Defining the transcriptional and cellular landscape of type 1 diabetes in the NOD mouse

Network approach reveals preferential T-cell and macrophage association with α-linked β-cells in early stage of insulitis in NOD mice

One of the challenges in studying islet inflammation - insulitis - is that it is a transient phenomenon. Traditional reporting of the insulitis progression is based on cumulative, donor-averaged values of leucocyte density in the vicinity of pancreatic islets, that hinders intra- and inter-islet heterogeneity of disease progression. Here, we aimed to understand why insulitis is non-uniform, often with peri-insulitis lesions formed on one side of an islet. To achieve this, we demonstrated applicability of network theory in detangling intra-islet multi-cellular interactions during insulitis. Specifically, we asked the question "what is unique about regions of the islet which interact with immune cells first". This study utilized the non-obese diabetic mouse model of type one diabetes and examined the interplay among α-, β-, T-cells, myeloid cells, and macrophages in pancreatic islets during the progression of insulitis. Disease evolution was tracked based on T/β cell ratio in individual islets. In the early stage, we found that immune cells are preferentially interacting with α-cell-rich regions of an islet. At the islet periphery α-linked β-cells were found to be targeted significantly more compared to those without α-cell neighbors. Additionally, network analysis revealed increased T-myeloid, and T-macrophage interactions with all β-cells.

A novel subpopulation of monocytes with a strong interferon signature indicated by SIGLEC-1 is present in patients with in recent-onset type 1 diabetes

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Type 1 diabetes is a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease characterised by pancreatic beta cell destruction. In this study, we explored the pathogenic immune responses in initiation of type 1 diabetes and new immunological targets for type 1 diabetes prevention and treatment.

METHODS

We obtained peripheral blood samples from four individuals with newly diagnosed latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) and from four healthy control participants. Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) was performed on peripheral blood mononuclear cells to uncover transcriptomic profiles of early LADA. Validation was performed through flow cytometry in a cohort comprising 54 LADA, 17 adult-onset type 2 diabetes, and 26 healthy adults, matched using propensity score matching (PSM) based on age and sex. A similar PSM method matched 15 paediatric type 1 diabetes patients with 15 healthy children. Further flow cytometry analysis was performed in both peripheral blood and pancreatic tissues of non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice. Additionally, cell adoptive transfer and clearance assays were performed in NOD mice to explore the role of this monocyte subset in islet inflammation and onset of type 1 diabetes.

RESULTS

The scRNA-seq data showed that upregulated genes in peripheral T cells and monocytes from early-onset LADA patients were primarily enriched in the IFN signalling pathway. A new cluster of classical monocytes (cluster 4) was identified, and the proportion of this cluster was significantly increased in individuals with LADA compared with healthy control individuals (11.93% vs 5.93%, p=0.017) and that exhibited a strong IFN signature marked by SIGLEC-1 (encoding sialoadhesin). These SIGLEC-1+ monocytes expressed high levels of genes encoding C-C chemokine receptors 1 or 2, as well as genes for chemoattractants for T cells and natural killer cells. They also showed relatively low levels of genes for co-stimulatory and HLA molecules. Flow cytometry analysis verified the elevated levels of SIGLEC-1+ monocytes in the peripheral blood of participants with LADA and paediatric type 1 diabetes compared with healthy control participants and those with type 2 diabetes. Interestingly, the proportion of SIGLEC-1+ monocytes positively correlated with disease activity and negatively with disease duration in the LADA patients. In NOD mice, the proportion of SIGLEC-1+ monocytes in the peripheral blood was highest at the age of 6 weeks (16.88%), while the peak occurred at 12 weeks in pancreatic tissues (23.65%). Adoptive transfer experiments revealed a significant acceleration in diabetes onset in the SIGLEC-1+ group compared with the SIGLEC-1- or saline control group.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Our study identified a novel group of SIGLEC-1+ monocytes that may serve as an important indicator for early diagnosis, activity assessment and monitoring of therapeutic efficacy in type 1 diabetes, and may also be a novel target for preventing and treating type 1 diabetes.

DATA AVAILABILITY

RNA-seq data have been deposited in the GSA human database ( https://ngdc.cncb.ac.cn/gsa-human/ ) under accession number HRA003649.

