A review of nonoccupational pathways for pesticide exposure in women living in agricultural areas

Relationships of residential distance to greenhouse floriculture and organophosphate, pyrethroid, and neonicotinoid urinary metabolite concentration in Ecuadorian Adolescents

BACKGROUND

Adolescents living in agricultural areas are at higher risk of secondary pesticide exposure; however, there is limited evidence to confirm exposure by pesticide drift for greenhouse floriculture, like rose production.

METHODS

525 adolescents (12-17, 49% male) living in Pedro Moncayo, Ecuador were assessed in 2016. Urinary concentrations of creatinine and pesticide biomarkers (organophosphates, neonicotinoids, and pyrethroids) were measured using mass-spectrometry. Home distance to the nearest greenhouse and surface area of greenhouses within various buffer sizes around the home were calculated. Linear regression assessed whether home distance and surface area of greenhouses was associated with creatinine-adjusted metabolite concentration, adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic, and anthropometric variables. Geospatially weighted regression (GWR) was conducted, adjusting for similar covariates. Getis-ord Gi* identified hot and cold spots using a 1994 m distance band.

RESULTS

The associations between residential distance to greenhouses and urinary pesticide metabolites differed by metabolite type. The adjusted mean concentrations of OHIM (neonicotinoid) were greater (p-difference = 0.02) among participants living within 200 m (1.08 ug/g of creatinine) vs > 200 m (0.64 ug/g); however, the opposite was observed for 3,5,6-Trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy, organophosphate; 0-200 m: 3.63 ug/g vs > 200 m: 4.30 ug/g, p-diff = 0.05). In linear models, greater distances were negatively associated with para-nitrophenol (PNP, organophosphate; percent difference per 50% greater distance [95% CI]: - 2.5% [- 4.9%, - 0.1%]) and somewhat with 2-isopropyl-4-methyl-6-hydroxypyrimidine (IMPy, organophosphate; - 4.0% [- 8.3%, 0.4%]), among participants living within 200 m of greenhouses. Concurring with the adjusted means analyses, opposite (positive) associations were observed for TCPy (2.1% [95%CI 0.3%, 3.9%]). Organophosphate and pyrethroid hotspots were found in parishes with greater greenhouse density, whereas neonicotinoid hot spots were in parishes with the lowest greenhouse density.

CONCLUSION

We observed negative associations between residential distance to greenhouses with OHIM, PNP and to some extent IMPy, suggesting that imidacloprid, parathion and diazinon are drifting from floricultural greenhouses and reaching children living within 200 m. Positive TCPy associations suggest greenhouses weren't the chlorpyrifos source during this study period, which implies that non-floricultural open-air agriculture (e.g. corn, potatoes, strawberries, grains) may be a source. Further research incorporating diverse geospatial constructs of pesticide sources, pesticide use reports (if available), participant location tracking, and repeated metabolite measurements is recommended.

Characterization of organophosphate pesticides in household dust: associations with housing characteristics and environmental factors in a Middle Eastern area

Organophosphate pesticides are commonly used in agriculture and urban areas, posing significant public health risks due to their neurotoxic effects. This study investigates the prevalence of these pesticides in household dust in Shiraz, a major city in southern Iran, and examines their associations with various housing and environmental factors. A total of 30 residences were sampled from April to November 2022 using cluster random sampling. Dust was collected from multiple locations within each home and analyzed via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to detect and quantify 15 organophosphate pesticides. Results showed measurable levels of several pesticides, with trifluralin having the highest concentration (9.35 ng/g dust) and butachlor the lowest (0.06 ng/g dust). There was notable spatial variability in contamination, with the most contaminated location having 12 pesticides and the least contaminated having five. Statistical analyses indicated that wind-driven pesticide drift significantly influenced the total pesticide concentration, while other factors showed no significant associations. The study highlights potential health risks from pesticide exposure in residential areas, particularly near agricultural activities, raising concerns for vulnerable populations. This underscores the need for stronger regulatory measures and public awareness initiatives to mitigate exposure. Further research is recommended to explore the long-term health impacts and develop effective safety practices in residential settings.

Concentrations of DDT metabolites in different food items and public health risk in Africa regions: systematic review and metal analysis

Background

DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) is a synthetic organochlorine pesticide used in agriculture and mosquito control but later banned due to its harmful effects on humans. It persists in the environment, biomagnified through the food chain, and poses serious health risks, including reproductive defect, cancer, and nervous system disorders. DDT has a long half-life and potential of long-range transport and continuing to contaminate long after use and remains to pose a global environmental and health concern. Therefore, this review was designed to assess the concentration of DDT metabolites (p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD, and p,p'-DDE) in various food items and evaluate the health risk to consumers in the African.

Methods

The preferred reporting item for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) protocol was used to conduct this work. SCOPUS, PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, DOAJ, national repository, and MedNar were used to retrieve articles from October 1, 2023, to January 20, 2024. Meta-analysis data visualized using a forest plot. A random-effects model was applied when heterogeneity existed in overall mean concentration of DDT metabolites. The subgroup analysis, meta-regression, and sensitivity analysis was conducted and the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Assessment tool to assess the quality of the studies.

Results

The overall mean concentrations of p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD and p,p'-DDE, regardless of the types of food items, were 0.188, 0.22, and 0.0878 mg/kg, respectively. Based on the type of food items, The current study found that residue levels of DDT metabolites in vegetables, milk, and cereals exceeded the Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) set by FAO/WHO/EU (0.05, 0.02, and 0.05 mg/kg, respectively), while residue levels in meat, khat, and fruit were below the MRLs (5, 0.5, and 0.05 mg/kg, respectively). The findings of the health risk assessment revealed that consumers are prone to both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks from DDT metabolites. The persistence and bioaccumulation of these metabolites, along with multiple exposure routes and improper handling, may increase long-term health risks, even at low doses. DDT metabolite levels in most food categories exceed recommended limits, posing significant health risks to consumers. To reduce reliance on DDT, effective and cost-efficient alternative insecticides and vector-control strategies must be developed. Promoting environmental management, improving housing, and implementing farm-to-fork risk-based actions, such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), across the food chain are crucial to mitigating the adverse effects of DDT exposure in the African region.

Implications of petrochemical exposure and epigenetic alterations on human health

The petrochemical industry and automobiles contribute significantly to hazardous waste, which contains a broad array of organic and inorganic compounds posing serious health risks. Identifying biomarkers of exposure and creating predictive models for toxicity characterization necessitate a thorough understanding of the underlying epigenetic mechanisms. The development of disease is intricately linked to epigenetic processes, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and microRNA (mi-RNA) regulation, which mediate gene-environment interactions. While previous studies have investigated these alterations as markers for petrochemical-induced changes, there is still a need for deeper exploration in this area, with particular emphasis on advanced gene-editing technologies. This review highlights the specific epigenetic processes, especially gene-specific DNA methylation changes, associated with prolonged petrochemical exposure. Notably, the demethylation of long interspersed nuclear element 1 (LINE-1), Alu elements, and forkhead box P3 (FOXP3), as well as hypermethylation of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and hypomethylation of interleukin-4 (IL-4) promoter regions, are discussed. These alterations in DNA methylation patterns serve as valuable biomarkers, potentially offering insights into early detection and personalized treatment options for diseases caused by long-term exposure to petrochemicals. Furthermore, CRISPR-based gene editing techniques, while underexplored, present a promising approach for correcting petrochemical-induced mutations. In addition, AI-driven radiomics holds promise for early disease detection, though it is currently limited by its lack of integration with multi-omics data. In conclusion, it is crucial to refine disease modelling, develop comprehensive risk assessment models, and innovate targeted therapeutic strategies. Future research should focus on enhancing exposure evaluation, incorporating computational tools to analyze molecular changes, and improving our understanding of how these modifications influence disease prevention and treatment.

A Call for Pediatric Clinicians to Address Environmental Health Concerns in Rural Settings

Children in rural communities encounter unique environmental exposures, many of which can result in negative long-term health consequences. Children are particularly at risk from these exposures due to their close interaction with the environment and developing physiology. The authors describe 3 rural environmental hazards: wood stove smoke, well water contaminants, and agricultural pollutants. Contaminants found in these exposures have adverse respiratory, neurodevelopmental, cardiometabolic, and carcinogenic effects, among others. The authors recommend that rural pediatric clinicians screen for these environmental exposures, and they provide tools and resources related to testing, mitigation, and medical monitoring.

Preconception and first trimester exposure to pesticides and associations with stillbirth

Associations of pesticide exposures during preconception with stillbirth have not been well explored. We linked Arizona pesticide use records with birth certificates from 2006 to 2020 and estimated associations of living within 500 m of any pyrethroid, organophosphate (OP), or carbamate pesticide applications during a 90-day preconception window or the first trimester, with stillbirth. We considered a binary measure of exposure (any exposure), as well as log-pounds and log-acres applied within 500 m, in a negative control exposure framework with log-binomial regression. We included 1 237 750 births, 2290 stillbirths, and 27 pesticides. During preconception, any exposure to pesticides was associated with stillbirth, including cyfluthrin (risk ratio [RR] = 1.97; 95% CI, 1.17-3.32); zeta-cypermethrin (RR = 1.81; 95% CI, 1.20-2.74); OPs as a class (RR = 1.60; 95% CI, 1.16-2.19); malathion (RR = 2.02; 95% CI, 1.26-3.24); carbaryl (RR = 6.39; 95% CI, 2.07-19.74); and propamocarb hydrochloride (RR = 7.72; 95% CI, 1.10-54.20). During the first trimester, fenpropathrin (RR = 4.36; 95% CI, 1.09-17.50); permethrin (RR = 1.57; 95% CI, 1.02-2.42); OPs as a class (RR = 1.50; 95% CI, 1.11-2.01); acephate (RR = 2.31; 95% CI, 1.22-4.40); and formetanate hydrochloride (RR = 7.22; 95% CI, 1.03-50.58) were associated with stillbirth. Interpretations were consistent when using continuous measures of pounds or acres of exposure. Pesticide exposures during preconception and first trimester may be associated with stillbirth. This article is part of a Special Collection on Environmental Epidemiology.

