Spatio-temporal distribution of Spiroplasma infections in the tsetse fly (Glossina fuscipes fuscipes) in northern Uganda

Effect of Spiroplasma infection on the mating behavior of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes

Tsetse flies are insects of significant public health and zoonotic importance as they are the main vectors of African trypanosomes. To date, an effective vaccine is unavailable and efforts to limit the spread of the disease primarily rely on controlling the tsetse populations. The discovery of Spiroplasma (class Mollicutes) in Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (Gff) (palpalis subgroup), offers promising insights into its potential use as a biological control agent to hinder trypanosomes infection in tsetse flies. Indeed, a negative correlation between Spiroplasma and trypanosome co-infection has been observed. Using a laboratory strain of Gff, we provide fundamental biological insights into the effects of Spiroplasma infection on the mating behavior of the fly. We found a sex-biased Spiroplasma infection, with males exhibiting a higher infection rate. Mass mating experiments revealed a higher mating propensity in Spiroplasma-infected flies. Additionally, the presence of Spiroplasma influenced premating isolation, leading to nonrandom mating patterns that favored the pairing of individuals with matching infection statuses. Moreover, we present evidence of Spiroplasma vertical paternal transmission. By analyzing female reproductive tissues at 2 and 24 h postmating, we confirmed that an infected male can transfer Spiroplasma to the female via the spermatophore, which can subsequently migrate to the spermathecae. This study provides foundational insights into the role of Spiroplasma in tsetse fly mating behavior and provides supporting evidence for vertical transmission from infected males.

Spiroplasma endosymbiont reduction of host lipid synthesis and Stomoxyn-like peptide contribute to trypanosome resistance in the tsetse fly Glossina fuscipes

Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) vector African trypanosomes that cause devastating diseases in humans and domestic animals. Within the Glossina genus, species in the Palpalis subgroup exhibit greater resistance to trypanosome infections compared to those in the Morsitans subgroup. Varying microbiota composition and species-specific genetic traits can significantly influence the efficiency of parasite transmission. Notably, infections with the endosymbiotic bacterium Spiroplasma have been documented in several Palpalis subgroup species, including Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (Gff). While Spiroplasma infections in Gff are known to hinder trypanosome transmission, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. To investigate Spiroplasma-mediated factors affecting Gff vector competence, we conducted high-throughput RNA sequencing of the gut tissue along with functional assays. Our findings reveal elevated oxidative stress in the gut environment in the presence of Spiroplasma, evidenced by increased expression of nitric oxide synthase, which catalyzes the production of trypanocidal nitric oxide. Additionally, we observed impaired lipid biosynthesis leading to a reduction of this important class of nutrients essential for parasite and host physiologies. In contrast, trypanosome infections in Gff's midgut significantly upregulated various immunity-related genes, including a small peptide, Stomoxyn-like, homologous to Stomoxyn first discovered in the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans. We observed that the Stomoxyn-like locus is exclusive to the genomes of Palpalis subgroup tsetse species. GffStomoxyn is constitutively expressed in the cardia (proventriculus) and synthetic GffStomoxyn exhibits potent activity against Escherichia coli and bloodstream form of Trypanosoma brucei parasites, while showing no effect against insect stage procyclic forms or tsetse's commensal endosymbiont Sodalis in vitro. Reducing GffStomoxyn levels significantly increased trypanosome infection prevalence, indicating its potential trypanocidal role in vivo. Collectively, our results suggest that the enhanced resistance to trypanosomes observed in Spiroplasma-infected Gff may be due to the reduced lipid availability necessary for parasite metabolic maintenance. Furthermore, GffStomoxyn could play a crucial role in the initial immune response(s) against mammalian parasites early in the infection process in the gut and prevent gut colonization. We discuss the molecular characteristics of GffStomoxyn, its spatial and temporal expression regulation and its microbicidal activity against Trypanosome parasites. Our findings reinforce the nutritional influences of microbiota on host physiology and host-pathogen dynamics.

