Murine gammaherpesvirus-68 inhibits antigen presentation by dendritic cells

Glycoproteins gM and gN are indispensable factors for rhesus macaque rhadinovirus replication and spread but can be reconstituted by KSHV chimeras

Rhesus macaque rhadinovirus (RRV) is a primate gamma-2 herpesvirus (rhadinovirus) closely related to Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), the human oncovirus that causes Kaposi sarcoma. Like other herpesviruses, KSHV and RRV encode numerous envelope glycoproteins involved in cell attachment, entry, as well as assembly and release of progeny virions from infected cells. Two glycoproteins postulated to form a complex and reported to be virus-neutralizing targets are glycoproteins M (gM) and N (gN). To investigate gM and gN in rhadinovirus infection, we utilized infectious and pathogenic bacterial artificial chromosomes (BAC). RRV BACmids with nonsense mutations introduced into gM or gN did not yield an infectious virus. However, when gM or gN of RRV were exchanged for gM or gN from KSHV, each of the KSHV-chimeric RRV BACmids restored virus replication and infectious spread. Interestingly, we also discovered that the substitution of KSHVgM into the RRV BACmid was associated with attenuation in viral spread, an effect that was not countered by a double-chimeric virus. In contrast, the substitution of RRV gN into a KSHV BACmid negatively affected the assembly of KSHV, independent of gM/gN complex formation. Therefore, here, we revealed that in KSHV and RRV, gM and gN are interchangeable, contribute to crucial functions for viral assembly and spread, and have evolved in a virus-specific manner. Although more research is needed to define the roles of gM and gN, our work establishes the first glycoprotein-chimeric viruses for KSHV and RRV, which can now be used to corroborate gM/gN as targets for a cancer vaccine.IMPORTANCEKaposi sarcoma (KS) is a human cancer caused by KSHV and is one of the most frequently occurring cancers in HIV/AIDS patients, as well as in regions where KSHV is endemic. In this report, we have constructed and authenticated the first KSHV glycoprotein-encoding chimeric viruses for evaluations in the RRV/rhesus macaque model and have also uncovered fundamental roles for the glycoproteins gM and gN. Our work is significant by successfully bridging the human-specific, species barrier that has previously restricted preclinical evaluations of the KSHV glycoproteins as vaccine targets in vivo. Although there is no KSHV-specific animal model that is widely used, these KSHV-chimeric viruses may be useful as tools to guide future vaccine design and strategy as vaccine candidates progress toward clinical trials.

Modulation of Ubiquitin Signaling in Innate Immune Response by Herpesviruses

The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is a protein degradation machinery that is crucial for cellular homeostasis in eukaryotes. Therefore, it is not surprising that the UPS coordinates almost all host cellular processes, including host-pathogen interactions. This protein degradation machinery acts predominantly by tagging substrate proteins designated for degradation with a ubiquitin molecule. These ubiquitin tags have been involved at various steps of the innate immune response. Hence, herpesviruses have evolved ways to antagonize the host defense mechanisms by targeting UPS components such as ubiquitin E3 ligases and deubiquitinases (DUBs) that establish a productive infection. This review delineates how herpesviruses usurp the critical roles of ubiquitin E3 ligases and DUBs in innate immune response to escape host-antiviral immune response, with particular focus on retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLR), cyclic-GMP-AMP (cGAMP) synthase (cGAS), stimulator of interferon (IFN) genes (STING) pathways, and inflammasome signaling.

Immune Control of γ-Herpesviruses

Vaccination against γ-herpesviruses has been hampered by our limited understanding of their normal control. Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)-transformed B cells are killed by viral latency antigen-specific CD8⁺ T cells in vitro, but attempts to block B cell infection with antibody or to prime anti-viral CD8⁺ T cells have protected poorly in vivo. The Doherty laboratory used Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) to analyze γ-herpesvirus control in mice and found CD4⁺ T cell dependence, with viral evasion limiting CD8⁺ T cell function. MuHV-4 colonizes germinal center (GC) B cells via lytic transfer from myeloid cells, and CD4⁺ T cells control myeloid infection. GC colonization and protective, lytic antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cells are now evident also for EBV. Subunit vaccines have protected only transiently against MuHV-4, but whole virus vaccines give long-term protection, via CD4⁺ T cells and antibody. They block infection transfer to B cells, and need include no known viral latency gene, nor any MuHV-4-specific gene. Thus, the Doherty approach of in vivo murine analysis has led to a plausible vaccine strategy for EBV and, perhaps, some insight into what CD8⁺ T cells really do.

Effects of Friend Virus Infection and Regulatory T Cells on the Antigen Presentation Function of B Cells

The primary role of B cells in immunity is considered the production of pathogen-specific antibodies, but another, less-well-studied, function of B cells is to present foreign antigens to T cells to stimulate their activation and proliferation. Dendritic cells (DCs) are considered the most important antigen-presenting cells (APCs) for CD8⁺ T cells, but DCs lose APC function when infected with Friend virus (FV), a model retrovirus of mice. Interestingly, B cells were better able to stimulate CD8⁺ T cell responses when they were infected with FV. We also found that the activation status of B cells under homeostatic conditions was potently modulated by regulatory T cells. This study illustrates an important link between B cell and T cell responses and illustrates an additional mechanism by which regulatory T cells suppress critical T cell responses during viral infections.

Friend virus (FV) is a naturally occurring mouse retrovirus that infects dividing cells of the hematopoietic lineage, including antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The infection of APCs by viruses often induces their dysfunction, and it has been shown that FV infection reduces the ability of dendritic cells (DCs) to prime critical CD8⁺ T cell responses. Nonetheless, mice mount vigorous CD8⁺ T cell responses, so we investigated whether B cells might serve as alternative APCs during FV infection. Direct ex vivo analysis of B cells from FV-infected mice revealed that infected but not uninfected B cells upregulated expression of the costimulatory molecules CD80, CD86, and CD40, as well as major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) molecules. Furthermore, in vitro studies showed that, compared to uninfected B cells from the same mice, the FV-infected B cells had significantly enhanced APC function, as measured by their capacity to prime CD8⁺ T cell activation and proliferation. Thus, in contrast to DCs, infection of B cells with FV enhanced their APC capacity and ability to stimulate the CD8⁺ T cell responses essential for virus control. FV infections also induce the activation and expansion of regulatory T cells (Tregs), so it was of interest to determine the impact of Tregs on B cell activation. The upregulation of costimulatory molecule expression and APC function of B cells was even more strongly enhanced by in vivo depletion of regulatory T cells than infection. Thus, Tregs exert potent homeostatic suppression of B cell activation that is partially overcome by FV infection.