Quantitative measures of recent and lifetime agricultural pesticide use are associated with increased pesticide concentrations in house dust

OBJECTIVE

Elevated pesticide concentrations have been found in dust from homes with residents who use agricultural pesticides, but few studies have compared these concentrations to quantitative measures of their use. We evaluated household pesticide dust concentrations in relation to quantitative, active ingredient-specific metrics of agricultural pesticide use in the Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect in Agriculture Study.

METHODS

Participants provided vacuum dust samples (2013-2018) and information regarding recent (last 12 months) and lifetime pesticide use. Thirty-two pesticide analytes were measured in 295 dust samples from 213 participants; 54 had repeated measurements (median = 96 days between visits). We used mixed-effects quantile regression models to estimate relative differences in pesticide concentrations for recent and lifetime agricultural use (number of days, intensity-weighted days), recent home/garden use (yes/no), and household characteristics. Only household characteristics were examined for dacthal because of no use information. We calculated intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) to evaluate temporal variability. We report only descriptive statistics for pesticides with detection rates <25 %.

RESULTS

For currently used pesticides, quantitative measures of recent agricultural use were associated with significantly increased household pesticide dust concentrations for malathion, metolachlor, acetochlor, cyfluthrin, and atrazine (p-trends < 0.001), but not permethrin. Similarly, quantitative measures of lifetime use were associated with increased concentrations of malathion, metolachlor, carbaryl, diazinon, and atrazine (p-trends < 0.001), but not permethrin, chlorpyrifos, or chlorothalonil. For banned pesticides, ever agricultural use was associated with elevated chlordane and heptachlor concentrations and non-significantly elevated dieldrin concentrations, but not lindane, p,p-DDD, p,p-DDE, or p,p-DDT. Recent home/garden use predicted increased malathion, carbaryl, and cyfluthrin concentrations. ICCs (range = 0.57-0.90) suggested moderate to high correlation over 3-6 months. Detection rates were <25 % for alachlor, butylate, EPTC, metribuzin, simazine, carbofuran, coumaphos, as well as for three banned pesticides (cyanazine, aldrin, endosulfan).

CONCLUSIONS

Household pesticide dust concentrations were strongly associated with the frequency of agricultural pesticide use.

"I Do Not Have the Time of Being sick": Para-Occupational Exposure and Women's Health Risk Perception in an Agricultural Community

INTRODUCTION

Few studies have explored the relationship between para-occupational exposure and risk perception in farmers' families. Women are indirectly involved in agricultural activities, even though their roles most of the time are hidden. Women's para-occupational exposure and risk perceptions are important to describe, since women have a key gender role in the family's health care and possibly in the impact of acting regarding pesticide safety education. Furthermore, in farmer families, the impact of para-occupational pesticide exposure on women's health has been neglected.

AIM

Analyze pesticide para-occupational exposure scenario, knowledge, and health risk perception among women living in a farmer community.

METHODS

A mixed methodology was used. Two groups of women were identified to screen the exposure scenario: Women living in a farming family and women not living in a farming family. Data on para-occupational pesticide exposure and intradomicile practices were collected by questionnaire and semi-structured interviews to identify health risk perception and risk practices.

RESULTS

We observed a complex pesticide exposure scenario. All women were potentially exposed to pesticides through several pathways. One-third of the participants lived near a farming family or in proximity to neighbors that used pesticides at home, and one of every three women referred to spending time in a farmer's home. Among the group of women in a farming family (n = 18) stored pesticides inside the home was common; having the "safety practice" of storing pesticides in high places to avoid children being exposed. Women not living in farmimg families (n = 11) felt overexposed due to living in an agricultural community and agricultural drift exposure. Women from this group also mentioned feeling fear of developing cancerous diseases as well as fertility problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Knowledge and risk perception of pesticide exposure are similar between groups; however, women living in farming families were less willing to attend preventive health check-ups or educational programs than women not living in a farming family.

Environmental Health Assessment by Local Environmental Justice Experts for Evidence-based Decision-making in an Agricultural Community of Northern California

Environmental justice research driven by academics and policymakers often overlooks the valuable insights and leadership of the communities most impacted by environmental hazards. When institution-led research approaches are employed, inadequate community ownership and limited institutional accountability hinder the effectiveness of environmental public health interventions. In contrast, a community-owned and -managed approach to environmental justice research can guide community members in developing evidence-based interventions. This paper outlines a community-led environmental health assessment survey (sample= 100) and resulting community actions over six years (2017 to 2023) in a Northern California farmworker community with a perceived high prevalence of cancer and exposure to environmental hazards in households, neighborhoods, and job sites. Local resident experts in Knights Landing, CA, documented community risk factors and exposures in collaboration with interdisciplinary undergraduate and graduate student-researchers. The survey instrument focused on environmental hazards identified by local resident experts including vehicular and agricultural pollution, occupational pesticide contact, and sun exposure. Survey findings highlighted the need for targeted interventions to reduce environmental health risks, such as academic outreach programs, county investments in public services, and community-led mutual aid initiatives. Despite academic reservations about our non-random sampling method and data collection by local resident experts, our project sparked substantial actions and investments with minimal personnel and financial resources. Local leaders working with student-researchers developed more effective environmental public health interventions through a community-owned and -managed approach that went beyond the efforts of local regulatory and research institutions.

Genetic variation and pesticide exposure influence blood DNA methylation signatures in females with early-stage Parkinson's disease

Although sex, genetics, and exposures can individually influence risk for sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD), the joint contributions of these factors to the epigenetic etiology of PD have not been comprehensively assessed. Here, we profiled sex-stratified genome-wide blood DNAm patterns, SNP genotype, and pesticide exposure in agricultural workers (71 early-stage PD cases, 147 controls) and explored replication in three independent samples of varying demographics (n = 218, 222, and 872). Using a region-based approach, we found more associations of blood DNAm with PD in females (69 regions) than in males (2 regions, Δβadj| ≥0.03, padj ≤ 0.05). For 48 regions in females, models including genotype or genotype and pesticide exposure substantially improved in explaining interindividual variation in DNAm (padj ≤ 0.05), and accounting for these variables decreased the estimated effect of PD on DNAm. The results suggested that genotype, and to a lesser degree, genotype-exposure interactions contributed to variation in PD-associated DNAm. Our findings should be further explored in larger study populations and in experimental systems, preferably with precise measures of exposure.

Agricultural exposures and DNA damage in PBMC of female farmers measured using the alkaline comet assay

OBJECTIVE

Several studies investigated the link between agricultural occupational exposures and DNA damage, in an attempt to bring elements of biological plausibility to the increased cancer risk associated with them. However, only a few of these studies focused on females.

METHODS

The comet assay was performed on PBMC (Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells) samples from 245 females working in open field farming and cattle raising, located in the Normandy area of France. Individual questionnaires on tasks performed were administered at the time of sampling to directly assess exposures. Environmental exposures were issued from a questionnaire assessing the farm productions. Linear regression analyses were done using the DNA damage scores.

RESULTS

Regarding direct exposures, several tasks associated with exposure to potentially harmful chemicals were not associated with DNA damage, but a longer duration of use of herbicide on meadows (p = 0.05) or of cleaning and upkeep of agricultural equipment (p = 0.06) revealed higher DNA damage levels, although the number of exposed women was low. Several indirect and/or environmental exposures were associated with DNA damage in multivariate analyses: a larger surface of meadows (p = 0.006) or the presence of poultry (p = 0.03) was associated with less DNA damage, while the presence of swine (p = 0.01) was associated with higher DNA damage. Smokers and former smokers had less DNA damage than non-smokers (p = 0.0008 and p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

We report modified levels of DNA damage for those environmentally exposed to meadows, poultry and pig farming, underlining the need for a better knowledge of the potential health risks experienced by females in this setting.

Risk assessment of airborne agricultural pesticide exposure in humans in rural China

Continuous exposure to airborne pesticides causes their gradual accumulation in the human body, eventually posing a threat to human health. To the best of our knowledge, risk assessment study of pesticide non-occupational exposure to residents in agricultural areas has not been conducted in China. In this study, air samples (gas and dust) were collected from inside and outside residences of seven households and an area near the field in a grain-growing area (wheat and maize rotation) for eight months, and the pesticides present were examined both qualitatively and quantitatively. Using a 95% confidence interval, 9 out of 16 pesticides were detected, namely acetamiprid, acetochlor, atrazine, flucarbazone-sodium, imidacloprid, methyldisulfuron-methyl, nicosulfuron-methyl, pendimethalin, and beta-cyhalothrin, and their safety was subsequently evaluated. The results showed that the inhalation exposure of households to beta-cyhalothrin exceeded the acceptable range in the first residential, and the excess lifetime cancer risk of acetochlor inhalation exposure in six households and area around the field exceeds 1E-6, which highlights the need to strengthen preventive screening for cancer risk.

Modeling clothing as a secondary source of exposure to SVOCs across indoor microenvironments

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests that clothing can influence human exposure to semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) through transdermal uptake and inhalation.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study were [1] to investigate the potential for clothing to function as a transport vector and secondary source of gas-phase SVOCs across indoor microenvironments, [2] to elucidate how clothing storage, wear, and laundering can influence the dynamics of transdermal uptake, and [3] to assess the potential for multiple human occupants to influence the multimedia dynamics of SVOCs indoors.

METHODS

A computational modeling framework (ABICAM) was expanded, applied, and evaluated by simulating and augmenting two "real-world" chamber experiments. A primary strength of this framework was its representation of occupants and their clothing as unique entities with the potential for location changes.

RESULTS

Estimates of transdermal uptake of diethyl phthalate (DEP) and di(n-butyl) phthalate (DnBP) were generally consistent with those extrapolated from measured concentrations of urinary metabolites, and those predicted by two other mechanistic models. ABICAM predicted that clean clothing (long sleeves, long pants, and socks, 100% cotton, 1 mm thick) readily accumulated DEP (6900-9700 μg) and DnBP (4500-4800 μg) from the surrounding chamber air over 6 h of exposure to average concentrations of 233 (DEP) and 114 (DnBP) μg·m-3. Because of their high capacity, clean clothing also effectively minimized transdermal uptake. In addition, ABICAM predicted that contaminated clothing functioned as a vector for transporting DEP and DnBP across indoor microenvironments and reemitted 13-80% (DEP) and 3-27% (DnBP) of the accumulated masses over 48 h.