Spiroplasma endosymbiont reduction of host lipid synthesis and Stomoxyn-like peptide contribute to trypanosome resistance in the tsetse fly Glossina fuscipes

Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) vector African trypanosomes that cause devastating diseases in humans and domestic animals. Within the Glossina genus, species in the Palpalis subgroup exhibit greater resistance to trypanosome infections compared to those in the Morsitans subgroup. Varying microbiota composition and species-specific genetic traits can significantly influence the efficiency of parasite transmission. Notably, infections with the endosymbiotic bacterium Spiroplasma have been documented in several Palpalis subgroup species, including Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (Gff). While Spiroplasma infections in Gff are known to hinder trypanosome transmission, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. To investigate Spiroplasma-mediated factors affecting Gff vector competence, we conducted high-throughput RNA sequencing of the midgut tissue along with functional assays. Our findings reveal elevated oxidative stress in the midgut environment in the presence of Spiroplasma, evidenced by increased expression of nitric oxide synthase, which catalyzes the production of trypanocidal nitric oxide. Additionally, we observed impaired lipid biosynthesis leading to a reduction of this important class of nutrients essential for parasite and host physiologies. In contrast, trypanosome infections in Gff's midgut significantly upregulated various immunity-related genes, including a small peptide, Stomoxyn-like, homologous to Stomoxyns first discovered in the stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans. We observed that the Stomoxyn-like locus is exclusive to the genomes of Palpalis subgroup tsetse species. GffStomoxyn is constitutively expressed in the cardia (proventriculus) and synthetic GffStomoxyn exhibits potent activity against Escherichia coli and bloodstream form of Trypanosoma brucei parasites, while showing no effect against insect stage procyclic forms or tsetse's commensal endosymbiont Sodalis in vitro. Reducing GffStomoxyn levels significantly increased trypanosome infection prevalence, indicating its potential trypanocidal role in vivo. Collectively, our results suggest that the enhanced resistance to trypanosomes observed in Spiroplasma-infected Gff may be due to the reduced lipid availability necessary for parasite metabolic maintenance. Furthermore, GffStomoxyn could play a crucial role in the initial immune response(s) against mammalian parasites early in the infection process in the midgut and prevent gut colonization. We discuss the molecular characteristics of GffStomoxyn, its spatial and temporal expression regulation and its microbicidal activity against Trypanosome parasites. Our findings reinforce the nutritional influences of microbiota on host physiology and host-pathogen dynamics.

Symbiotic bacteria Sodalis glossinidius, Spiroplasma sp and Wolbachia do not favour Trypanosoma grayi coexistence in wild population of tsetse flies collected in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso

BACKGROUND

Tsetse flies, the biological vectors of African trypanosomes, have established symbiotic associations with different bacteria. Their vector competence is suggested to be affected by bacterial endosymbionts. The current study provided the prevalence of three tsetse symbiotic bacteria and trypanosomes in Glossina species from Burkina Faso.

RESULTS

A total of 430 tsetse flies were captured using biconical traps in four different collection sites around Bobo-Dioulasso (Bama, Bana, Nasso, and Peni), and their guts were removed. Two hundred tsetse were randomly selected and their guts were screened by PCR for the presence of Sodalis glossinidius, Spiroplasma sp., Wolbachia and trypanosomes. Of the 200 tsetse, 196 (98.0%) were Glossina palpalis gambiensis and 4 (2.0%) Glossina tachinoides. The overall symbiont prevalence was 49.0%, 96.5%, and 45.0%, respectively for S. glossinidius, Spiroplasma and Wolbachia. Prevalence varied between sampling locations: S. glossinidius (54.7%, 38.5%, 31.6%, 70.8%); Spiroplasma (100%, 100%, 87.7%, 100%); and Wolbachia (43.4%, 38.5%, 38.6%, 70.8%), respectively in Bama, Bana, Nasso and Peni. Noteworthy, no G. tachnoides was infected by S. glossinidius and Wolbachia, but they were all infected by Spiroplasma sp. A total of 196 (98.0%) harbored at least one endosymbionts. Fifty-five (27.5%) carried single endosymbiont. Trypanosomes were found only in G. p. gambiensis, but not G. tachinoides. Trypanosomes were present in flies from all study locations with an overall prevalence of 29.5%. In Bama, Bana, Nasso, and Peni, the trypanosome infection rate was respectively 39.6%, 23.1%, 8.8%, and 37.5%. Remarkably, only Trypanosoma grayi was present. Of all trypanosome-infected flies, 55.9%, 98.3%, and 33.9% hosted S. glossinidius, Spiroplasma sp and Wolbachia, respectively. There was no association between Sodalis, Spiroplasma and trypanosome presence, but there was a negative association with Wolbachia presence. We reported 1.9 times likelihood of trypanosome absence when Wolbachia was present.