Antibody arrests γ-herpesvirus olfactory super-infection independently of neutralization

Protecting against persistent viruses is an unsolved challenge. The clearest example for a gamma-herpesvirus is resistance to super-infection by Murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4). Most experimental infections have delivered MuHV-4 into the lungs. A more likely natural entry site is the olfactory epithelium. Its protection remains unexplored. Here, prior exposure to olfactory MuHV-4 gave good protection against super-infection. The protection was upstream of B cell infection, which occurs in lymph nodes, and showed redundancy between antibody and T cells. Adding antibody to virions that blocked heparan binding strongly reduced olfactory host entry - unlike in the lungs, opsonized virions did not reach IgG Fc receptor⁺ myeloid cells. However, the nasal antibody response to primary infection was too low to reduce host entry. Instead, the antibody acted downstream, reducing viral replication in the olfactory epithelium. This depended on IgG Fc receptor engagement rather than virion neutralization. Thus antibody can protect against natural γ-herpesvirus infection before it reaches B cells and independently of neutralization.

Gammaherpesvirus Colonization of the Spleen Requires Lytic Replication in B Cells

Gammaherpesviruses infect lymphocytes and cause lymphocytic cancers. Murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4), Epstein-Barr virus, and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus all infect B cells. Latent infection can spread by B cell recirculation and proliferation, but whether this alone achieves systemic infection is unclear. To test the need of MuHV-4 for lytic infection in B cells, we flanked its essential ORF50 lytic transactivator with loxP sites and then infected mice expressing B cell-specific Cre (CD19-Cre). The floxed virus replicated normally in Cre^- mice. In CD19-Cre mice, nasal and lymph node infections were maintained; but there was little splenomegaly, and splenic virus loads remained low. Cre-mediated removal of other essential lytic genes gave a similar phenotype. CD19-Cre spleen infection by intraperitoneal virus was also impaired. Therefore, MuHV-4 had to emerge lytically from B cells to colonize the spleen. An important role for B cell lytic infection in host colonization is consistent with the large CD8⁺ T cell responses made to gammaherpesvirus lytic antigens during infectious mononucleosis and suggests that vaccine-induced immunity capable of suppressing B cell lytic infection might reduce long-term virus loads.IMPORTANCE Gammaherpesviruses cause B cell cancers. Most models of host colonization derive from cell cultures with continuous, virus-driven B cell proliferation. However, vaccines based on these models have worked poorly. To test whether proliferating B cells suffice for host colonization, we inactivated the capacity of MuHV-4, a gammaherpesvirus of mice, to reemerge from B cells. The modified virus was able to colonize a first wave of B cells in lymph nodes but spread poorly to B cells in secondary sites such as the spleen. Consequently, viral loads remained low. These results were consistent with virus-driven B cell proliferation exploiting normal host pathways and thus having to transfer lytically to new B cells for new proliferation. We conclude that viral lytic infection is a potential target to reduce B cell proliferation.

Type I Interferon Signaling to Dendritic Cells Limits Murid Herpesvirus 4 Spread from the Olfactory Epithelium

Murid herpesvirus 4 (MuHV-4) is a B cell-tropic gammaherpesvirus that can be studied in vivo Despite viral evasion, type I interferons (IFN-I) limit its spread. After MuHV-4 inoculation into footpads, IFN-I protect lymph node subcapsular sinus macrophages (SSM) against productive infection; after peritoneal inoculation, they protect splenic marginal zone macrophages, and they limit MuHV-4 replication in the lungs. While invasive infections can be used to test specific aspects of host colonization, it is also important to understand natural infection. MuHV-4 taken up spontaneously by alert mice enters them via olfactory neurons. We determined how IFN-I act in this context. Blocking IFN-I signaling did not increase neuronal infection but allowed the virus to spread to the adjacent respiratory epithelium. In lymph nodes, a complete IFN-I signaling block increased MuHV-4 lytic infection in SSM and increased the number of dendritic cells (DC) expressing viral green fluorescent protein (GFP) independently of lytic infection. A CD11c⁺ cell-directed signaling block increased infection of DC only. However, this was sufficient to increase downstream infection, consistent with DC providing the main viral route to B cells. The capacity of IFN-I to limit DC infection indicated that viral IFN-I evasion was only partly effective. Therefore, DC are a possible target for IFN-I-based interventions to reduce host colonization.IMPORTANCE Human gammaherpesviruses infect B cells and cause B cell cancers. Interventions to block virus binding to B cells have not stopped their infection. Therefore, we must identify other control points that are relevant to natural infection. Human infections are difficult to analyze. However, gammaherpesviruses colonize all mammals. A related gammaherpesvirus of mice reaches B cells not directly but via infected dendritic cells. We show that type I interferons, an important general antiviral defense, limit gammaherpesvirus B cell infection by acting on dendritic cells. Therefore, dendritic cell infection is a potential point of interferon-based therapeutic intervention.

CD8+ T cell evasion mandates CD4+ T cell control of chronic gamma-herpesvirus infection

Gamma-herpesvirus infections are regulated by both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. However clinical disease occurs mainly in CD4⁺ T cell-deficient hosts. In CD4⁺ T cell-deficient mice, CD8⁺ T cells control acute but not chronic lung infection by Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4). We show that acute and chronic lung infections differ in distribution: most acute infection was epithelial, whereas most chronic infection was in myeloid cells. CD8⁺ T cells controlled epithelial infection, but CD4⁺ T cells and IFNγ were required to control myeloid cell infection. Disrupting the MuHV-4 K3, which degrades MHC class I heavy chains, increased viral epitope presentation by infected lung alveolar macrophages and allowed CD8⁺ T cells to prevent disease. Thus, viral CD8⁺ T cell evasion led to niche-specific immune control, and an essential role for CD4⁺ T cells in limiting chronic infection.