SIGNIFICANCE

Though the estimated secondary inhalation exposures from contaminated clothing were low compared to the corresponding primary exposures, these secondary exposures could be accentuated in other contexts, for example, involving longer timeframes of clothing storage, multiple occupants wearing contaminated clothing, and/or repeated instances of clothing-mediated transport of contaminants (e.g., from an occupational setting).

IMPACT

This modeling study reaffirms the effectiveness of clean clothing in reducing transdermal uptake of airborne SVOCs and conversely, that contaminated clothing could be a source of SVOC exposure via transdermal uptake and by acting as a vector for transporting those contaminants to other locations.

Evaluating the accuracy of satellite-based methods to estimate residential proximity to agricultural crops

BACKGROUND

Epidemiologic investigations increasingly employ remote sensing data to estimate residential proximity to agriculture as a means of approximating individual-level pesticide exposure. Few studies have examined the accuracy of these methods and the implications for exposure misclassification.

OBJECTIVES

Compare metrics of residential proximity to agricultural land between a groundtruth approach and commonly-used satellite-based estimates.

METHODS

We inspected 349 fields and identified crops in current production within a 0.5 km radius of 40 residences in Idaho. We calculated the distance from each home to the nearest agricultural field and the total acreage of agricultural fields within a 0.5 km buffer. We compared these groundtruth estimates to satellite-derived estimates from three widely used datasets: CropScape, the National Land Cover Database (NLCD), and Landsat imagery (using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index thresholds).

RESULTS

We found poor to moderate agreement between the classification of individuals living within 0.5 km of an agricultural field between the groundtruth method and the comparison datasets (53.1-77.6%). All satellite-derived estimates overestimated the acreage of agricultural land within 0.5 km of each home (average = 82.8-148.9%). Using two satellite-derived datasets in conjunction resulted in substantial improvements; specifically, combining CropScape or NLCD with Landsat imagery had the highest percent agreement with the groundtruth data (92.8-93.8% agreement).

SIGNIFICANCE

Residential proximity to agriculture is frequently used as a proxy for pesticide exposure in epidemiologic investigations, and remote sensing-derived datasets are often the only practical means of identifying cultivated land. We found that estimates of agricultural proximity obtained from commonly-used satellite-based datasets are likely to result in exposure misclassification. We propose a novel approach that capitalizes on the complementary strengths of different sources of satellite imagery, and suggest the combined use of one dataset with high temporal resolution (e.g., Landsat imagery) in conjunction with a second dataset that delineates agricultural land use (e.g., CropScape or NLCD).

An Updated Evaluation of Atrazine-Cancer Incidence Associations among Pesticide Applicators in the Agricultural Health Study Cohort

BACKGROUND

Atrazine is a common agricultural herbicide in the United States. Few epidemiologic studies have evaluated cancer risks. Previous analyses within the Agricultural Health Study (AHS) have found some evidence of associations with cancer at some sites.

OBJECTIVE

We updated exposure information, incident cases, and follow-up time to assess the associations between atrazine use and cancer at specific sites in the AHS.

METHODS

Information about lifetime pesticide use was reported at enrollment (1993-1997) and follow-up (1999-2005). Among 53,562 pesticide applicators in North Carolina and Iowa, we identified 8,915 incident cases through cancer registry linkages through 2014 (North Carolina)/2017 (Iowa). We used Poisson regression to evaluate the association between ever/never and intensity-weighted lifetime days of atrazine use and incident cancer risk controlling for several confounders. We also evaluated lagged exposures and age-stratified risk.

RESULTS

Approximately 71.2% of applicators reported ever using atrazine, which was associated with lung cancer [rate ratios  ( RR ) = 1.24 ; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.04, 1.46]. Aggressive prostate cancer risk was increased in the highest quartile (RR Q 4 = 1.20 ; 95% CI: 0.95, 1.52; p -trend = 0.19 ), particularly among those < 60 years old (RR Q 4 = 3.04 ; 95% CI: 1.61, 5.75; p -trend < 0.001 ; p -interaction = 0.04 ). Among applicators < 50 years of age, ever-atrazine use was associated with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) (RR = 2.43 ; 95% CI: 1.10, 5.38; p -interaction = 0.60 ). For soft tissue sarcoma, there was an elevated risk in the highest tertile of exposure (RR T 3 : 2.54; 95% CI: 0.97, 6.62; p -trend = 0.31 ). In analyses with exposure lagged by 25 years, there was an elevated risk of pharyngeal (RR T 3 = 3.04 ; 95% CI: 1.45, 6.36; p -trend = 0.07 ) and kidney (RR Q 4 = 1.62 ; 95% CI: 1.15, 2.29; p -trend < 0.005 ) cancers.

DISCUSSION

We observed suggestive associations with some malignancies in overall, age-specific, and lagged analyses. Associations with aggressive prostate cancer and NHL were apparent among those diagnosed at younger ages and with cancers of the pharynx and kidney, and soft tissue sarcomas were observed in lagged analyses. Further work is needed to confirm these observed associations and elucidate potential underlying mechanisms. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13684.

Urinary pesticide mixture patterns and exposure determinants in the adult population from the Netherlands and Switzerland: Application of a suspect screening approach

INTRODUCTION

Non-occupational sources of pesticide exposure may include domestic pesticide usage, diet, occupational exposure of household members, and agricultural activities in the residential area. We conducted a study with the ambition to characterize pesticide mixture patterns in a sample of the adult population of the Netherlands and Switzerland, using a suspect screening approach and to identify related exposure determinants.

METHODS

A total of 105 and 295 adults participated in the Dutch and Swiss studies, respectively. First morning void urine samples were collected and analyzed in the same laboratory. Harmonized questionnaires about personal characteristics, pesticide-related activities, and diet were administered. Detection rates and co-occurrence patterns were calculated to explore internal pesticide exposure patterns. Censored linear and logistic regression models were constructed to investigate the association between exposure and domestic pesticide usage, consumption of homegrown and organic foods, household members' exposure, and distance to agricultural and forest areas.

RESULTS

From the 37 detected biomarkers, 3 (acetamiprid (-CH2), chlorpropham (4-HSA), and flonicamid (-C2HN)) were detected in ≥40% of samples. The most frequent combination of biomarkers (acetamiprid-flonicamid) was detected in 22 (5.5%) samples. Regression models revealed an inverse association between high organic vegetable and fruit consumption and exposure to acetamiprid, chlorpropham, propamocarb (+O), and pyrimethanil (+O + SO3). Within-individual correlations in repeated samples (summer/winter) from the Netherlands were low (≤0.3), and no seasonal differences in average exposures were observed in Switzerland.

CONCLUSION

High consumption of organic fruit and vegetables was associated with lower pesticide exposure. In the two countries, detection rates and co-occurrence were typically low, and within-person variability was high. Our study results provide an indication for target biomarkers to include in future studies aimed at quantifying urinary exposure levels in European adult populations.

Association between Residential Proximity to Viticultural Areas and Childhood Acute Leukemia Risk in Mainland France: GEOCAP Case-Control Study, 2006-2013

BACKGROUND

Pesticide exposures are suspected of being a risk factor for several childhood cancers, particularly acute leukemia (AL). Most of the evidence is based on self-reported parental domestic use of pesticides, but some studies have also addressed associations with agricultural use of pesticides near the place of residence.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of the study was to evaluate the risk of AL in children living close to vines, a crop subject to intensive pesticide use.

METHODS

Data were drawn from the national registry-based GEOCAP study. We included all of the AL cases under the age of 15 years diagnosed in 2006-2013 (n = 3,711 ) and 40,196 contemporary controls representative of the childhood population in France. The proximity of the vines (probability of presence within 200, 500, and 1,000 m ) and the viticulture density (area devoted to vines within 1,000 m ) were evaluated around the geocoded addresses in a geographic information system combining three national land use maps. Logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) for all AL and for the lymphoblastic (ALL) and myeloid (AML) subtypes. Heterogeneity between regions was studied by stratified analyses. Sensitivity analyses were carried out to take into account, in particular, geocoding uncertainty, density of other crops and potential demographic and environmental confounders.

RESULTS

In all, about 10% of the controls lived within 1 km of vines. While no evidence of association between proximity to vines and AL was found, viticulture density was positively associated with ALL [OR = 1.05 (1.00-1.09) for a 10% increase in density], with a statistically significant heterogeneity across regions. No association with AML was observed. The results remained stable in all the sensitivity analyses.

CONCLUSION

We evidenced a slight increase in the risk of ALL in children living in areas with high viticulture density. This finding supports the hypothesis that environmental exposure to pesticides may be associated with childhood ALL. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12634.

Urinary Glyphosate Concentrations among Pregnant Participants in a Randomized, Crossover Trial of Organic and Conventional Diets

BACKGROUND

Consumption of an organic diet reduces exposure to a range of agricultural pesticides. Only three studies have examined the effect of an organic diet intervention on exposure to the herbicide glyphosate, the most heavily used agricultural chemical in the world. Despite its widespread use, the primary sources of glyphosate exposure in humans are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to examine the effect of an organic diet intervention on urinary glyphosate concentrations among pregnant individuals.

METHODS

We conducted a 2-wk randomized crossover trial in which 39 pregnant participants living near (≤ 0.5 km ) and far (> 0.5 km ) from agricultural fields received a 1-wk supply of conventional groceries and 1 wk of organic groceries, randomized to order. We collected daily first morning void urine samples and analyzed composite samples from each week for glyphosate. We examined differences in urinary glyphosate concentrations between the conventional week and the organic week among all participants and stratified by residential proximity to an agricultural field.