CONCLUSION

This is the first survey reporting the presence of Trypanosoma grayi in tsetse from Burkina Faso. Tsetse from these localities were highly positive for symbiotic bacteria, more predominantly with Spiroplasma sp. Modifications of symbiotic interactions may pave way for disease control.

Symbiotic bacteria Sodalis glossinidius, Spiroplasma sp and Wolbachia do not favour Trypanosoma grayi coexistence in wild population of tsetse flies collected in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso

Background

Tsetse flies, the biological vectors of African trypanosomes, have established symbiotic associations with different bacteria. Their vector competence is suggested to be affected by bacterial endosymbionts. The current study provided the prevalence of three tsetse symbiotic bacteria and trypanosomes in Glossina species from Burkina Faso.

Results

A total of 430 tsetse flies were captured using biconical traps in four different collection sites around Bobo-Dioulasso (Bama, Bana, Nasso, and Peni), and their guts were removed. Two hundred tsetse were randomly selected and their guts were screened byPCR for the presence of Sodalis glossinidius, Spiroplasmasp., Wolbachia and trypanosomes. Of the 200 tsetse, 196 (98.0%) were Glossina palpalis gambienseand 4 (2.0%) Glossina tachinoides. The overall symbiont prevalence was 49.0%, 96.5%, and 45.0%, respectively for S. glossinidius, Spiroplasma and Wolbachia. Prevalence varied between sampling locations: S. glossinidius(54.7%, 38.5%, 31.6%, 70.8%); Spiroplasma (100%, 100%, 87.7%, 100%); and Wolbachia(43.4%, 38.5%, 38.6%, 70.8%),respectively in Bama, Bana, Nasso and Peni. Noteworthy, no G. tachhnoideswas infected by S. glossinidius and Wolbachia, but they were all infected by Spiroplasma sp. A total of 196 (98.0 %) harbored at least one endosymbionts. Fifty-five (27.5%) carried single endosymbiont. Trypanosomes were found only in G.p. gambiense, but not G. tachinoides. Trypanosomes were present in flies from all study locations with an overall prevalence of 29.5%. In Bama, Bana, Nasso, and Peni, the trypanosome infection rate was respectively 39.6%, 23.1%, 8.8%, and 37.5%. Remarkably, only Trypanosoma grayi was present. Of all trypanosome-infected flies, 55.9%, 98.3%, and 33.9% hosted S. glossinidius, Spiroplasma sp and Wolbachia, respectively. There was no association between Sodalis, Spiroplasma and trypanosome presence, but there was a negative association with Wolbachia presence. We reported1.9 times likelihood of trypanosome absence when Wolbachia was present.

Conclusion

This is the first survey reporting the presence of Trypanosoma grayi in tsetse from Burkina Faso. Tsetse from these localities were highly positive for symbiotic bacteria, more predominantly with Spiroplasma sp. Modifications of symbiotic interactions may pave way for disease control.

Prevalence of Spiroplasma and interaction with wild Glossina tachinoides microbiota

Tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) are vectors of the tropical neglected diseases sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in animals. The elimination of these diseases is linked to control of the vector. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is an environment-friendly method that has been shown to be effective when applied in an area-wide integrated pest management approach. However, as irradiated males conserve their vectorial competence, there is the potential risk of trypanosome transmission with their release in the field. Analyzing the interaction between the tsetse fly and its microbiota, and between different microbiota and the trypanosome, might provide important information to enhance the fly's resistance to trypanosome infection. This study on the prevalence of Spiroplasma in wild populations of seven tsetse species from East, West, Central and Southern Africa showed that Spiroplasma is present only in Glossina fuscipes fuscipes and Glossina tachinoides. In G. tachinoides, a significant deviation from independence in co-infection with Spiroplasma and Trypanosoma spp. was observed. Moreover, Spiroplasma infections seem to significantly reduce the density of the trypanosomes, suggesting that Spiroplasma might enhance tsetse fly's refractoriness to the trypanosome infections. This finding might be useful to reduce risks associated with the release of sterile males during SIT implementation in trypanosome endemic areas.