Redox regulation of m6A methyltransferase METTL3 in β-cells controls the innate immune response in type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is characterized by the destruction of pancreatic β-cells. Several observations have renewed the interest in β-cell RNA sensors and editors. Here, we report that N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is an adaptive β-cell safeguard mechanism that controls the amplitude and duration of the antiviral innate immune response at T1D onset. m6A writer methyltransferase 3 (METTL3) levels increase drastically in β-cells at T1D onset but rapidly decline with disease progression. m6A sequencing revealed the m6A hypermethylation of several key innate immune mediators, including OAS1, OAS2, OAS3 and ADAR1 in human islets and EndoC-βH1 cells at T1D onset. METTL3 silencing enhanced 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase levels by increasing its mRNA stability. Consistently, in vivo gene therapy to prolong Mettl3 overexpression specifically in β-cells delayed diabetes progression in the non-obese diabetic mouse model of T1D. Mechanistically, the accumulation of reactive oxygen species blocked upregulation of METTL3 in response to cytokines, while physiological levels of nitric oxide enhanced METTL3 levels and activity. Furthermore, we report that the cysteines in position C276 and C326 in the zinc finger domains of the METTL3 protein are sensitive to S-nitrosylation and are important to the METTL3-mediated regulation of oligoadenylate synthase mRNA stability in human β-cells. Collectively, we report that m6A regulates the innate immune response at the β-cell level during the onset of T1D in humans.

Gut dysbiosis promotes islet-autoimmunity by increasing T-cell attraction in islets via CXCL10 chemokine

CXCL10 is an IFNγ-inducible chemokine implicated in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes. T-cells attracted to pancreatic islets produce IFNγ, but it is unclear what attracts the first IFNγ -producing T-cells in islets. Gut dysbiosis following administration of pathobionts induced CXCL10 expression in pancreatic islets of healthy non-diabetes-prone (C57BL/6) mice and depended on TLR4-signaling, and in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, gut dysbiosis induced also CXCR3 chemokine receptor in IGRP-reactive islet-specific T-cells in pancreatic lymph node. In amounts typical to low-grade endotoxemia, bacterial lipopolysaccharide induced CXCL10 production in isolated islets of wild type and RAG1 or IFNG-receptor-deficient but not type-I-IFN-receptor-deficient NOD mice, dissociating lipopolysaccharide-induced CXCL10 production from T-cells and IFNγ. Although mostly myeloid-cell dependent, also β-cells showed activation of innate immune signaling pathways and Cxcl10 expression in response to lipopolysaccharide indicating their independent sensitivity to dysbiosis. Thus, CXCL10 induction in response to low levels of lipopolysaccharide may allow islet-specific T-cells imprinted in pancreatic lymph node to enter in healthy islets independently of IFN-g, and thus link gut dysbiosis to early islet-autoimmunity via dysbiosis-associated low-grade endotoxemia.

Inflammation versus regulation: how interferon-gamma contributes to type 1 diabetes pathogenesis

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease with onset from early childhood. The insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells are destroyed by CD8⁺ cytotoxic T cells. The disease is challenging to study mechanistically in humans because it is not possible to biopsy the pancreatic islets and the disease is most active prior to the time of clinical diagnosis. The NOD mouse model, with many similarities to, but also some significant differences from human diabetes, provides an opportunity, in a single in-bred genotype, to explore pathogenic mechanisms in molecular detail. The pleiotropic cytokine IFN-γ is believed to contribute to pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes. Evidence of IFN-γ signaling in the islets, including activation of the JAK-STAT pathway and upregulation of MHC class I, are hallmarks of the disease. IFN-γ has a proinflammatory role that is important for homing of autoreactive T cells into islets and direct recognition of beta cells by CD8⁺ T cells. We recently showed that IFN-γ also controls proliferation of autoreactive T cells. Therefore, inhibition of IFN-γ does not prevent type 1 diabetes and is unlikely to be a good therapeutic target. In this manuscript we review the contrasting roles of IFN-γ in driving inflammation and regulating the number of antigen specific CD8⁺ T cells in type 1 diabetes. We also discuss the potential to use JAK inhibitors as therapy for type 1 diabetes, to inhibit both cytokine-mediated inflammation and proliferation of T cells.

A discovery-based proteomics approach identifies protein disulphide isomerase (PDIA1) as a biomarker of β cell stress in type 1 diabetes

BACKGROUND

Stress responses within the β cell have been linked with both increased β cell death and accelerated immune activation in type 1 diabetes (T1D). At present, information on the timing and scope of these responses as well as disease-related changes in islet β cell protein expression during T1D development is lacking.

METHODS

Data independent acquisition-mass spectrometry was performed on islets collected longitudinally from NOD mice and NOD-SCID mice rendered diabetic through T cell adoptive transfer.