RESULTS

Median specific gravity-adjusted glyphosate concentrations were 0.19 μ g / L and 0.16 μ g / L during the conventional and organic weeks, respectively. We observed modest decreases in urinary glyphosate concentrations from the conventional to organic week among far-field participants, but no difference among near-field participants. In secondary analyses excluding participants who did not meet a priori criteria of compliance with the intervention, we observed significant decreases in urinary glyphosate concentrations, particularly among far-field participants (p < 0.01 - 0.02 , depending on exclusion criteria).

DISCUSSION

This trial is the first to examine the effect of an organic diet intervention on glyphosate among people living near and far from agricultural fields. Our results suggest that diet is an important contributor to glyphosate exposure in people living > 0.5 km from agricultural fields; for people living near crops, agriculture may be a dominant exposure source during the pesticide spray season. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12155.

Influence of exposure to pesticides on telomere length and pregnancy outcome: Diethylphosphates but not Dimethylphosphates are associated with accelerated telomere attrition in a Palestinian cohort

Exposure to environmental pesticides during pregnancy is associated with adverse health outcomes such as low birth weight and impaired neuro-development. In this study, we assessed maternal leukocyte telomere lengths (TL) in Palestinian pregnant women and compared the data with urinary organophosphate concentrations, demographic, lifestyle and dietary factors, birth weight, body length, gestational age, and head circumference. Women with high urine levels of creatinine adjusted diethylphosphate(DE)derived pesticide metabolites DEP, DETP or DEDTP had shorter telomeres (p = 0.05). Women living in proximity to agricultural fields had shorter telomeres compared to women not living in proximity to agricultural fields (p = 0.011). Regular consumption of organic food was associated with shorter telomeres (p = 0.01), whereas the consumption of other vegetables such as artichokes was rather associated with longer telomeres. By contrast, urine levels of dimethylphosphate(DM)-derived pesticide metabolites DMTP and DMDTP were associated with lower birth weight (p = 0.05) but not with shrter telomeres. In conclusion organophosphate pesticides and living in proximity to agriculture are associated with shorter TL, likely due to higher consumption of contaminated fruits and vegetables and/or the transport of pesticides to non-treatment sites. DE and DM substituted pesticides seem to have different effects on telomeres and development.

Elevated 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) herbicide concentrations in the household dust of farmers with recent occupational use

Pesticide dust concentrations in homes have been previously associated with occupational and home/garden use of pesticides, hygiene practices, and other factors. This study evaluated the relationship between self-reported use of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and house dust concentrations and these factors in the Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect in Agriculture (BEEA) Study, a molecular epidemiologic study of farmers in Iowa and North Carolina. The vacuum dust from the homes of 35 BEEA participants was analyzed for the presence of 2,4-D. Participants provided detailed information on occupational and home/garden pesticide use during the past 12 months and reported household characteristics via questionnaires. Linear regression models were used to examine the association between 2,4-D concentrations and four exposure metrics for occupational use in the last 12 months (yes/no, days since last use, days of use, intensity-weighted days of use), home/garden use (yes/no), as well as several household characteristics. 2,4-D was detected in all homes and was used occupationally by 54% of the participants. In a multi-variable model, compared to homes with no occupational or home/garden 2,4-D use reported in the past 12 months, concentrations were 1.6 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.5, 4.9) times higher in homes with low occupational 2,4-D use (intensity-weighted days < median) and 3.1 (95% CI: 1.0, 9.8) times higher in homes of participants with high use (≥median intensity-weighted days) (p-trend = 0.06). Similar patterns were observed with other occupational metrics. Additionally, 2,4-D dust concentrations were non-significantly elevated (relative difference (RD) = 1.8, 95% CI: 0.5, 6.2) in homes with home/garden use and were significantly lower in homes that did not have carpets (RD = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.04, 0.98). These analyses suggest that elevated 2,4-D dust concentrations were associated with several metrics of recent occupational use and may be influenced by home/garden use and household characteristics.

Green space exposure and colorectal cancer: A systematic review

Green space has been linked to colorectal cancer, but the evidence is still limited and inconclusive. This review aimed to investigate the relationship between green space and CRC. The studies were searched using three primary journal databases: PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The retrieved citations were screened, and data from articles about GS exposure and CRC were extracted. The Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Form for Cohort Studies was used to evaluate the studies' quality. Five of the 1792 articles identified were eligible for the final review, which included five cohort studies published between 2017 and 2022. Each one article from the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, and Germany and All studies are of high quality. Four studies reported CRC incidence and one study reported CRC mortality from GS exposure. There was no significant association between GS attributes (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), surrounding greenness, surrounding green area, proximity to GS (agricultural lands, urban GSs, and forests), and count of recreational facilities and parks) with CRC. Only one study discovered that a healthier ecosystem was linked to a lower CRC risk. Although the evidence is still limited, the findings may indicate the presence of other factors in the relationship between GS and CRC. Future research should continue to focus on the variation of GS and the factors that influence it. Specific attention to the development of GS has the potential to produce benefits while mitigating cancer risk.

Effective remediation and decontamination of organophosphorus compounds using enzymes: From rational design to potential applications

Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) have been widely used in agriculture for decades because of their high insecticidal efficiency, which maintains and increases crop yields worldwide. More importantly, OPs, as typical chemical warfare agents, are a serious concern and significant danger for military and civilian personnel. The widespread use of OPs, superfluous and unreasonable use, has caused great harm to the environment and food chain. Developing efficient and environmentally friendly solutions for the decontamination of OPs is a long-term challenge. Microbial enzymes show potential application as natural and green biocatalysts. Thus, utilizing OP-degrading enzymes for environmental decontamination presents significant advantages, as these enzymes can rapidly hydrolyze OPs; are environmentally friendly, nonflammable, and noncorrosive; and can be discarded safely and easily. Here, the properties, structure and catalytic mechanism of various typical OP-degrading enzymes are reviewed. The methods and effects utilized to improve the expression level, catalytic performance and stability of OP-degrading enzymes were systematically summarized. In addition, the immobilization of OP-degrading enzymes was explicated emphatically, and the latest progress of cascade reactions based on immobilized enzymes was discussed. Finally, the latest applications of OP-degrading enzymes were summarized, including biosensors, nanozyme mimics and medical detoxification. This review provides guidance for the future development of OP-degrading enzymes and promotes their application in the field of environmental bioremediation and medicine.

Assessment of exposure to pesticide mixtures in five European countries by a harmonized urinary suspect screening approach

Humans are exposed to a mixture of pesticides through diet as well as through the environment. We conducted a suspect-screening based study to describe the probability of (concomitant) exposure to a set of pesticide profiles in five European countries (Latvia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Spain and the Netherlands). We explored whether living in an agricultural area (compared to living in a peri-urban area), being a a child (compared to being an adult), and the season in which the urine sample was collected had an impact on the probability of detection of pesticides (-metabolites). In total 2088 urine samples were collected from 1050 participants (525 parent-child pairs) and analyzed through harmonized suspect screening by five different laboratories. Fourty pesticide biomarkers (either pesticide metabolites or the parent pesticides as such) relating to 29 pesticides were identified at high levels of confidence in samples across all study sites. Most frequently detected were biomarkers related to the parent pesticides acetamiprid and chlorpropham. Other biomarkers with high detection rates in at least four countries related to the parent pesticides boscalid, fludioxonil, pirimiphos-methyl, pyrimethanil, clothianidin, fluazifop and propamocarb. In 84% of the samples at least two different pesticides were detected. The median number of detected pesticides in the urine samples was 3, and the maximum was 13 pesticides detected in a single sample. The most frequently co-occurring substances were acetamiprid with chlorpropham (in 62 urine samples), and acetamiprid with tebuconazole (30 samples). Some variation in the probability of detection of pesticides (-metabolites) was observed with living in an agricultural area or season of urine sampling, though no consistent patterns were observed. We did observe differences in the probability of detection of a pesticide (metabolite) among children compared to adults, suggesting a different exposure and/or elimination patterns between adults and children. This survey demonstrates the feasibility of conducting a harmonized pan-European sample collection, combined with suspect screening to provide insight in the presence of exposure to pesticide mixtures in the European population, including agricultural areas. Future improvements could come from improved (harmonized) quantification of pesticide levels.

Pesticide Exposure of Residents Living in Wine Regions: Protocol and First Results of the Pestiprev Study

The PESTIPREV study has been designed to investigate residential exposure to pesticides applied to vines and ultimately propose mitigation measures. A feasibility study was carried out to validate a protocol for measuring six pesticides in three houses located near vineyards in July 2020. Samples included indoor and outdoor surfaces sampled with wipes (n = 214), patches on the resident's skin (n = 7), hand or foot washing (n = 5), and pets sampled using wipes (n = 2). Limits of quantification for wipes ranged between 0.02 ng for trifloxystrobin and 1.50 ng for pyraclostrobin. Tebuconazole and trifloxystrobin were quantified in nearly 100% of the surface samples, whereas the other fungicides were less frequently found (from 39.7% for pyraclostrobin to 55.1% for boscalid). The median surface loadings ranged from 3.13 ng/m² for benalaxyl to 82.48 ng/m² for cymoxanil. The pesticides most frequently quantified in hand washing, patch samples, and pet wipes were the same as those quantified on surfaces. Finally, the analyses proved to be successful. The tools developed to collect information on determinants were well completed. The protocol was well received by the participants and appeared to be feasible and relevant to the objective of the PESTIPREV study, although some improvements have been identified. It was applied on a larger scale in 2021 to study the determinants of pesticide exposure.

Racial and social disparities in Ventura County, California related to agricultural pesticide applications and toxicity

Application of agricultural pesticides poses health concerns for farmworkers and for local communities due to pesticide drift from spraying or fumigation, pesticide volatilization into the air, contamination of household dust, as well as direct exposure for people who work in agriculture and their families. In this analysis of pesticide use records for Ventura County, California (USA) from 2016 to 2018, we identified the most prevalent toxicological effects of the pesticides applied. We also developed a cumulative toxicity index that incorporates specific toxicity endpoints for individual pesticides, the severity and strength of association for each endpoint, and the reliability of the data sources. Combining the toxicity index for each pesticide with the pounds applied within each square mile section in Ventura County, we calculated the total toxicity-weighted pesticide use and identified pesticides associated with higher potential risk to health. Analysis of U.S. Census data for Ventura County found a greater percentage of Hispanic/Latino, African American and Asian community members in township sections with a greater volume of pesticides applied and higher toxicity-weighted pesticide use. Similarly, areas with limited economic and social resources had elevated pesticide application overall and elevated toxicity-weighted pesticide use. The combination of toxicological and demographic analyses presented in this study provides information that can support the development of policies to protect public health from excessive exposure to pesticides and better environmental health protection for socially vulnerable populations.