Gamma-herpesviruses chronically infect most people. While infection is usually asymptomatic, disease occurs if the immune system is weakened. Understanding how immune control normally works should provide a basis for preventing disease. In mice, CD8⁺ T cells can control acute gamma-herpesvirus infection but not chronic infection. We show that acute and chronic infections involve different cell types. CD8⁺ T cells controlled epithelial cell infection, which predominated acutely, but they could not control chronic macrophage infection unless viral immune evasion was disabled. Instead CD4⁺ T cells were required. Thus, viral evasion made host defence cell type-specific: CD8⁺ T cells controlled epithelial cell infection; CD4⁺ T cells controlled macrophage infection; and comprehensive control required both T cell subsets.

Type I Interferons and NK Cells Restrict Gammaherpesvirus Lymph Node Infection

Gammaherpesviruses establish persistent, systemic infections and cause cancers. Murid herpesvirus 4 (MuHV-4) provides a unique window into the early events of host colonization. It spreads via lymph nodes. While dendritic cells (DC) pass MuHV-4 to lymph node B cells, subcapsular sinus macrophages (SSM), which capture virions from the afferent lymph, restrict its spread. Understanding how this restriction works offers potential clues to a more comprehensive defense. Type I interferon (IFN-I) blocked SSM lytic infection and reduced lytic cycle-independent viral reporter gene expression. Plasmacytoid DC were not required, but neither were SSM the only source of IFN-I, as IFN-I blockade increased infection in both intact and SSM-depleted mice. NK cells restricted lytic SSM infection independently of IFN-I, and SSM-derived virions spread to the spleen only when both IFN-I responses and NK cells were lacking. Thus, multiple innate defenses allowed SSM to adsorb virions from the afferent lymph with relative impunity. Enhancing IFN-I and NK cell recruitment could potentially also restrict DC infection and thus improve infection control.

IMPORTANCE

Human gammaherpesviruses cause cancers by infecting B cells. However, vaccines designed to block virus binding to B cells have not stopped infection. Using a related gammaherpesvirus of mice, we have shown that B cells are infected not via cell-free virus but via infected myeloid cells. This suggests a different strategy to stop B cell infection: stop virus production by myeloid cells. Not all myeloid infection is productive. We show that subcapsular sinus macrophages, which do not pass infection to B cells, restrict gammaherpesvirus production by recruiting type I interferons and natural killer cells. Therefore, a vaccine that speeds the recruitment of these defenses might stop B cell infection.

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Interaction with Myeloid Cells In Vivo

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) enters mice via olfactory epithelial cells and then colonizes the trigeminal ganglia (TG). Most TG nerve endings are subepithelial, so this colonization implies subepithelial viral spread, where myeloid cells provide an important line of defense. The outcome of infection of myeloid cells by HSV-1 in vitro depends on their differentiation state; the outcome in vivo is unknown. Epithelial HSV-1 commonly infected myeloid cells, and Cre-Lox virus marking showed nose and lung infections passing through LysM-positive (LysM(+)) and CD11c(+) cells. In contrast, subcapsular sinus macrophages (SSMs) exposed to lymph-borne HSV-1 were permissive only when type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling was blocked; normally, their infection was suppressed. Thus, the outcome of myeloid cell infection helped to determine the HSV-1 distribution: subepithelial myeloid cells provided a route of spread from the olfactory epithelium to TG neurons, while SSMs blocked systemic spread.

IMPORTANCE

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infects most people and can cause severe disease. This reflects its persistence in nerve cells that connect to the mouth, nose, eye, and face. Established infection seems impossible to clear. Therefore, we must understand how it starts. This is difficult in humans, but mice show HSV-1 entry via the nose and then spread to its preferred nerve cells. We show that this spread proceeds in part via myeloid cells, which normally function in host defense. Myeloid infection was productive in some settings but was efficiently suppressed by interferon in others. Therefore, interferon acting on myeloid cells can stop HSV-1 spread, and enhancing this defense offers a way to improve infection control.

Rhadinovirus host entry by co-operative infection

Rhadinoviruses establish chronic infections of clinical and economic importance. Several show respiratory transmission and cause lung pathologies. We used Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) to understand how rhadinovirus lung infection might work. A primary epithelial or B cell infection often is assumed. MuHV-4 targeted instead alveolar macrophages, and their depletion reduced markedly host entry. While host entry was efficient, alveolar macrophages lacked heparan - an important rhadinovirus binding target - and were infected poorly ex vivo. In situ analysis revealed that virions bound initially not to macrophages but to heparan⁺ type 1 alveolar epithelial cells (AECs). Although epithelial cell lines endocytose MuHV-4 readily in vitro, AECs did not. Rather bound virions were acquired by macrophages; epithelial infection occurred only later. Thus, host entry was co-operative - virion binding to epithelial cells licensed macrophage infection, and this in turn licensed AEC infection. An antibody block of epithelial cell binding failed to block host entry: opsonization provided merely another route to macrophages. By contrast an antibody block of membrane fusion was effective. Therefore co-operative infection extended viral tropism beyond the normal paradigm of a target cell infected readily in vitro; and macrophage involvement in host entry required neutralization to act down-stream of cell binding.

All viral infections start with host entry. Entry into cells is studied widely in isolated cultures; entry into live hosts is more complicated and less well understood: our tissues have specific anatomical structures and our cells differ markedly from most cultured cells in size, shape and behaviour. The respiratory tract is a common site of virus infection. Size dictates where inhaled particles come to rest, and virus-sized particles can reach the lungs. Rhadinoviruses chronically infect both humans and economically important animals, and cause lung disease. We used a well-characterized murine example to determine how a rhadinovirus enters the lungs. At its peak, infection was prominent in epithelial cells lining the lung air spaces. However it started in macrophages, which normally clear the lungs of inhaled debris. Only epithelial cells expressed the molecules required for virus binding, but only macrophages internalized virus particles after binding; infection involved interaction between these different cell types. Blocking epithelial infection with an antibody did not stop host entry because attached antibodies increase virus uptake by lung macrophages; but an antibody that blocks macrophage infection was effective. Thus, understanding how rhadinovirus infections work in normal tissues provided important information for their control.