Molecular detection of Sodalis glossinidius, Spiroplasma species and Wolbachia endosymbionts in wild population of tsetse flies collected in Cameroon, Chad and Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Tsetse flies are cyclical vectors of African trypanosomiasis (AT). The flies have established symbiotic associations with different bacteria that influence certain aspects of their physiology. Vector competence of tsetse flies for different trypanosome species is highly variable and is suggested to be affected by bacterial endosymbionts amongst other factors. Symbiotic interactions may provide an avenue for AT control. The current study provided prevalence of three tsetse symbionts in Glossina species from Cameroon, Chad and Nigeria.

RESULTS

Tsetse flies were collected and dissected from five different locations. DNA was extracted and polymerase chain reaction used to detect presence of Sodalis glossinidius, Spiroplasma species and Wolbachia endosymbionts, using species specific primers. A total of 848 tsetse samples were analysed: Glossina morsitans submorsitans (47.52%), Glossina palpalis palpalis (37.26%), Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (9.08%) and Glossina tachinoides (6.13%). Only 95 (11.20%) were infected with at least one of the three symbionts. Among infected flies, six (6.31%) had Wolbachia and Spiroplasma mixed infection. The overall symbiont prevalence was 0.88, 3.66 and 11.00% respectively, for Sodalis glossinidius, Spiroplasma species and Wolbachia endosymbionts. Prevalence varied between countries and tsetse fly species. Neither Spiroplasma species nor S. glossinidius were detected in samples from Cameroon and Nigeria respectively.

CONCLUSION

The present study revealed, for the first time, presence of Spiroplasma species infections in tsetse fly populations in Chad and Nigeria. These findings provide useful information on repertoire of bacterial flora of tsetse flies and incite more investigations to understand their implication in the vector competence of tsetse flies.

Trypanosomes infection, endosymbionts, and host preferences in tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) collected from Akagera park region, Rwanda: A correlational xenomonitoring study

Akagera National Park and its surroundings are home to tsetse flies and a number of their mammalian hosts in Rwanda. A One-health approach is being used in the control and surveillance of both animal and human trypanosomosis in Rwanda. Determination of the infection level in tsetse flies, species of trypanosomes circulating in vectors, the source of tsetse blood meal and endosymbionts is crucial in understanding the epidemiology of the disease in animals and humans in the region. Tsetse flies (n = 1101), comprising Glossina pallidipes (n = 771) and Glossina morsitans centralis (n = 330) were collected from Akagera park and surrounding areas between May 2018 and June 2019. The flies were screened for trypanosomes, vertebrate host DNA to identify sources of blood meal, and endosymbionts by PCR - High Resolution Melting analysis and amplicon sequencing. The feeding frequency and the feeding indices (selection index - W) were calculated to identify the preferred hosts. An overall trypanosome infection rate of 13.9% in the fly's Head and Proboscis (HP) and 24.3% in the Thorax and Abdomen (TA) were found. Eight trypanosome species were identified in the tsetse fly HP and TA, namely: Trypanosoma (T.) brucei brucei, T. congolense Kilifi, T. congolense savannah, T. vivax, T. simiae, T. evansi, T. godfreyi, T. grayi and T. theileri. We found no evidence of human-infective T. brucei rhodesiense. We also identified eighteen species of vertebrate hosts that tsetse flies fed on, and the most frequent one was the buffalo (Syncerus caffer) (36.5%). The frequently detected host by selection index was the rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) (W = 16.2). Most trypanosome infections in tsetse flies were associated with the buffalo blood meal. The prevalence of tsetse endosymbionts Sodalis and Wolbachia was 2.8% and 4.8%, respectively. No Spiroplasma and Salivary Gland Hypertrophy Virus were detected. These findings implicate the buffaloes as the important reservoirs of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomes in the area. This contributes to predicting the main cryptic reservoirs and therefore guiding the effective control of the disease. The study findings provide the key scientific information that supports the current One Health collaboration in the control and surveillance of tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis in Rwanda.

Interactions between Glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus and tsetse endosymbionts in wild tsetse populations

BACKGROUND

Tsetse control is considered an effective and sustainable tactic for the control of cyclically transmitted trypanosomosis in the absence of effective vaccines and inexpensive, effective drugs. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is currently used to eliminate tsetse fly populations in an area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) context in Senegal. For SIT, tsetse mass rearing is a major milestone that associated microbes can influence. Tsetse flies can be infected with microorganisms, including the primary and obligate Wigglesworthia glossinidia, the commensal Sodalis glossinidius, and Wolbachia pipientis. In addition, tsetse populations often carry a pathogenic DNA virus, the Glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus (GpSGHV) that hinders tsetse fertility and fecundity. Interactions between symbionts and pathogens might affect the performance of the insect host.