Human Exposure to Pesticides in Dust from Two Agricultural Sites in South Africa

Over the last decades, concern has arisen worldwide about the negative impacts of pesticides on the environment and human health. Exposure via dust ingestion is important for many chemicals but poorly characterized for pesticides, particularly in Africa. We investigated the spatial and temporal variations of 30 pesticides in dust and estimated the human exposure via dust ingestion, which was compared to inhalation and soil ingestion. Indoor dust samples were collected from thirty-eight households and two schools located in two agricultural regions in South Africa and were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. We found 10 pesticides in dust, with chlorpyrifos, terbuthylazine, carbaryl, diazinon, carbendazim, and tebuconazole quantified in >50% of the samples. Over seven days, no significant temporal variations in the dust levels of individual pesticides were found. Significant spatial variations were observed for some pesticides, highlighting the importance of proximity to agricultural fields or of indoor pesticide use. For five out of the nineteen pesticides quantified in dust, air, or soil (i.e., carbendazim, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, diuron and propiconazole), human intake via dust ingestion was important (>10%) compared to inhalation or soil ingestion. Dust ingestion should therefore be considered in future human exposure assessment to pesticides.

A large scale multi-laboratory suspect screening of pesticide metabolites in human biomonitoring: From tentative annotations to verified occurrences

Within the Human Biomonitoring for Europe initiative (HBM4EU), a study to determine new biomarkers of exposure to pesticides and to assess exposure patterns was conducted. Human urine samples (N = 2,088) were collected from five European regions in two different seasons. The objective of the study was to identify pesticides and their metabolites in collected urine samples with a harmonized suspect screening approach based on liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) applied in five laboratories. A combined data processing workflow included comprehensive data reduction, correction of mass error and retention time (RT) drifts, isotopic pattern analysis, adduct and elemental composition annotation, finalized by a mining of the elemental compositions for possible annotations of pesticide metabolites. The obtained tentative annotations (n = 498) were used for acquiring representative data-dependent tandem mass spectra (MS2) and verified by spectral comparison to reference spectra generated from commercially available reference standards or produced through human liver S9 in vitro incubation experiments. 14 parent pesticides and 71 metabolites (including 16 glucuronide and 11 sulfate conjugates) were detected. Collectively these related to 46 unique pesticides. For the remaining tentative annotations either (i) no data-dependent MS2 spectra could be acquired, (ii) the spectral purity was too low for sufficient matching, or (iii) RTs indicated a wrong annotation, leaving potential for more pesticides and/or their metabolites being confirmed in further studies. Thus, the reported results are reflecting only a part of the possible pesticide exposure.

Pesticides in ambient air, influenced by surrounding land use and weather, pose a potential threat to biodiversity and humans

Little is known about (i) how numbers and concentrations of airborne pesticide residues are influenced by land use, interactions with meteorological parameters, or by substance-specific chemo-physical properties, and (ii) what potential toxicological hazards this could pose to non-target organisms including humans. We installed passive air samplers (polyurethane PUF and polyester PEF filter matrices) in 15 regions with different land uses in eastern Austria for up to 8 months. Samples were analyzed for 566 substances by gas-chromatography/mass-spectrometry. We analyzed relationships between frequency and concentrations of pesticides, land use, meteorological parameters, substance properties, and season. We found totally 67 pesticide active ingredients (24 herbicides, 30 fungicides, 13 insecticides) with 10-53 pesticides per site. Herbicides metolachlor, pendimethalin, prosulfocarb, terbuthylazine, and the fungicide HCB were found in all PUF samplers, and glyphosate in all PEF samplers; chlorpyrifos-ethyl was the most abundant insecticide found in 93% of the samplers. Highest concentrations showed the herbicide prosulfocarb (725 ± 1218 ng sample^-1), the fungicide folpet (412 ± 465 ng sample^-1), and the insecticide chlorpyrifos-ethyl (110 ± 98 ng sample^-1). Pesticide numbers and concentrations increased with increasing proportions of arable land in the surroundings. However, pesticides were also found in two National Parks (10 and 33 pesticides) or a city center (17 pesticides). Pesticide numbers and concentrations changed between seasons and correlated with land use, temperature, radiation, and wind, but were unaffected by substance volatility. Potential ecotoxicological exposure of mammals, birds, earthworms, fish, and honeybees increased with increasing pesticide numbers and concentrations. Human toxicity potential of detected pesticides was high, with averaged 54% being acutely toxic, 39% reproduction toxic, 24% cancerogenic, and 10% endocrine disrupting. This widespread pesticide air pollution indicates that current environmental risk assessments, field application techniques, protective measures, and regulations are inadequate to protect the environment and humans from potentially harmful exposure.

Pyrimethanil and chlorpyrifos air concentrations and pregnant women's urinary metabolites in the Infants' Environmental Health Study (ISA), Costa Rica

BACKGROUND

Only few studies have compared environmental pesticide air concentrations with specific urinary metabolites to evaluate pathways of exposure. Therefore, we compared pyrimethanil and chlorpyrifos concentrations in air with urinary 4-hydroxypyrimethanil (OHP, metabolite of pyrimethanil) and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy, metabolite of chlorpyrifos) among pregnant women from the Infant's Environmental Health Study (ISA) in Matina County, Costa Rica.

METHODS

During pregnancy, we obtained repeat urinary samples from 448 women enrolled in the ISA study. We extrapolated pyrimethanil and chlorpyrifos concentrations measured with passive air samplers (PAS) (n = 48, from 12 schools), across space and time using a Bayesian spatiotemporal model. We subsequently compared these concentrationswith urinary OHP and TCPy in 915 samples from 448 women, usingseparatemixed models andconsidering several covariables.

RESULTS

A 10% increase in air pyrimethanil (ng/m3) was associated with a 5.7% (95% confidence interval (CI 4.6, 6.8) increase in OHP (μg/L). Women living further from banana plantations had lower OHP: -0.7% (95% CI -1.2, -0.3) for each 10% increase in distance (meters) as well as women who ate rice and beans ≥15 times a week -23% (95% CI -38, -4). In addition, each 1 ng/m3 increase in chlorpyrifos in air was associated with a 1.5% (95% CI 0.2, 2.8) increase in TCPy (μg/L), and women working in agriculture tended to have increased TCPy (21%, 95% CI -2, 49).

CONCLUSION

The Bayesian spatiotemporal models were useful to estimate pyrimethanil and chlorpyrifos air concentrations across space and time. Our results suggest inhalation of pyrimethanil and chlorpyrifos is a pathway of environmental exposure. PAS seems a useful technique to monitor environmental current-use pesticide exposures. For future studies, we recommend increasing the number of locations of environmental air measurements, obtaining all air and urine measurements during the same month, and, ideally, including dermal exposure estimates as well.

Drinking water sources and water quality in a prospective agricultural cohort

We describe drinking water sources and water quality for a large agricultural cohort. We used questionnaire data from the Agricultural Health Study (N = 89,655), a cohort of licensed pesticide applicators and their spouses in Iowa (IA) and North Carolina (NC), to ascertain drinking water source at enrollment (1993-1997). For users of public water supplies (PWS), we linked participants' geocoded addresses to contaminant monitoring data [five haloacetic acids (HAA5), total trihalomethanes (TTHM), and nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N)]. We estimated private well nitrate levels using random forest models accounting for well depth, soil characteristics, nitrogen inputs, and other predictors. We assigned drinking water source for 84% (N = 74,919) of participants. Among these, 69% of IA and 75% of NC participants used private wells; 27% in IA and 21% in NC used PWS. Median PWS nitrate concentrations (NO3-N) were higher in IA [0.9 mg/L, interquartile range (IQR): 0.4-3.1 mg/L] than NC (0.1 mg/L, IQR: 0.1-0.2 mg/L), while median HAA5 and TTHM concentrations were higher in NC (HAA5: 11.9 µg/L, IQR: 5.5-33.4 µg/L; TTHM: 37.7 µg/L, IQR: 10.7-54.7 µg/L) than IA (HAA5: 5.0 µg/L, IQR: 3.7-10.7 µg/L; TTHM: 13.0 µg/L, IQR: 4.2-32.4 µg/L). Private well nitrate concentrations in IA (1.5 mg/L, IQR: 0.8-4.9 mg/L) and NC (1.9 mg/L, IQR: 1.4-2.5 mg/L) were higher than PWS. More private wells in IA (12%) exceeded 10 mg/L NO3-N (regulatory limit for PWS) than NC (<1%). Due to the proximity of their drinking water sources to farms, agricultural communities may be exposed to elevated nitrate levels.

Mapping agricultural use of pesticides to enable research and environmental health actions in Belgium

Given the many public health and environmental impacts associated with the use of pesticides, comprehensive pesticide application data are a high priority for environmental and health professionals, government agencies, and community groups in Wallonia (Belgium). In that context, geographic information system (GIS) approaches for mapping estimates of agricultural pesticide use were developed in the present study. Data on pesticide application rates and high-resolution annual datasets of the geographic distribution of crops were used to complete this analysis in Wallonia over the period 2015-2017. The method was implemented in Python in order to allow easy update and improvements of maps, or to segment maps by individual pesticides, chemical groups of pesticides (e.g. insecticides, herbicides), etc. Linked databases were created to classify, select, and possibly weight AIs according to specific requests and criteria. The results provide a first map of agricultural pesticide use in Wallonia, which depicts the best picture up to now of their geographic distribution. Maps of fungicides, herbicides, and plant growth regulators showed quite similar spatial patterns as the map of the combination of all pesticides. In contrast, the insecticide map showed a specific pattern related almost exclusively to dwarf-tree orchards in some municipalities in northern Wallonia. This research work is a preliminary result on the spatial characterization of agricultural pesticide use in Wallonia and give a valuable basis for research and environmental health actions in Belgium. Forthcoming developments will focus on exposure characterization to agricultural pesticides using GIS models. Using this information, policymakers will able to detect potential priority zones and take action to check and reduce agricultural pesticide loads in the environment.