A murid gamma-herpesviruses exploits normal splenic immune communication routes for systemic spread

Gamma-herpesviruses (γHVs) are widespread oncogenic pathogens that chronically infect circulating lymphocytes. How they subvert the immune check-point function of the spleen to promote persistent infection is not clear. We show that Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) enters the spleen by infecting marginal zone (MZ) macrophages, which provided a conduit to MZ B cells. Relocation of MZ B cells to the white pulp allowed virus transfer to follicular dendritic cells. From here the virus reached germinal center B cells to establish persistent infection. Mice lacking MZ B cells, or treated with a sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor agonist to dislocate them, were protected against MuHV-4 colonization. MuHV-4 lacking ORF27, which encodes a glycoprotein necessary for efficient intercellular spread, could infect MZ macrophages but was impaired in long-term infection. Thus, MuHV-4, a γHV, exploits normal immune communication routes to spread by serial lymphoid/myeloid exchange.

Defining immune engagement thresholds for in vivo control of virus-driven lymphoproliferation

Persistent infections are subject to constant surveillance by CD8⁺ cytotoxic T cells (CTL). Their control should therefore depend on MHC class I-restricted epitope presentation. Many epitopes are described for γ-herpesviruses and form a basis for prospective immunotherapies and vaccines. However the quantitative requirements of in vivo immune control for epitope presentation and recognition remain poorly defined. We used Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) to determine for a latently expressed viral epitope how MHC class-I binding and CTL functional avidity impact on host colonization. Tracking MuHV-4 recombinants that differed only in epitope presentation, we found little latitude for sub-optimal MHC class I binding before immune control failed. By contrast, control remained effective across a wide range of T cell functional avidities. Thus, we could define critical engagement thresholds for the in vivo immune control of virus-driven B cell proliferation.

Chronic viral infections cause huge morbidity and mortality worldwide. γ-herpesviruses provide an example relevant to all human demographics, causing, inter alia, Hodgkin's disease, Burkitt's lymphoma, Kaposi's Sarcoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The proliferation of latently infected B cells and their control by CD8⁺ T cells are central to pathogenesis. Although many viral T cell targets have been identified in vitro, the functional impact of their engagement in vivo remains ill-defined. With the well-established Murid Herpesvirus-4 infection model, we used a range of recombinant viruses to define functional thresholds for the engagement of a latently expressed viral epitope. These data advance significantly our understanding of how the immune system must function to control γ-herpesvirus infection, with implications for vaccination and anti-cancer immunotherapy.

Differential activation of dendritic cells by Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing genotype

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) inhibits dendritric cells (DC) function in order to delay T cell response. Furthermore, there is increasing evidence that genetic diversity of Mtb strains can affect their interaction with the immune system. Beijing genotype has attracted attention because of its high prevalence and multi-drug resistance. Although it is known that this genotype is hypervirulent and differentially activates macrophages when compared to other genotypes, little is known about its interaction with DC. In order to address this issue, murine bone marrow derived DC (BMDC) were stimulated with soluble extracts (SE) from BCG, H37Rv, Canetti and Beijing genotypes. We observed that unlike other mycobacteria strains, SE-Beijing was unable to induce maturation of DC as assessed by cell surface MHC-II expression. DC stimulated with SE-Beijing failed to produce IL-12 and TNF-α, but did secrete IL-10. Interestingly, SE-Beijing induced CCR7 and PDL-1 on BMDC, but did not induce the expression of CD86. When BMDC stimulated with SE-Beijing were used to activate CD4+ cells they were unable to induce a Th1 response when compared with less virulent genotypes. These results indicate that Beijing is able to modulate DC activation and function, which may be related to the pathogenesis induced by this genotype.

BAFF receptor deficiency limits gammaherpesvirus infection

Lymphocyte colonization by gammaherpesviruses (γHVs) is an important target for cancer prevention. However, how it works is not clear. Epstein-Barr virus drives autonomous B cell proliferation in vitro but in vivo may more subtly exploit the proliferative pathways provided by lymphoid germinal centers (GCs). Murid herpesvirus 4 (MuHV-4), which realistically infects inbred mice, provides a useful tool with which to understand further how a γHV colonizes B cells in vivo. Not all γHVs necessarily behave the same, but common events can with MuHV-4 be assigned an importance for host colonization and so a potential as therapeutic targets. MuHV-4-driven B cell proliferation depends quantitatively on CD4(+) T cell help. Here we show that it also depends on T cell-independent survival signals provided by the B cell-activating factor (BAFF) receptor (BAFF-R). B cells could be infected in BAFF-R(-/-) mice, but virus loads remained low. This corresponded to a BAFF-R-dependent defect in GC colonization. The close parallels between normal, antigen-driven B cell responses and virus-infected B cell proliferation argue that in vivo, γHVs mostly induce infected B cells into normal GC reactions rather than generating large numbers of autonomously proliferating blasts.

IMPORTANCE

γHVs cause cancers by driving the proliferation of infected cells. B cells are a particular target. Thus, we need to know how virus-driven B cell proliferation works. Controversy exists as to whether viral genes drive it directly or less directly orchestrate the engagement of normal, host-driven pathways. Here we show that the B cell proliferation driven by a murid γHV requires BAFF-R. This supports the idea that γHVs exploit host proliferation pathways and suggests that interfering with BAFF-R could more generally reduce γHV-associated B cell proliferation.