METHODS

In the present study, we assessed associations of GpSGHV and tsetse endosymbionts under field conditions to decipher the possible bidirectional interactions in different Glossina species. We determined the co-infection pattern of GpSGHV and Wolbachia in natural tsetse populations. We further analyzed the interaction of both Wolbachia and GpSGHV infections with Sodalis and Wigglesworthia density using qPCR.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the co-infection of GpSGHV and Wolbachia was most prevalent in Glossina austeni and Glossina morsitans morsitans, with an explicit significant negative correlation between GpSGHV and Wigglesworthia density. GpSGHV infection levels > 10^3.31 seem to be absent when Wolbachia infection is present at high density (> 10^7.36), suggesting a potential protective role of Wolbachia against GpSGHV.

CONCLUSION

The result indicates that Wolbachia infection might interact (with an undefined mechanism) antagonistically with SGHV infection protecting tsetse fly against GpSGHV, and the interactions between the tsetse host and its associated microbes are dynamic and likely species specific; significant differences may exist between laboratory and field conditions.

Vector microbiota and immunity: modulating arthropod susceptibility to vertebrate pathogens

Arthropods, including mosquitoes, sand flies, tsetse flies, and ticks are vectors of many bacterial, parasitic, and viral pathogens that cause serious disease in humans and animals. Their microbiota, that is, all microorganisms that dwell within their tissues, can impact vector immunity and susceptibility to pathogen infection. Historically, host-pathogen-microbiota interactions have not been well described, with little known about mechanism. In this review, we highlight recent advances in understanding how individual microorganisms and microbial communities interact with vectors and human pathogens, the mechanisms they utilize to achieve these effects, and the potential for exploiting these interactions to control pathogen transmission. These studies fill important knowledge gaps and further our understanding of the roles that the vector microbiota plays in pathogen transmission.

Overview of paratransgenesis as a strategy to control pathogen transmission by insect vectors

This article presents an overview of paratransgenesis as a strategy to control pathogen transmission by insect vectors. It first briefly summarises some of the disease-causing pathogens vectored by insects and emphasises the need for innovative control methods to counter the threat of resistance by both the vector insect to pesticides and the pathogens to therapeutic drugs. Subsequently, the state of art of paratransgenesis is described, which is a particularly ingenious method currently under development in many important vector insects that could provide an additional powerful tool for use in integrated pest control programmes. The requirements and recent advances of the paratransgenesis technique are detailed and an overview is given of the microorganisms selected for genetic modification, the effector molecules to be expressed and the environmental spread of the transgenic bacteria into wild insect populations. The results of experimental models of paratransgenesis developed with triatomines, mosquitoes, sandflies and tsetse flies are analysed. Finally, the regulatory and safety rules to be satisfied for the successful environmental release of the genetically engineered organisms produced in paratransgenesis are considered.

Efficiencies of stationary sampling tools for the tsetse fly Glossina fuscipes fuscipes in western Kenya

Monitoring the effectiveness of tsetse fly control interventions that aim to reduce transmission of African trypanosomiasis requires highly efficient sampling tools that can catch flies at low densities. The sticky small target (StS-target) has previously been shown to be more effective in sampling Glossina fuscipes fuscipes compared to the biconical trap. However, its efficiency in terms of the proportion of flies it catches out of those that visit it has not been reported. Furthermore, there are no reports on whether tsetse samples caught using the StS-target can be used for subsequent processes such as molecular tests. In this study, we evaluated the efficiency of the biconical trap and targets for sampling G. f. fuscipes. All targets were tiny (0.25 × 0.50 m) but varied in their capture system. We used targets with sticky surface (StS-targets) and those with an electrified surface (ES-targets). We also assessed the suitability of flies caught on the StS-target for molecular tests by amplifying DNA of bacterial communities. Randomized block design experiments were undertaken in Mbita area and Manga Island on Lake Victoria of western Kenya. Fly catches of each sampling tool were compared to those of the sampling tool flanked by electric (E) nets and analyzed using a negative binomial regression. The total catch for each sampling tool alone was divided by the total catch of the sampling tool flanked by two E-nets to obtain its efficiency expressed as a percentage. A proportion of flies caught on the StS-target was preserved for molecular tests. Overall, the efficiencies of the biconical trap, ES-target and StS-target were 7.7%, 13.3% and 27.0%, respectively. A higher proportion of females (69 to 79%) than males approached all the sampling tools, but the trap efficiency was greater for male G. f. fuscipes than females. Furthermore, sequencing the 16S rRNA gene from fly samples caught on the StS-target revealed the presence of Spiroplasma. Our results indicate that the SS-target is the most efficient trap to monitor G. f. fuscipes population during interventions, with the biconical trap being the least efficient, and samples collected from StS-targets are suitable for molecular studies.