Modeling Clothing as a Vector for Transporting Airborne Particles and Pathogens across Indoor Microenvironments

Evidence suggests that human exposure to airborne particles and associated contaminants, including respiratory pathogens, can persist beyond a single microenvironment. By accumulating such contaminants from air, clothing may function as a transport vector and source of "secondary exposure". To investigate this function, a novel microenvironmental exposure modeling framework (ABICAM) was developed. This framework was applied to a para-occupational exposure scenario involving the deposition of viable SARS-CoV-2 in respiratory particles (0.5-20 μm) from a primary source onto clothing in a nonhealthcare setting and subsequent resuspension and secondary exposure in a car and home. Variability was assessed through Monte Carlo simulations. The total volume of infectious particles on the occupant's clothing immediately after work was 4800 μm3 (5th-95th percentiles: 870-32 000 μm3). This value was 61% (5-95%: 17-300%) of the occupant's primary inhalation exposure in the workplace while unmasked. By arrival at the occupant's home after a car commute, relatively rapid viral inactivation on cotton clothing had reduced the infectious volume on clothing by 80% (5-95%: 26-99%). Secondary inhalation exposure (after work) was low in the absence of close proximity and physical contact with contaminated clothing. In comparison, the average primary inhalation exposure in the workplace was higher by about 2-3 orders of magnitude. It remains theoretically possible that resuspension and physical contact with contaminated clothing can occasionally transmit SARS-CoV-2 between humans.

Impacts of dietary exposure to pesticides on faecal microbiome metabolism in adult twins

BACKGROUND

Dietary habits have a profound influence on the metabolic activity of gut microorganisms and their influence on health. Concerns have been raised as to whether the consumption of foodstuffs contaminated with pesticides can contribute to the development of chronic disease by affecting the gut microbiome. We performed the first pesticide biomonitoring survey of the British population, and subsequently used the results to perform the first pesticide association study on gut microbiome composition and function from the TwinsUK registry.

METHODS

Dietary exposure of 186 common insecticide, herbicide, or fungicide residues and the faecal microbiome in 65 twin pairs in the UK was investigated. We evaluated if dietary habits, geographic location, or the rural/urban environment, are associated with the excretion of pesticide residues. The composition and metabolic activity of faecal microbiota was evaluated using shotgun metagenomics and metabolomics respectively. We performed a targeted urine metabolomics analysis in order to evaluate whether pesticide urinary excretion was also associated with physiological changes.

RESULTS

Pyrethroid and/or organophosphorus insecticide residues were found in all urine samples, while the herbicide glyphosate was found in 53% of individuals. Food frequency questionnaires showed that residues from organophosphates were higher with increased consumption of fruit and vegetables. A total of 34 associations between pesticide residue concentrations and faecal metabolite concentrations were detected. Glyphosate excretion was positively associated with an overall increased bacterial species richness, as well as to fatty acid metabolites and phosphate levels. The insecticide metabolite Br2CA, reflecting deltamethrin exposure, was positively associated with the phytoestrogens enterodiol and enterolactone, and negatively associated with some N-methyl amino acids. Urine metabolomics performed on a subset of samples did not reveal associations with the excretion of pesticide residues.

CONCLUSIONS

The consumption of conventionally grown fruit and vegetables leads to higher ingestion of pesticides with unknown long-term health consequences. Our results highlight the need for future dietary intervention studies to understand effects of pesticide exposure on the gut microbiome and possible health consequences.

Investigation of Relationships Between the Geospatial Distribution of Cancer Incidence and Estimated Pesticide Use in the U.S. West

The objective of the study was to evaluate the potential geospatial relationship between agricultural pesticide use and two cancer metrics (pediatric cancer incidence and total cancer incidence) across each of the 11 contiguous states in the Western United States at state and county resolution. The pesticide usage data were collected from the U.S. Geological Survey Pesticide National Synthesis Project database, while cancer data for each state were compiled from the National Cancer Institute State Cancer Profiles. At the state spatial scale, this study identified a significant positive association between the total mass of fumigants and pediatric cancer incidence, and also between the mass of one fumigant in particular, metam, and total cancer incidence (P-value < 0.05). At the county scale, the relationship of all cancer incidence to pesticide usage was evaluated using a multilevel model including pesticide mass and pesticide mass tertiles. Low pediatric cancer rates in many counties precluded this type of evaluation in association with pesticide usage. At the county scale, the multilevel model using fumigant mass, fumigant mass tertiles, county, and state predicted the total cancer incidence (R-squared = 0.95, NSE = 0.91, and Sum of square of residuals [SSR] = 8.22). Moreover, this study identified significant associations between total fumigant mass, high and medium tertiles of fumigant mass, total pesticide mass, and high tertiles of pesticide mass relative to total cancer incidence across counties. Fumigant application rate was shown to be important relative to the incidence of total cancer and pediatric cancer, at both state and county scales.

Elements to increase translation in pyrethroid epidemiology research: A review

Pyrethroid insecticides have been the subject of numerous epidemiology studies in the past two decades. We examined the pyrethroids epidemiology literature published between 2016 and 2021. Our objective with this exercise was to inform interested readers regarding information on methodological elements that strengthen a study's use for translation (i.e., use in risk assessment) and to describe aspects of future research methods that could improve utility for decision-making. We focused on the following elements: (i) study design that provided evidence that pyrethroid exposure preceded the outcome, (ii) evidence that the method used for exposure characterization was reliable and sufficiently accurate for the intended purpose, and (iii) use of a robust approach for outcome ascertainment. For each of the 74 studies identified via the literature search, we categorized the methodological elements as Acceptable or Supplemental. A study with three Acceptable elements was considered Relevant for risk assessment purposes. Based on our evaluative approach, 18 (24%) of the 74 publications were considered to be Relevant. These publications were categorized as Acceptable for all three elements assessed: confirmed exposure (N = 24), confirmed outcome (N = 64), exposure preceded the outcome (N = 44). Three of these studies were birth cohorts. There were 15 Relevant publications of adults which included 10 Agricultural Health Study cohort publications of self-reported permethrin. Overall, the majority of the reviewed studies used methods that did not permit a determination that pyrethroid exposure preceded the outcome, and/or did not utilize robust methods for exposure assessment and outcome ascertainment. There is an opportunity for investigators and research sponsors to build on the studies reviewed here and to incorporate more translational approaches to studying exposure/outcome associations related to pesticides and other chemicals.

A New Approach to Characterizing the Partitioning of Volatile Organic Compounds to Cotton Fabric

Chemical partitioning to surfaces can influence human exposure by various pathways, resulting in adverse health consequences. Clothing can act as a source, a barrier, or a transient reservoir for chemicals that can affect dermal and inhalation exposure rates. A few clothing-mediated exposure studies have characterized the accumulation of a select number of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), but systematic studies on the partitioning behavior for classes of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and SVOCs are lacking. Here, the cloth-air equilibrium partition ratios (K_CA) for carbonyl, carboxylic acid, and aromatic VOC homologous series were characterized for cellulose-based cotton fabric, using timed exposures in a real indoor setting followed by online thermal desorption and nontargeted mass spectrometric analysis. The analyzed VOCs exhibit rapid equilibration within a day. Homologous series generally show linear correlations of the logarithm of K_CA with carbon number and the logarithms of the VOC vapor pressure and octanol-air equilibrium partition ratio (K_OA). When expressed as a volume-normalized partition ratio, log K_{CA_V} values are in a range of 5-8, similar to the values for previously measured SVOCs which have lower volatility. When expressed as surface area-normalized adsorption constants, K_{CA_S} values suggest that equilibration corresponds to a saturated surface coverage of adsorbed species. Aqueous solvation may occur for the most water-soluble species such as formic and acetic acids. Overall, this new experimental approach facilitates VOC partitioning studies relevant to environmental exposure.

Geospatial Assessment of Pesticide Concentration in Ambient Air and Colorectal Cancer Incidence in Arkansas, 2013-2017

Exposure to various agricultural pesticides has been linked to colorectal cancer (CRC), mostly among farmworkers and applicators. Given the potential pesticide drift in ambient air, residents near farmland may be exposed to carcinogenic pesticides even if they are not actively engaged in pesticide application. Pesticide air pollution at the county level was estimated using the 2014 National Air Toxics Assessment. CRC incidence data were acquired from the Arkansas Central Cancer Registry for 2013-2017. We ran ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models, finding significant spatial autocorrelation of residuals for most models. Using geographically weighted regression (GWR) we found age-adjusted CRC incidence rates vary in an increasing west-to-east gradient, with the highest rates in the Arkansas Delta region. A similar gradient was observed in the distribution of the population living below the poverty line and the population percentage of Black people. Significant associations between Trifluralin (crude model only), Carbon Tetrachloride, and Ethylene Dibromide with CRC incidence rates in OLS models only explained 5-7% of the variation and exhibited spatial autocorrelation of residuals. GWR models explained 24-32% (adjusted r² 9-16%) of CRC incidence rate variation, suggesting additional factors may contribute to the association between pesticides and CRC.