A heparan-dependent herpesvirus targets the olfactory neuroepithelium for host entry

Herpesviruses are ubiquitous pathogens that cause much disease. The difficulty of clearing their established infections makes host entry an important target for control. However, while herpesviruses have been studied extensively in vitro, how they cross differentiated mucus-covered epithelia in vivo is unclear. To establish general principles we tracked host entry by Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4), a lymphotropic rhadinovirus related to the Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus. Spontaneously acquired virions targeted the olfactory neuroepithelium. Like many herpesviruses, MuHV-4 binds to heparan sulfate (HS), and virions unable to bind HS showed poor host entry. While the respiratory epithelium expressed only basolateral HS and was bound poorly by incoming virions, the neuroepithelium also displayed HS on its apical neuronal cilia and was bound strongly. Incoming virions tracked down the neuronal cilia, and either infected neurons or reached the underlying microvilli of the adjacent glial (sustentacular) cells and infected them. Thus the olfactory neuroepithelium provides an important and complex site of HS-dependent herpesvirus uptake.

Herpesviruses are supremely successful mammalian parasites. Yet their infections rarely present until well established, so how new hosts are first infected has been unclear. Understanding this is likely to be crucial for infection control. Using Murid Herpesvirus-4, a relative of the Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus, we identified the olfactory neuroepithelium as a major portal of host entry. Heparan sulfate (HS) binding, which is common to many herpesviruses, played a key role. The HS of most epithelia is solely basolateral and therefore inaccessible to incoming, apical virions. The neuroepithelium, by contrast, also displayed HS on its apical surface. This comprises a dense meshwork of the neuronal cilia that mediate olfaction. Incoming virions bound to the cilia, as did a recombinant form of the virion glycoprotein H/L heterodimer. Some virions tracked down the cilia to infect neurons. Others were transferred to the microvilli of adjacent sustentacular cells. The central role of HS in this first detailed description of host entry by a mammalian herpesvirus, and the paucity of accessible HS on other epithelia, suggested that many HS-binding herpesviruses could follow a similar path.

Myeloid infection links epithelial and B cell tropisms of Murid Herpesvirus-4

Gamma-herpesviruses persist in lymphocytes and cause disease by driving their proliferation. Lymphocyte infection is therefore a key pathogenetic event. Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) is a rhadinovirus that like the related Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus persists in B cells in vivo yet infects them poorly in vitro. Here we used MuHV-4 to understand how virion tropism sets the path to lymphocyte colonization. Virions that were highly infectious in vivo showed a severe post-binding block to B cell infection. Host entry was accordingly an epithelial infection and B cell infection a secondary event. Macrophage infection by cell-free virions was also poor, but improved markedly when virion binding improved or when macrophages were co-cultured with infected fibroblasts. Under the same conditions B cell infection remained poor; it improved only when virions came from macrophages. This reflected better cell penetration and correlated with antigenic changes in the virion fusion complex. Macrophages were seen to contact acutely infected epithelial cells, and cre/lox-based virus tagging showed that almost all the virus recovered from lymphoid tissue had passed through lysM⁺ and CD11c⁺ myeloid cells. Thus MuHV-4 reached B cells in 3 distinct stages: incoming virions infected epithelial cells; infection then passed to myeloid cells; glycoprotein changes then allowed B cell infection. These data identify new complexity in rhadinovirus infection and potentially also new vulnerability to intervention.

Rhadinoviruses cause lymphocytic cancers. Their infection of lymphocytes is therefore an important therapeutic target. How this occurs is unclear. One prevalent hypothesis has been that virions directly infect lymphocytes when they enter new hosts. Here we show that host entry by Murid Herpesvirus-4, a close relative of the Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus, is an epithelial rather than a lymphocyte infection: the mucosal lymphoid colonization typical of acute infectious mononucleosis only occurred later. Macrophages were closely associated with the acutely infected epithelium, and most if not all of the virus reaching B cells showed evidence of previous myeloid cell infection. Macrophage-derived virions showed a greatly enhanced capacity for lymphocyte infection that was associated with antigenic changes in the viral fusion proteins. Thus host colonization required epithelial and myeloid infections before there was lymphocyte infection. The implication is that each of these infection events could be independently targeted to limit viral persistence.

Murid herpesvirus-4 exploits dendritic cells to infect B cells

Dendritic cells (DCs) play a central role in initiating immune responses. Some persistent viruses infect DCs and can disrupt their functions in vitro. However, these viruses remain strongly immunogenic in vivo. Thus what role DC infection plays in the pathogenesis of persistent infections is unclear. Here we show that a persistent, B cell-tropic gamma-herpesvirus, Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4), infects DCs early after host entry, before it establishes a substantial infection of B cells. DC-specific virus marking by cre-lox recombination revealed that a significant fraction of the virus latent in B cells had passed through a DC, and a virus attenuated for replication in DCs was impaired in B cell colonization. In vitro MuHV-4 dramatically altered the DC cytoskeleton, suggesting that it manipulates DC migration and shape in order to spread. MuHV-4 therefore uses DCs to colonize B cells.

We detect invading viruses with dendritic cells and eliminate them with lymphocytes. A key interaction is lymphocyte activation by dendritic cells presenting viral antigens. Not all viruses can be eliminated, and some that persist deliberately colonize lymphocytes and dendritic cells, such that parasitism and host defence co-exist within the same sites. Once established, these infections are very hard to eliminate. Therefore to vaccinate against them we must determine how infection first occurs. Here we show that a gamma-herpesvirus relation of the Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus and Epstein-Barr virus - B cell-tropic human pathogens that cause cancers - uses dendritic cells to reach and infect B lymphocytes. Dendritic cells were infected before B cells; viruses marked genetically in dendritic cells were recovered from B cells; and a virus unable to replicate in dendritic cells infected B cells poorly. Thus dendritic cells not only present viral antigens to lymphocytes, but can be exploited by evasive viruses to infect lymphocytes. Therefore targeting dendritic cell infection could be an effective means of vaccine-primed host defence.