Infection with endosymbiotic Spiroplasma disrupts tsetse (Glossina fuscipes fuscipes) metabolic and reproductive homeostasis

Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) house a population-dependent assortment of microorganisms that can include pathogenic African trypanosomes and maternally transmitted endosymbiotic bacteria, the latter of which mediate numerous aspects of their host's metabolic, reproductive, and immune physiologies. One of these endosymbionts, Spiroplasma, was recently discovered to reside within multiple tissues of field captured and laboratory colonized tsetse flies grouped in the Palpalis subgenera. In various arthropods, Spiroplasma induces reproductive abnormalities and pathogen protective phenotypes. In tsetse, Spiroplasma infections also induce a protective phenotype by enhancing the fly's resistance to infection with trypanosomes. However, the potential impact of Spiroplasma on tsetse's viviparous reproductive physiology remains unknown. Herein we employed high-throughput RNA sequencing and laboratory-based functional assays to better characterize the association between Spiroplasma and the metabolic and reproductive physiologies of G. fuscipes fuscipes (Gff), a prominent vector of human disease. Using field-captured Gff, we discovered that Spiroplasma infection induces changes of sex-biased gene expression in reproductive tissues that may be critical for tsetse's reproductive fitness. Using a Gff lab line composed of individuals heterogeneously infected with Spiroplasma, we observed that the bacterium and tsetse host compete for finite nutrients, which negatively impact female fecundity by increasing the length of intrauterine larval development. Additionally, we found that when males are infected with Spiroplasma, the motility of their sperm is compromised following transfer to the female spermatheca. As such, Spiroplasma infections appear to adversely impact male reproductive fitness by decreasing the competitiveness of their sperm. Finally, we determined that the bacterium is maternally transmitted to intrauterine larva at a high frequency, while paternal transmission was also noted in a small number of matings. Taken together, our findings indicate that Spiroplasma exerts a negative impact on tsetse fecundity, an outcome that could be exploited for reducing tsetse population size and thus disease transmission.

Epidemiology of Trypanosomiasis in Wildlife-Implications for Humans at the Wildlife Interface in Africa

While both human and animal trypanosomiasis continue to present as major human and animal public health constraints globally, detailed analyses of trypanosome wildlife reservoir hosts remain sparse. African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) affects both livestock and wildlife carrying a significant risk of spillover and cross-transmission of species and strains between populations. Increased human activity together with pressure on land resources is increasing wildlife–livestock–human infections. Increasing proximity between human settlements and grazing lands to wildlife reserves and game parks only serves to exacerbate zoonotic risk. Communities living and maintaining livestock on the fringes of wildlife-rich ecosystems require to have in place methods of vector control for prevention of AAT transmission and for the treatment of their livestock. Major Trypanosoma spp. include Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, and Trypanosoma cruzi, pathogenic for humans, and Trypanosoma vivax, Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma evansi, Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Trypanosoma dionisii, Trypanosoma thomasbancrofti, Trypanosma elephantis, Trypanosoma vegrandis, Trypanosoma copemani, Trypanosoma irwini, Trypanosoma copemani, Trypanosoma gilletti, Trypanosoma theileri, Trypanosoma godfreyi, Trypansoma simiae, and Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) pestanai. Wildlife hosts for the trypansomatidae include subfamilies of Bovinae, Suidae, Pantherinae, Equidae, Alcephinae, Cercopithecinae, Crocodilinae, Pteropodidae, Peramelidae, Sigmodontidae, and Meliphagidae. Wildlife species are generally considered tolerant to trypanosome infection following centuries of coexistence of vectors and wildlife hosts. Tolerance is influenced by age, sex, species, and physiological condition and parasite challenge. Cyclic transmission through Glossina species occurs for T. congolense, T. simiae, T. vivax, T. brucei, and T. b. rhodesiense, T. b. gambiense, and within Reduviid bugs for T. cruzi. T. evansi is mechanically transmitted, and T. vixax is also commonly transmitted by biting flies including tsetse. Wildlife animal species serve as long-term reservoirs of infection, but the delicate acquired balance between trypanotolerance and trypanosome challenge can be disrupted by an increase in challenge and/or the introduction of new more virulent species into the ecosystem. There is a need to protect wildlife, animal, and human populations from the infectious consequences of encroachment to preserve and protect these populations. In this review, we explore the ecology and epidemiology of Trypanosoma spp. in wildlife.