Work clothes as a vector for microorganisms: Accumulation, transport, and resuspension of microorganisms as demonstrated for waste collection workers

Work clothes may act as a vector for the transport of microorganisms leading to second-hand exposure; however, this has not been studied in work environments. We investigated whether microorganisms accumulate on workers' clothes in environments with elevated microbial exposures, and whether they are transported with the clothes and subsequently resuspended to the air. To study this, we selected waste collection workers and potential transport of bacteria and fungi to waste truck cabs via clothes, and compared the microbial communities within truck cabs, in waste collection workers' personal exposure, and on clean T-shirts worn by the workers. Microbial communities were also investigated for the presence of potentially harmful microorganisms. Results showed that microorganisms accumulated in large quantities (GM = 3.69 × 10⁵ CFU/m²/h for bacteria, GM = 8.29 × 10⁴ CFU/m²/h for fungi) on workers' clothes. The concentrations and species composition of airborne fungi in the truck cabs correlated significantly with the accumulation and composition of fungi on clothes and correlated to concentrations (a trend) and species composition of their personal exposures. The same patterns were not found for bacteria, indicating that work clothes to a lesser degree act as a vector for bacteria under waste collection workers' working conditions compared to fungi. Several pathogenic or allergenic microorganisms were present, e.g.: Klebsiella oxytoca, K. pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Providencia rettgeri, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Aspergillus fumigatus, A. glaucus, A. nidulans, A. niger, and various Penicillium species. The potential 'take-home' exposure to these microorganisms are of most concern for immunocompromised or atopic individuals or people with open wounds or cuts. In conclusion, the large accumulation of microorganisms on workers' clothes combined with the overlap between fungal species for the different sample types, and the presence of pathogenic and allergenic microorganisms forms the basis for encouragement of good clothing hygiene during and post working hours.

Spatio-temporal assessment of pregnant women exposure to chlorpyrifos at a regional scale

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to use an integrated exposure assessment approach, combining spatiotemporal modeling of environmental exposure and fate of the chemical to assess the exposure of vulnerable populations. In this study, chlorpyrifos exposure of pregnant women in Picardy was evaluated at a regional scale during 1 year. This approach provided a mapping of exposure indicators of pregnant women to chlorpyrifos over fine spatial and temporal resolutions using a GIS environment.

METHODS

Fate and transport models (emission, atmospheric dispersion, multimedia exposure, PBPK) were combined with environmental databases in a GIS environment. Quantities spread over agricultural fields were simulated and integrated into a modeling chain coupling models. The fate and transport of chlorpyrifos was characterized by an atmospheric dispersion statistical metamodel and the dynamiCROP model. Then, the multimedia model Modul'ERS was used to predict chlorpyrifos daily exposure doses which were integrated in a PBPK model to compute biomarker of exposure (TCPy urinary concentrations). For the concentration predictions, two scenarios (lower bound and upper bound) were built.

RESULTS

At fine spatio-temporal resolutions, the cartography of biomarkers in the lower bound scenario clearly highlights agricultural areas. In these maps, some specific areas and hotspots appear as potentially more exposed specifically during application period. Overall, predictions were close to biomonitoring data and ingestion route was the main contributor to chlorpyrifos exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the feasibility of an integrated approach for the evaluation of chlorpyrifos exposure which allows the comparison between modeled predictions and biomonitoring data.

The Parental Pesticide and Offspring's Epigenome Study: Towards an Integrated Use of Human Biomonitoring of Exposure and Effect Biomarkers

In Morocco, due to the lack of education and the presence of a counterfeit market, pesticides constitute a major problem to be addressed by occupational and environmental health agencies. This paper aims to introduce the PaPOE (Parental Pesticides and Offspring Epigenome) prospective study and its goals, to motivate the study rationale and design, and to examine comprehensively whether multi-residue exposure to commonly used pesticides could induce epigenetic alterations through the oxidative stress pathway. The PaPOE project includes a cross-sectional study assessing the occupational exposure among 300 farmworkers in Meknes, and initiates a birth cohort of 1000 pregnant women. Data and biological samples are collected among farmworkers, and throughout pregnancy, and at birth. Oxidative stress biomarkers include Glutathione, Malondialdehyde, and 8-OHdG. Global and gene-specific DNA methylation is assessed. The study began enrollment in 2019 and is ongoing. As of 30 June 2021, 300 farmworkers and 125 pregnant women have enrolled. The results are expected to showcase the importance of biomonitoring for understanding individual risks, and to identify a number of regions where DNA methylation status is altered in the pesticides-exposed population, paving the way for an integrated biomonitoring system in Morocco and Africa to assess environmental exposures and their long-term health consequences.

Area-Based Geocoding: An Approach to Exposure Assessment Incorporating Positional Uncertainty

While the spatial resolution of exposure surfaces has greatly improved, our ability to locate people in space remains a limiting factor in accurate exposure assessment. In this case-control study, two approaches to geocoding participant locations were used to study the impact of geocoding uncertainty on the estimation of ambient pesticide exposure and breast cancer risk among women living in California's Central Valley. Residential and occupational histories were collected and geocoded using a traditional point-based method along with a novel area-based method. The standard approach to geocoding uses centroid points to represent all geocoded locations, and is unable to adapt exposure areas based on geocode quality, except through the exclusion of low-certainty locations. In contrast, area-based geocoding retains the complete area to which an address matched (the same area from which the centroid is returned), and therefore maintains the appropriate level of precision when it comes to assessing exposure by geography. Incorporating the total potential exposure area for each geocoded location resulted in different exposure classifications and resulting odds ratio estimates than estimates derived from the centroids of those same areas (using a traditional point-based geocoder). The direction and magnitude of these differences varied by pesticide, but in all cases odds ratios differed by at least 6% and up to 35%. These findings demonstrate the importance of geocoding in exposure estimation and suggest it is important to consider geocode certainty and quality throughout exposure assessment, rather than simply using the best available point geocodes.

Personal exposure assessment of pesticides in residents: The association between hand wipes and urinary biomarkers

BACKGROUND

Residential exposure to pesticides may occur via inhalation of airborne pesticides, direct skin contacts with pesticide-contaminated surfaces, and consumption of food containing pesticide residues. The aim was to study the association of dermal exposure to pesticides between the use and non-use periods, between farmer and non-farmer families and between dermal exposure and the excretion of metabolites from urine in residents living close to treated agricultural fields.

METHODS

In total, 112 hand wipes and 206 spot urine samples were collected from 16 farmer and 38 non-farmer participants living within 50 m from an agricultural field in the Netherlands. The study took place from May 2016 to December 2017 during the use as well as the non-use periods of pesticides. Hand wipes were analysed for the parent compound and urines samples for the corresponding urinary metabolite of five applied pesticides: asulam, carbendazim (applied as thiophanate-methyl), chlorpropham, prochloraz and tebuconazole. Questionnaire data was used to study potential determinants of occurrence and levels of pesticides in hand wipes according to univariate and multivariate analysis.

RESULTS

Carbendazim and tebuconazole concentrations in hand wipes were statistically significantly higher in the pesticide-use period compared to the non-use period. In addition, especially during the use periods, concentrations were statistically significantly higher in farmer families compared to non-farmer families. For asulam, chlorpropham and prochloraz, the frequency of non-detects was too high (57-85%) to be included in this analysis. The carbendazim contents in urine samples and hand wipes were correlated on the first and second day after taking the hand wipe, whereas chlorpropham was only observed to be related on the second day following the spray event.

CONCLUSIONS

Concentrations in hand wipes were overall higher in pesticide use periods compared to non-use periods and higher in farmer families compared to non-farmer families. Only for carbendazim a strong correlation between concentrations in hand wipes and its main metabolite in urine was observed, indicating dermal exposure via contaminated indoor surfaces. We expect this to be related to the lower vapour pressure and longer environmental lifetime of carbendazim compared to the other pesticides studies.

[Uncontrolled asthma in children and adolescents exposed to pesticides in an area of intense agribusiness activity]

The study aimed to analyze factors associated with uncontrolled asthma in schoolchildren exposed to pesticides in a medium-sized municipality in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. This was a case-control study of children 6 to 7 and 13 to 14 years old in Primavera do Leste, in 2016. Cases were defined as schoolchildren that met the criteria for uncontrolled asthma based on International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) questions, and controls were selected from the same schools as the cases, after randomization, at a 1:1 ratio. Data collection used the questionnaires from Phases I and II of ISAAC and an additional questionnaire on pesticide exposure. Descriptive, bivariate, and logistic da e regression analyses were performed with the individual and environmental sociodemographic, and economic variables. 319 cases and 319 controls were selected, totaling 638 participants in the study. In the final da logistic model, the variables family income greater than 4 minimum wages (OR = 14.36; 95%CI: 8.89-23.20), maternal schooling up to incomplete secondary (OR = 16.32; 95%CI: 8.96-29.75), prematurity (OR = 13.25; 95%CI: 4.83-36.41), and low birthweight (OR = 17.08; 95%CI: 5.52-52.90) remained associated with uncontrolled asthma. Of the pesticide exposure variables, presence of household member working in agriculture (OR = 5.91; 95%CI: 2.11-16.53), living near farming activities (OR = 3.98; 95%CI: 1.47-11.76), and spraying areas near the household (OR = 4.20; 95%CI: 1.49-11.87) were related to the outcome. In this study, pesticides and sociodemographic, neonatal, and childhood conditions proved related to uncontrolled asthma in schoolchildren.

Prenatal exposure to pesticides and risk of preeclampsia among pregnant women: Results from the ELFE cohort

BACKGROUND

Preeclampsia is a pregnancy-specific syndrome caused by abnormal placentation. Although environmental chemicals, including some pesticides, are suspected of impairing placentation and promoting preeclampsia, its relationship with preeclampsia has been insufficiently explored.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to investigate the relation between non-occupational exposure to pesticides during pregnancy and the risk of preeclampsia.

METHODS

The study cohort comprised 195 women with and 17,181 without preeclampsia from the ELFE birth cohort. We used toxicogenomic approaches to select 41 pesticides of interest for their possible influence on preeclampsia. We assessed household pesticide use (self-reported data), environmental exposure to agricultural pesticides (geographic information systems), and dietary exposure (food-frequency questionnaire with data from monitoring pesticide residues in food and water). Dietary exposures to pesticides were grouped into clusters of similar exposures to resolve collinearity issues. For each exposure source, pesticides were mutually adjusted, and odds ratios estimated with logistic regression models.