Suppression of TLR9 immunostimulatory motifs in the genome of a gammaherpesvirus

Multiple receptors within the innate immune system have evolved to recognize nucleic acids as signatures of viral infection. It is believed that this specificity is essential for viral detection, as viruses often lack other invariant features that can serve as suitable targets for innate receptors. One such innate receptor, TLR9, has been implicated in the detection of many dsDNA viruses. In this study, we investigate the detection of murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68) by TLR9. We find that the genomic DNA of the murine CMV, a very potent inducer of innate responses. Genome-wide analysis of the number of stimulatory versus nonstimulatory CpG motifs present in the genome of each virus reveals that the MHV68 genome contains only a fraction of the number of immunostimulatory motifs present in murine CMV. Notably, MHV68 appears to have selectively suppressed the number of stimulatory motifs through cytosine to thymine conversion. These data suggest that certain viruses may have evolved and modified their genomic content to avoid recognition by nucleic acid-sensing receptors of the innate immune system.

A mechanistic basis for potent, glycoprotein B-directed gammaherpesvirus neutralization

Glycoprotein B (gB) is a conserved, essential component of gammaherpes virions and so potentially vulnerable to neutralization. However, few good gB-specific neutralizing antibodies have been identified. Here, we show that murid herpesvirus 4 is strongly neutralized by mAbs that recognize an epitope close to one of the gB fusion loops. Antibody binding did not stop gB interacting with its cellular ligands or initiating its fusion-associated conformation change, but did stop gB resolving stably to its post-fusion form, and so blocked membrane fusion to leave virions stranded in late endosomes. The conservation of gB makes this mechanism a possible general route to gammaherpesvirus neutralization.

Important role for the murid herpesvirus 4 ribonucleotide reductase large subunit in host colonization via the respiratory tract

Viral enzymes that process small molecules provide potential chemotherapeutic targets. A key constraint-the replicative potential of spontaneous enzyme mutants-has been hard to define with human gammaherpesviruses because of their narrow species tropisms. Here, we disrupted the murid herpesvirus 4 (MuHV-4) ORF61, which encodes its ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) large subunit. Mutant viruses showed delayed in vitro lytic replication, failed to establish infection via the upper respiratory tract, and replicated to only a very limited extent in the lower respiratory tract without reaching lymphoid tissue. RNR could therefore provide a good target for gammaherpesvirus chemotherapy.

Vaccination against a hit-and-run viral cancer

Cancers with viral aetiologies can potentially be prevented by antiviral vaccines. Therefore, it is important to understand how viral infections and cancers might be linked. Some cancers frequently carry gammaherpesvirus genomes. However, they generally express the same viral genes as non-transformed cells, and differ mainly in also carrying oncogenic host mutations. Infection, therefore, seems to play a triggering or accessory role in disease. The hit-and-run hypothesis proposes that cumulative host mutations can allow viral genomes to be lost entirely, such that cancers remaining virus-positive represent only a fraction of those to which infection contributes. This would have considerable implications for disease control. However, the hit-and-run hypothesis has so far lacked experimental support. Here, we tested it by using Cre-lox recombination to trigger transforming mutations in virus-infected cells. Thus, 'floxed' oncogene mice were infected with Cre recombinase-positive murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4). The emerging cancers showed the expected genetic changes but, by the time of presentation, almost all lacked viral genomes. Vaccination with a non-persistent MuHV-4 mutant nonetheless conferred complete protection. Equivalent human gammaherpesvirus vaccines could therefore potentially prevent not only viral genome-positive cancers, but possibly also some cancers less suspected of a viral origin because of viral genome loss.

Interference with dendritic cell populations limits early antigen presentation in chronic γ-herpesvirus-68 infection

A critical factor influencing the ability of the host to mount a robust immune response against a virus depends on the rapid recruitment of dendritic cells (DCs) presenting Ags. From the outset, this step sets the tempo for subsequent activation of virus-specific T cells. Despite this, how induction of the immune response might be modified by pathogens with the capacity to establish persistence is unclear. In this study, we have characterized the in vivo influence of murine gamma-herpesvirus K3-mediated interference with MHC class I in DCs that drive the initial adaptive immune response. We observed that gamma-herpesvirus could interfere with the very earliest phase of Ag presentation through K3 by directly targeting migratory and lymph node-resident DCs. These results show that a pathogen with the capacity to interfere with early Ag presentation can establish suboptimal conditions for rapid induction of the adaptive immune response and thus favor establishment of viral persistence.

An in vitro system for studying murid herpesvirus-4 latency and reactivation

The narrow species tropisms of Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) and the Kaposi's Sarcoma -associated Herpesvirus (KSHV) have made Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) an important tool for understanding how gammaherpesviruses colonize their hosts. However, while MuHV-4 pathogenesis studies can assign a quantitative importance to individual genes, the complexity of in vivo infection can make the underlying mechanisms hard to discern. Furthermore, the lack of good in vitro MuHV-4 latency/reactivation systems with which to dissect mechanisms at the cellular level has made some parallels with EBV and KSHV hard to draw. Here we achieved control of the MuHV-4 lytic/latent switch in vitro by modifying the 5′ untranslated region of its major lytic transactivator gene, ORF50. We terminated normal ORF50 transcripts by inserting a polyadenylation signal and transcribed ORF50 instead from a down-stream, doxycycline-inducible promoter. In this way we could establish fibroblast clones that maintained latent MuHV-4 episomes without detectable lytic replication. Productive virus reactivation was then induced with doxycycline. We used this system to show that the MuHV-4 K3 gene plays a significant role in protecting reactivating cells against CD8⁺ T cell recognition.

Antibody limits in vivo murid herpesvirus-4 replication by IgG Fc receptor-dependent functions

Antibody is an important antiviral defence. However, it is considered to do little against human gamma-herpesviruses, which establish predominantly latent infections regulated by T cells. One limitation on analysing these infections has been that latency is already well-established at clinical presentation; early infection may still be accessible to antibody. Here, using murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4), we tested the impact of adoptively transferred antibody on early gamma-herpesvirus infection. Immune sera and neutralizing and non-neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) all reduced acute lytic MuHV-4 replication. The reductions, even by neutralizing mAbs, were largely or completely dependent on host IgG Fc receptors. Therefore, passive antibody can blunt acute gamma-herpesvirus lytic infection, and does this principally by IgG Fc-dependent functions rather than by neutralization.