FINDINGS

In islets collected from female NOD mice at 10, 12, and 14 weeks of age, we found a time-restricted upregulation of proteins involved in stress mitigation and maintenance of β cell function, followed by loss of expression of protective proteins that heralded diabetes onset. EIF2 signalling and the unfolded protein response, mTOR signalling, mitochondrial function, and oxidative phosphorylation were commonly modulated pathways in both NOD mice and NOD-SCID mice rendered acutely diabetic by T cell adoptive transfer. Protein disulphide isomerase A1 (PDIA1) was upregulated in NOD islets and pancreatic sections from human organ donors with autoantibody positivity or T1D. Moreover, PDIA1 plasma levels were increased in pre-diabetic NOD mice and in the serum of children with recent-onset T1D compared to non-diabetic controls.

INTERPRETATION

We identified a core set of modulated pathways across distinct mouse models of T1D and identified PDIA1 as a potential human biomarker of β cell stress in T1D.

FUNDING

NIH (R01DK093954, DK127308, U01DK127786, UC4DK104166, R01DK060581, R01GM118470, and 5T32DK101001-09). VA Merit Award I01BX001733. JDRF (2-SRA-2019-834-S-B, 2-SRA-2018-493-A-B, 3-PDF-20016-199-A-N, 5-CDA-2022-1176-A-N, and 3-PDF-2017-385-A-N).

Pancreatic Islet Cells Response to IFNγ Relies on Their Spatial Location within an Islet

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an auto-immune disease characterized by the progressive destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells. While beta cells are the target of the immune attack, the other islet endocrine cells, namely the alpha and delta cells, can also be affected by the inflammatory milieu. Here, using a flow cytometry-based strategy, we compared the impact of IFNγ, one of the main cytokines involved in T1D, on the three endocrine cell subsets isolated from C57BL/6 mouse islets. RNA-seq analyses revealed that alpha and delta cells exposed in vitro to IFNγ display a transcriptomic profile very similar to that of beta cells, with an increased expression of inflammation key genes such as MHC class I molecules, the CXCL10 chemokine and the programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), three hallmarks of IFNγ signaling. Interestingly, at low IFNγ concentration, we observed two beta cell populations (responders and non-responders) based on PD-L1 protein expression. Our data indicate that this differential sensitivity relies on the location of the cells within the islet rather than on the existence of two different beta cells subsets. The same findings were corroborated by the in vivo analysis of pancreatic islets from the non-obese diabetic mouse model of T1D, showing more intense PD-L1 staining on endocrine cells close to immune infiltrate. Collectively, our work demonstrates that alpha and delta cells are as sensitive as beta cells to IFNγ, and suggests a gradual diffusion of the cytokine into an islet. These observations provide novel insights into the in situ inflammatory processes occurring in T1D progression.

Beta cell and immune cell interactions in autoimmune type 1 diabetes: How they meet and talk to each other

Background

Scope of review

Major conclusions

Tolerogenic Immune-Modifying Nanoparticles Encapsulating Multiple Recombinant Pancreatic β Cell Proteins Prevent Onset and Progression of Type 1 Diabetes in Nonobese Diabetic Mice

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease characterized by T and B cell responses to proteins expressed by insulin-producing pancreatic β cells, inflammatory lesions within islets (insulitis), and β cell loss. We previously showed that Ag-specific tolerance targeting single β cell protein epitopes is effective in preventing T1D induced by transfer of monospecific diabetogenic CD4 and CD8 transgenic T cells to NOD.scid mice. However, tolerance induction to individual diabetogenic proteins, for example, GAD65 (glutamic acid decarboxylase 65) or insulin, has failed to ameliorate T1D both in wild-type NOD mice and in the clinic. Initiation and progression of T1D is likely due to activation of T cells specific for multiple diabetogenic epitopes. To test this hypothesis, recombinant insulin, GAD65, and chromogranin A proteins were encapsulated within poly(d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (COUR CNPs) to assess regulatory T cell induction, inhibition of Ag-specific T cell responses, and blockade of T1D induction/progression in NOD mice. Whereas treatment of NOD mice with CNPs containing a single protein inhibited the corresponding Ag-specific T cell response, inhibition of overt T1D development only occurred when all three diabetogenic proteins were included within the CNPs (CNP-T1D). Blockade of T1D following CNP-T1D tolerization was characterized by regulatory T cell induction and a significant decrease in both peri-insulitis and immune cell infiltration into pancreatic islets. As we have recently published that CNP treatment is both safe and induced Ag-specific tolerance in a phase 1/2a celiac disease clinical trial, Ag-specific tolerance induced by nanoparticles encapsulating multiple diabetogenic proteins is a promising approach to T1D treatment.