RESULTS

The quantity of prochloraz applied within a kilometer of the women's homes was higher in women with than without preeclampsia (fourth quartile vs. others; adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.54; 95%CI: 1.02, 2.35), especially when preeclampsia was diagnosed before 34 weeks of gestation (aOR = 2.25; 95%CI: 1.01, 5.06). The reverse was observed with nearby cypermethrin application (aOR = 0.59, 95%CI: 0.36, 0.96). In sensitivity analyses, women with preeclampsia receiving antihypertensive treatment had a significantly higher probability of using herbicides at home during pregnancy than women without preeclampsia (aOR = 2.20; 95%CI: 1.23, 3.93). No statistically significant association was found between dietary exposure to pesticide residues and preeclampsia.

DISCUSSION

While the most of the associations examined remained statistically non-significant, our results suggest the possible influence on preeclampsia of residential exposures to prochloraz and some herbicides. These estimations are supported by toxicological and mechanistic data.

Environmental Health Threats to Latino Migrant Farmworkers

Approximately 75% of farmworkers in the United States are Latino migrants, and about 50% of hired farmworkers do not have authorization to work in the United States. Farmworkers face numerous chemical, physical, and biological threats to their health. The adverse effects of these hazards may be amplified among Latino migrant farmworkers, who are concurrently exposed to various psychosocial stressors. Factors such as documentation status, potential lack of authorization to work in the United States, and language and cultural barriers may also prevent Latino migrants from accessing federal aid, legal assistance, and health programs. These environmental, occupational, and social hazards may further exacerbate existing health disparities among US Latinos. This population is also likely to be disproportionately impacted by emerging threats, including climate change and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Latino migrant farmworkers are essential to agriculture in the United States, and actions are needed to protect this vulnerable population.

Determinants of non-dietary exposure to agricultural pesticides in populations living close to fields: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

There is growing evidence in the scientific literature that individuals living near fields are more exposed to agricultural pesticides than people living further away.

OBJECTIVE

The main objective of this systematic review was to identify the non-dietary determinants of pesticide exposure related to the drift pathway in residents living in agricultural areas, including spatial indictors related to agricultural activities, hygiene practices, behaviors and sociodemographic parameters.

METHODS

Three databases were consulted (PubMed, Web of sciences, Scopus). At least two experts selected the eligible studies.

RESULTS

A total of 27 original studies (2002-2020) fulfilled the eligibility criteria of this review. These publications explored pesticide exposure of individuals through measurements in biological samples (n = 13), environmental samples (n = 11) or both (n = 3). Spatial indicators, including residential proximity to fields, crop acreage around the residence and amounts of pesticides applied in the vicinity were identified as determinants of pesticide exposure in many studies (n = 17), including publications considered to be of very good or good quality (n = 12). Season of spraying tended to increase the levels of pesticides measured in five publications out of seven. Meteorological parameters and physical barriers showed an inconsistent and complex influence on the presence and levels of pesticides in urine samples and house dust. Frequent housekeeping reduced the presence of pesticides at home and consequently in biological matrices in three studies out of six. Finally, the effect of the occupants' sociodemographic characteristics, behaviors, and hygiene practices on the exposure measurement was less well documented and results were fairly inconsistent.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study consolidates our knowledge of the determinants influencing pesticide exposure levels in people living in agricultural areas. Nevertheless, the available scientific data is still too limited to serve as a basis for developing risk management measures. More research is needed to improve knowledge of the determinants of exposure.

Spatial Heterogeneity in Positional Errors: A Comparison of Two Residential Geocoding Efforts in the Agricultural Health Study

Geocoding is a powerful tool for environmental exposure assessments that rely on spatial databases. Geocoding processes, locators, and reference datasets have improved over time; however, improvements have not been well-characterized. Enrollment addresses for the Agricultural Health Study, a cohort of pesticide applicators and their spouses in Iowa (IA) and North Carolina (NC), were geocoded in 2012–2016 and then again in 2019. We calculated distances between geocodes in the two periods. For a subset, we computed positional errors using “gold standard” rooftop coordinates (IA; N = 3566) or Global Positioning Systems (GPS) (IA and NC; N = 1258) and compared errors between periods. We used linear regression to model the change in positional error between time periods (improvement) by rural status and population density, and we used spatial relative risk functions to identify areas with significant improvement. Median improvement between time periods in IA was 41 m (interquartile range, IQR: −2 to 168) and 9 m (IQR: −80 to 133) based on rooftop coordinates and GPS, respectively. Median improvement in NC was 42 m (IQR: −1 to 109 m) based on GPS. Positional error was greater in rural and low-density areas compared to in towns and more densely populated areas. Areas of significant improvement in accuracy were identified and mapped across both states. Our findings underscore the importance of evaluating determinants and spatial distributions of errors in geocodes used in environmental epidemiology studies.

Residential proximity to agriculture and risk of childhood leukemia and central nervous system tumors in the Danish national birth cohort

BACKGROUND

Living in an agricultural area or on farms has been associated with increased risk of childhood cancer but few studies have evaluated specific agricultural exposures. We prospectively examined residential proximity to crops and animals during pregnancy and risk of childhood leukemia and central nervous system (CNS) tumors in Denmark.

METHODS

The Danish National Birth Cohort (DNBC) consists of 91,769 pregnant women (96,841 live-born children) enrolled in 1996-2003. For 61 childhood leukemias and 59 CNS tumors <15 years of age that were diagnosed through 2014 and a ~10% random sample of the live births (N = 9394) with geocoded addresses, we linked pregnancy addresses to crop fields and animal farm locations and estimated the crop area (hectares [ha]) and number of animals (standardized by their nitrogen emissions) by type within 250 meters (m), 500 m, 1000 m, and 2000 m of the home. We also estimated pesticide applications (grams, active ingredient) based on annual sales data for nine herbicides and one fungicide that were estimated to have been applied to >30% of the area of one or more crop. We used Cox proportional hazard models (weighted to the full cohort) to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the association of childhood leukemia and CNS tumors with crop area, animals, and pesticide applications adjusted for gender and maternal age.

RESULTS

Sixty-three percent of mothers had crops within 500 m of their homes during pregnancy; winter and spring cereals were the major crop types. Compared to mothers with no crops <500 m, we found increasing risk of childhood leukemia among offspring of mothers with increasing crop area near their home (highest tertile >24 ha HR: 2.0, CI:1.02-3.8), which was stronger after adjustment for animals (within 1000 m) (HR: 2.6, CI:1.02-6.8). We also observed increased risk for grass/clover (highest tertile >1.1 ha HR: 3.1, CI:1.2-7.7), peas (>0 HR: 2.4, CI: 1.02-5.4), and maize (>0 HR: 2.8, CI: 1.1-6.9) in animal-adjusted models. We found no association between number of animals near homes and leukemia risk. Crops, total number of animals, and hogs within 500 m of the home were not associated with CNS tumors but we observed an increased risk with >median cattle compared with no animals in crop-adjusted models (HR = 2.2, CI: 1.02-4.9). In models adjusted for total animals, the highest tertiles of use of three herbicides and one fungicide were associated with elevated risk of leukemia but no associations were statistically significant; there were no associations with CNS tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

Risk of childhood leukemia was associated with higher crop area near mothers' homes during pregnancy; CNS tumors were associated with higher cattle density. Quantitative estimates of crop pesticides and other agricultural exposures are needed to clarify possible reasons for these increased risks.

Crop proximity index for monitoring of peri-urban land use in agro-industrial crop regions

The agro-industrial production of genetically modified organisms uses great amounts of pesticides, close to cities, which generates growing concern due to the numerous evidence of their negative effects on health and the environment. In a context of the lack, or inaccessibility, of official data on crop dynamics and pesticide use, environmental indicators using satellite data are needed for the proper monitoring of peri-urban areas. The objective of this research is to make a crop proximity index using satellite information to assess and monitor peri-urban agro-industrial activity. Twenty cities in Argentina and ten in the United States were selected. The CPI index is designed to evaluate a city and its peri-urban areas as a whole by taking account of the land uses and factors that can potentially influence the proximity to agro-industrial activity to the population living in those cities. Agriculture factor was weighted by proximity or remoteness using perimeter rings from the urban edge. All the necessary data for the calculation of the CPI index were obtained through the classification and processing of Sentinel 2 satellite images with software and the Google Earth Engine platform. The results show a worrying situation, 90% of cities in Argentina and 80% in the United States have a negative CPI. Most of the cities examined are extremely close to extensive areas of crops, that use a high amount of pesticides and which do not have the protection of trees or buffer zones.

Herbicide, fumigant, and fungicide use and breast cancer risk among farmers' wives

Evidence from epidemiologic and laboratory studies relating pesticides to breast cancer risk is inconsistent. Women engaging in agricultural work or living in agricultural areas may experience appreciable exposures to a wide range of pesticides, including herbicides, fumigants, and fungicides.

METHODS

We examined exposure to herbicides, fumigants, and fungicides in relation to breast cancer risk among farmers' wives with no prior history of breast cancer in the Agricultural Health Study. Women provided information on pesticide use, demographics, and reproductive history at enrollment (1993-1997) and at a 5-year follow-up interview. We used Cox proportional hazards regression to estimate associations (hazard ratios [HRs] and 95% confidence intervals [CIs]) between the women's and their husbands' self-reported use of individual pesticides and incident breast cancer risk.

RESULTS

Out of 30,594 women, 38% reported using herbicides, fumigants, or fungicides and 1,081 were diagnosed with breast cancer during a median 15.3 years of follow-up. We found elevated risk in relation to women's ever use of the fungicide benomyl (HR = 1.6; 95% CI = 0.9, 2.7) and the herbicide 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) (HR = 1.6; 95% CI = 0.8, 3.1) and to their husbands' use of the herbicide 2-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy) propionic acid (2,4,5-TP) (HR = 1.5; 95% CI = 0.9, 2.7). We observed few other chemical associations and little evidence of differential risk by tumor estrogen receptor status or linear exposure-response relationships.

CONCLUSION

We did not observe clear excesses between use of specific pesticides and breast cancer risk across exposure metrics, although we did observe elevated risk associated with women's use of benomyl and 2,4,5-T and husbands' use of 2,4,5-TP.