Immune control of mammalian gamma-herpesviruses: lessons from murid herpesvirus-4

Many acute viral infections can be controlled by vaccination; however, vaccinating against persistent infections remains problematic. Herpesviruses are a classic example. Here, we discuss their immune control, particularly that of gamma-herpesviruses, relating the animal model provided by murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) to human infections. The following points emerge: (i) CD8(+) T-cell evasion by herpesviruses confers a prominent role in host defence on CD4(+) T cells. CD4(+) T cells inhibit MuHV-4 lytic gene expression via gamma-interferon (IFN-gamma). By reducing the lytic secretion of immune evasion proteins, they may also help CD8(+) T cells to control virus-driven lymphoproliferation in mixed lytic/latent lesions. Similarly, CD4(+) T cells specific for Epstein-Barr virus lytic antigens could improve the impact of adoptively transferred, latent antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells. (ii) In general, viral immune evasion necessitates multiple host effectors for optimal control. Thus, subunit vaccines, which tend to prime single effectors, have proved less successful than attenuated virus mutants, which prime multiple effectors. Latency-deficient mutants could make safe and effective gamma-herpesvirus vaccines. (iii) The antibody response to MuHV-4 infection helps to prevent disease but is suboptimal for neutralization. Vaccinating virus carriers with virion fusion complex components improves their neutralization titres. Reducing the infectivity of herpesvirus carriers in this way could be a useful adjunct to vaccinating naive individuals with attenuated mutants.

Murid herpesvirus-4 lacking thymidine kinase reveals route-dependent requirements for host colonization

Gammaherpesviruses infect at least 90 % of the world's population. Infection control is difficult, in part because some fundamental features of host colonization remain unknown, for example whether normal latency establishment requires viral lytic functions. Since human gammaherpesviruses have narrow species tropisms, answering such questions requires animal models. Murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) provides one of the most tractable. MuHV-4 genomes delivered to the lung or peritoneum persist without lytic replication. However, they fail to disseminate systemically, suggesting that the outcome is inoculation route-dependent. After upper respiratory tract inoculation, MuHV-4 infects mice without involving the lungs or peritoneum. We examined whether host entry by this less invasive route requires the viral thymidine kinase (TK), a gene classically essential for lytic replication in terminally differentiated cells. MuHV-4 TK knockouts delivered to the lung or peritoneum were attenuated but still reached lymphoid tissue. In contrast, TK knockouts delivered to the upper respiratory tract largely failed to establish a detectable infection. Therefore TK, and by implication lytic replication, is required for MuHV-4 to establish a significant infection by a non-invasive route.

In vivo importance of heparan sulfate-binding glycoproteins for murid herpesvirus-4 infection

Many herpesviruses bind to heparan sulfate (HS). Murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) does so via its envelope glycoproteins gp70 and gH/gL. MuHV-4 gp150 further regulates an HS-independent interaction to make that HS-dependent too. Cell binding by MuHV-4 virions is consequently strongly HS-dependent. Gp70 and gH/gL show some in vitro redundancy: an antibody-mediated blockade of HS binding by one is well tolerated, whereas a blockade of both severely impairs infection. In order to understand the importance of HS binding for MuHV-4 in vivo, we generated mutants lacking both gL and gp70. As expected, gL(-)gp70(-) MuHV-4 showed very poor cell binding. It infected mice at high dose but not at low dose, indicating defective host entry. But once entry occurred, host colonization, which for MuHV-4 is relatively independent of the infection dose, was remarkably normal. The gL(-)gp70(-) entry deficit was much greater than that of gL(-) or gp70(-) single knockouts. And gp150 disruption, which allows HS-independent cell binding, largely rescued the gL(-)gp70(-) cell binding and host entry deficits. Thus, it appeared that MuHV-4 HS binding is important in vivo, principally for efficient host entry.

In vivo imaging of murid herpesvirus-4 infection

Luciferase-based imaging allows a global view of microbial pathogenesis. We applied this technique to gammaherpesvirus infection by inserting a luciferase expression cassette into the genome of murine herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4). The recombinant virus strongly expressed luciferase in lytically infected cells without significant attenuation. We used it to compare different routes of virus inoculation. After intranasal infection of anaesthetized mice, luciferase was expressed in the nose and lungs for 7-10 days and in lymphoid tissue, most consistently the superficial cervical lymph nodes, for up to 30 days. Gastrointestinal infection was not observed. Intraperitoneal infection was very different to intranasal, with strong luciferase expression in the liver, kidneys, intestines, reproductive tract and spleen, but none in the nose or lungs. The nose has not previously been identified as a site of MuHV-4 infection. After intranasal infection of non-anaesthetized mice, it was the only site of non-lymphoid luciferase expression. Nevertheless, lymphoid colonization and persistence were still established, even at low inoculation doses. In contrast, virus delivered orally was very poorly infectious. Inoculation route therefore had a major impact on pathogenesis. Low dose intranasal infection without anaesthesia seems most likely to mimic natural transmission, and may therefore be particularly informative about normal viral gene functions.

Dendritic cells in viral infections

Antigen presenting cells (APCs) are recognized as key initiators of adaptive immunity, particularly to pathogens, by eliciting a rapid and potent immune attack on infected cells. Amongst APCs, dendritic cells (DCs) are specially equipped to initiate and regulate immune responses in a manner that depends on signals they receive from microbes and their cellular environment. To achieve this, they are equipped with highly efficient mechanisms that allow them to detect pathogens, to capture, process and present antigens, and to activate and guide the differentiation of T cells into effector and memory cells. DCs can no longer be considered as a homogeneous cell type performing a single function, but are heterogeneous both in phenotype, function and dependence on inflammatory stimuli for their formation and responsiveness. Recent studies of DC subtypes have highlighted the contrasting roles of different professional APCs in activating divergent arms of the immune response towards pathogens. In this review, we discuss the progress that has been made in dissecting the attributes of different DC subsets that migrate into, or reside permanently, within lymphoid tissues and their putative roles in the induction of the anti-viral immune response.