Spiroplasma Infection among Ixodid Ticks Exhibits Species Dependence and Suggests a Vertical Pattern of Transmission

Members of the genus Spiroplasma are Gram-positive bacteria without cell walls. Some Spiroplasma species can cause disease in arthropods such as bees, whereas others provide their host with resistance to pathogens. Ticks also harbour Spiroplasma, but their role has not been elucidated yet. Here, the infection status and genetic diversity of Spiroplasma in ticks were investigated using samples collected from different geographic regions in Japan. A total of 712 ticks were tested for Spiroplasma infection by PCR targeting 16S rDNA, and Spiroplasma species were genetically characterized based on 16S rDNA, ITS, dnaA, and rpoB gene sequences. A total of 109 samples originating from eight tick species were positive for Spiroplasma infection, with infection rates ranging from 0% to 84% depending on the species. A linear mixed model indicated that tick species was the primary factor associated with Spiroplasma infection. Moreover, certain Spiroplasma alleles that are highly adapted to specific tick species may explain the high infection rates in Ixodes ovatus and Haemaphysalis kitaokai. A comparison of the alleles obtained suggests that horizontal transmission between tick species may not be a frequent event. These findings provide clues to understand the transmission cycle of Spiroplasma species in wild tick populations and their roles in host ticks.

Rapid molecular evolution of Spiroplasma symbionts of Drosophila

Spiroplasma is a genus of Mollicutes whose members include plant pathogens, insect pathogens and endosymbionts of animals. Spiroplasma phenotypes have been repeatedly observed to be spontaneously lost in Drosophila cultures, and several studies have documented a high genomic turnover in Spiroplasma symbionts and plant pathogens. These observations suggest that Spiroplasma evolves quickly in comparison to other insect symbionts. Here, we systematically assess evolutionary rates and patterns of Spiroplasma poulsonii, a natural symbiont of Drosophila. We analysed genomic evolution of sHy within flies, and sMel within in vitro culture over several years. We observed that S. poulsonii substitution rates are among the highest reported for any bacteria, and around two orders of magnitude higher compared with other inherited arthropod endosymbionts. The absence of mismatch repair loci mutS and mutL is conserved across Spiroplasma, and likely contributes to elevated substitution rates. Further, the closely related strains sMel and sHy (>99.5 % sequence identity in shared loci) show extensive structural genomic differences, which potentially indicates a higher degree of host adaptation in sHy, a protective symbiont of Drosophila hydei. Finally, comparison across diverse Spiroplasma lineages confirms previous reports of dynamic evolution of toxins, and identifies loci similar to the male-killing toxin Spaid in several Spiroplasma lineages and other endosymbionts. Overall, our results highlight the peculiar nature of Spiroplasma genome evolution, which may explain unusual features of its evolutionary ecology.

Bacterial Symbionts of Tsetse Flies: Relationships and Functional Interactions Between Tsetse Flies and Their Symbionts

Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) act as the sole vectors of the African trypanosome species that cause Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT or African Sleeping Sickness) and Nagana in animals. These flies have undergone a variety of specializations during their evolution including an exclusive diet consisting solely of vertebrate blood for both sexes as well as an obligate viviparous reproductive biology. Alongside these adaptations, Glossina species have developed intricate relationships with specific microbes ranging from mutualistic to parasitic. These relationships provide fundamental support required to sustain the specializations associated with tsetse's biology. This chapter provides an overview on the knowledge to date regarding the biology behind these relationships and focuses primarily on four bacterial species that are consistently associated with Glossina species. Here their interactions with the host are reviewed at the morphological, biochemical and genetic levels. This includes: the obligate symbiont Wigglesworthia, which is found in all tsetse species and is essential for nutritional supplementation to the blood-specific diet, immune system maturation and facilitation of viviparous reproduction; the commensal symbiont Sodalis, which is a frequently associated symbiont optimized for survival within the fly via nutritional adaptation, vertical transmission through mating and may alter vectorial capacity of Glossina for trypanosomes; the parasitic symbiont Wolbachia, which can manipulate Glossina via cytoplasmic incompatibility and shows unique interactions at the genetic level via horizontal transmission of its genetic material into the genome in two Glossina species; finally, knowledge on recently observed relations between Spiroplasma and Glossina is explored and potential interactions are discussed based on knowledge of interactions between this bacterial Genera and other insect species. These flies have a simple microbiome relative to that of other insects. However, these relationships are deep, well-studied and provide a window into the complexity and function of host/symbiont interactions in an important disease vector.

Tsetse blood-meal sources, endosymbionts and trypanosome-associations in the Maasai Mara National Reserve, a wildlife-human-livestock interface

African trypanosomiasis (AT) is a neglected disease of both humans and animals caused by Trypanosoma parasites, which are transmitted by obligate hematophagous tsetse flies (Glossina spp.). Knowledge on tsetse fly vertebrate hosts and the influence of tsetse endosymbionts on trypanosome presence, especially in wildlife-human-livestock interfaces, is limited. We identified tsetse species, their blood-meal sources, and correlations between endosymbionts and trypanosome presence in tsetse flies from the trypanosome-endemic Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR) in Kenya. Among 1167 tsetse flies (1136 Glossina pallidipes, 31 Glossina swynnertoni) collected from 10 sampling sites, 28 (2.4%) were positive by PCR for trypanosome DNA, most (17/28) being of Trypanosoma vivax species. Blood-meal analyses based on high-resolution melting analysis of vertebrate cytochrome c oxidase 1 and cytochrome b gene PCR products (n = 354) identified humans as the most common vertebrate host (37%), followed by hippopotamus (29.1%), African buffalo (26.3%), elephant (3.39%), and giraffe (0.84%). Flies positive for trypanosome DNA had fed on hippopotamus and buffalo. Tsetse flies were more likely to be positive for trypanosomes if they had the Sodalis glossinidius endosymbiont (P = 0.0002). These findings point to complex interactions of tsetse flies with trypanosomes, endosymbionts, and diverse vertebrate hosts in wildlife ecosystems such as in the MMNR, which should be considered in control programs. These interactions may contribute to the maintenance of tsetse populations and/or persistent circulation of African trypanosomes. Although the African buffalo is a key reservoir of AT, the higher proportion of hippopotamus blood-meals in flies with trypanosome DNA indicates that other wildlife species may be important in AT transmission. No trypanosomes associated with human disease were identified, but the high proportion of human blood-meals identified are indicative of human African trypanosomiasis risk. Our results add to existing data suggesting that Sodalis endosymbionts are associated with increased trypanosome presence in tsetse flies.

Blood meal sources and bacterial microbiome diversity in wild-caught tsetse flies

Tsetse flies are the vectors of African trypanosomiasis affecting 36 sub-Saharan countries. Both wild and domestic animals play a crucial role in maintaining the disease-causing parasites (trypanosomes). Thus, the identification of animal reservoirs of trypanosomes is vital for the effective control of African trypanosomiasis. Additionally, the biotic and abiotic factors that drive gut microbiome diversity in tsetse flies are primarily unresolved, especially under natural, field conditions. In this study, we present a comprehensive DNA metabarcoding approach for individual tsetse fly analysis in the identification of mammalian blood meal sources and fly bacterial microbiome composition. We analyzed samples from two endemic foci, Kafue, Zambia collected in June 2017, and Hurungwe, Zimbabwe sampled in April 2014 (pilot study) and detected DNA of various mammals including humans, wild animals, domestic animals and small mammals (rat and bat). The bacterial diversity was relatively similar in flies with different mammalian species DNA, trypanosome infected and uninfected flies, and female and male flies. This study is the first report on bat DNA detection in wild tsetse flies. This study reveals that small mammals such as bats and rats are among the opportunistic blood meal sources for tsetse flies in the wild, and the implication on tsetse biology and ecology needs to be studied.