y533F. Differences in the uptake kinetics and inhibitory potency of cocaine between rat and human DATs were similar to the differences observed between the wild-type and Y533F mutants DATs. Tyrosine-533 may be important for the DAT function and for species differences in transporter functions, including differential sensitivities to cocaine and 1-methyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) in humans and rats.