A single CD8+ T cell epitope sets the long-term latent load of a murid herpesvirus

The pathogenesis of persistent viral infections depends critically on long-term viral loads. Yet what determines these loads is largely unknown. Here, we show that a single CD8⁺ T cell epitope sets the long-term latent load of a lymphotropic gamma-herpesvirus, Murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4). The MuHV-4 M2 latency gene contains an H2-K^d -restricted T cell epitope, and wild-type but not M2⁻ MuHV-4 was limited to very low level persistence in H2^d mice. Mutating the epitope anchor residues increased viral loads and re-introducing the epitope reduced them again. Like the Kaposi's sarcoma–associated herpesvirus K1, M2 shows a high frequency of non-synonymous mutations, suggesting that it has been selected for epitope loss. In vivo competition experiments demonstrated directly that epitope presentation has a major impact on viral fitness. Thus, host MHC class I and viral epitope expression interact to set the long-term virus load.

Persistent viruses present a major challenge to the immune response. Gamma-herpesviruses are a prime example, and the archetypal family member, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), has been studied for many years. A major unanswered question with EBV is why long-term virus loads—a key pathogenesis outcome—vary so widely between individuals. As most EBV studies are necessarily descriptive, the murid gamma-herpesvirus MuHV-4 provides an important focus of pathogenesis research. Here, we used MuHV-4 to address what determines long-term gamma-herpesvirus loads. We find a major role for a single MHC class I–restricted latency epitope. This reflects that latency-associated viral immune evasion and transcriptional silencing create a unique setting, in which the pool of possible epitopes is small enough for epitope loss to have a significant impact on viral fitness. Our data suggest that polymorphisms in viral latency genes and in host HLA class I together determine long-term viral loads.

Lack of heparan sulfate expression in B-cell lines: implications for Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and murine gammaherpesvirus 68 infections

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and its murine homolog, murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68), are lymphotropic viruses that establish latent infection in their host. Surprisingly, while B cells are the main viral reservoir in vivo, B-cell lines are poorly permissive to infection by either MHV68 or KSHV. Here, we report that most B-cell lines express very little to no cell surface heparan sulfate (HS), a glycosaminoglycan that is essential for infection by these viruses. We found that Ext1, a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of HS, was expressed at a low level in these cells. Transfection of B-cell lines with Ext1 restored high HS expression at the cell surface. Overexpression of Ext1 in murine A20 and M12 B-cell lines increased MHV68 surface binding and enhanced the efficiency of infection. Finally, although it was not sufficient to allow efficient infection, the expression of HS on BJAB cells promoted KSHV binding at the cell surface. Thus, our results indicate that MHV68 and KSHV cycles are blocked in B-cell lines at the binding step due to a lack of surface HS.

Multiple functions for ORF75c in murid herpesvirus-4 infection

All gamma-herpesviruses encode at least one homolog of the cellular enzyme formyl-glycineamide-phosphoribosyl-amidotransferase. Murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) encodes 3 (ORFs 75a, 75b and 75c), suggesting that at least some copies have acquired new functions. Here we show that the corresponding proteins are all present in virions and localize to infected cell nuclei. Despite these common features, ORFs 75a and 75b did not substitute functionally for a lack of ORF75c, as ORF75c virus knockouts were severely impaired for lytic replication in vitro and for host colonization in vivo. They showed 2 defects: incoming capsids failed to migrate to the nuclear margin following membrane fusion, and genomes that did reach the nucleus failed to initiate normal gene expression. The latter defect was associated with a failure of in-coming virions to disassemble PML bodies. The capsid transport deficit seemed to be functionally more important, since ORF75c⁻ MuHV-4 infected both PML⁺ and PML⁻ cells poorly. The original host enzyme has therefore evolved into a set of distinct and multi-functional viral tegument proteins. One important function is moving incoming capsids to the nuclear margin for viral genome delivery.

An essential role for the proximal but not the distal cytoplasmic tail of glycoprotein M in murid herpesvirus 4 infection

Murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) provides a tractable model with which to define common, conserved features of gamma-herpesvirus biology. The multi-membrane spanning glycoprotein M (gM) is one of only 4 glycoproteins that are essential for MuHV-4 lytic replication. gM binds to gN and is thought to function mainly secondary envelopment and virion egress, for which several predicted trafficking motifs in its C-terminal cytoplasmic tail could be important. We tested the contribution of the gM cytoplasmic tail to MuHV-4 lytic replication by making recombinant viruses with varying C-terminal deletions. Removing an acidic cluster and a distal YXXΦ motif altered the capsid distribution somewhat in infected cells but had little effect on virus replication, either in vitro or in vivo. In contrast, removing a proximal YXXΦ motif as well completely prevented productive replication. gM was still expressed, but unlike its longer forms showed only limited colocalization with co-transfected gN, and in the context of whole virus appeared to support gN expression less well. We conclude that some elements of the gM cytoplasmic tail are dispensible for MuHV-4 replication, but the tail as a whole is not.

A gamma-herpesvirus glycoprotein complex manipulates actin to promote viral spread

Viruses lack self-propulsion. To move in multi-cellular hosts they must therefore manipulate infected cells. Herpesviruses provide an archetype for many aspects of host manipulation, but only for alpha-herpesviruses in is there much information about they move. Other herpesviruses are not necessarily the same. Here we show that Murine gamma-herpesvirus-68 (MHV-68) induces the outgrowth of long, branched plasma membrane fronds to create an intercellular network for virion traffic. The fronds were actin-based and RhoA-dependent. Time-lapse imaging showed that the infected cell surface became highly motile and that virions moved on the fronds. This plasma membrane remodelling was driven by the cytoplasmic tail of gp48, a MHV-68 glycoprotein previously implicated in intercellular viral spread. The MHV-68 ORF58 was also required, but its role was simply transporting gp48 to the plasma membrane, since a gp48 mutant exported without ORF58 did not require ORF58 to form membrane fronds either. Together, gp48/ORF58 were sufficient to induce fronds in transfected cells, as were the homologous BDLF2/BMRF2 of Epstein-Barr virus. Gp48/ORF58 therefore represents a conserved module by which gamma-herpesviruses rearrange cellular actin to increase intercellular contacts and thereby promote their spread.