Cardiovascular GPCR regulation by regulator of G protein signaling proteins

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play pivotal roles in regulation of cardiovascular homeostasis across all vertebrate species, including humans. In terms of normal cellular function, termination of GPCR signaling via the heterotrimeric G proteins is equally (if not more) important to its stimulation. The Regulator of G protein Signaling (RGS) protein superfamily are indispensable for GPCR signaling cessation at the cell membrane, and thus, for cellular control of GPCR signaling and function. Perturbations in both activation and termination of G protein signaling underlie many examples of cardiovascular dysfunction and heart disease pathogenesis. Despite the plethora of over 30 members comprising the mammalian RGS protein superfamily, each member interacts with a specific set of second messenger pathways and GPCR types/subtypes in a tissue/cell type-specific manner. An increasing number of studies over the past two decades have provided compelling evidence for the involvement of various RGS proteins in physiological regulation of cardiovascular GPCRs and, consequently, also in the pathophysiology of several cardiovascular ailments. This chapter summarizes the current understanding of the functional roles of RGS proteins as they pertain to cardiovascular, i.e., heart, blood vessel, and platelet GPCR function, with a particular focus on their implications for chronic heart failure pathophysiology and therapy.

Identification of Novel Disease-Relevant Genes and Pathways in the Pathogenesis of Type 1 Diabetes: A Potential Defect in Pancreatic Iron Homeostasis

Multiple pathways contribute to the pathophysiological development of type 1 diabetes (T1D); however, the exact mechanisms involved are unclear. We performed differential gene expression analysis in pancreatic islets of NOD mice versus age-matched congenic NOD.B10 controls to identify genes that may contribute to disease pathogenesis. Novel genes related to extracellular matrix development and glucagon and insulin signaling/secretion were changed in NOD mice during early inflammation. During "respective" insulitis, the expression of genes encoding multiple chemosensory olfactory receptors were upregulated, and during "destructive" insulitis, the expression of genes involved in antimicrobial defense and iron homeostasis were downregulated. Islet inflammation reduced the expression of Hamp that encodes hepcidin. Hepcidin is expressed in β-cells and serves as the key regulator of iron homeostasis. We showed that Hamp and hepcidin levels were lower, while iron levels were higher in the pancreas of 12-week-old NOD versus NOD.B10 mice, suggesting that a loss of iron homeostasis may occur in the islets during the onset of "destructive" insulitis. Interestingly, we showed that the severity of NOD disease correlates with dietary iron intake. NOD mice maintained on low-iron diets had a lower incidence of hyperglycemia, while those maintained on high-iron diets had an earlier onset and higher incidence of disease, suggesting that high iron exposure combined with a loss of pancreatic iron homeostasis may exacerbate NOD disease. This mechanism may explain the link seen between high iron exposure and the increased risk for T1D in humans.

De novo germline mutation in the dual specificity phosphatase 10 gene accelerates autoimmune diabetes

Insulin-dependent or type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a polygenic autoimmune disease. In humans, more than 60 loci carrying common variants that confer disease susceptibility have been identified by genome-wide association studies, with a low individual risk contribution for most variants excepting those of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region (40 to 50% of risk); hence the importance of missing heritability due in part to rare variants. Nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice recapitulate major features of the human disease including genetic aspects with a key role for the MHC haplotype and a series of Idd loci. Here we mapped in NOD mice rare variants arising from genetic drift and significantly impacting disease risk. To that aim we established by selective breeding two sublines of NOD mice from our inbred NOD/Nck colony exhibiting a significant difference in T1D incidence. Whole-genome sequencing of high (H)- and low (L)-incidence sublines (NOD/Nck^H and NOD/Nck^L) revealed a limited number of subline-specific variants. Treating age of diabetes onset as a quantitative trait in automated meiotic mapping (AMM), enhanced susceptibility in NOD/Nck^H mice was unambiguously attributed to a recessive missense mutation of Dusp10, which encodes a dual specificity phosphatase. The causative effect of the mutation was verified by targeting Dusp10 with CRISPR-Cas9 in NOD/Nck^L mice, a manipulation that significantly increased disease incidence. The Dusp10 mutation resulted in islet cell down-regulation of type I interferon signature genes, which may exert protective effects against autoimmune aggression. De novo mutations akin to rare human susceptibility variants can alter the T1D phenotype.

Interactions between islets and regulatory immune cells in health and type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes results from defects in immune self-tolerance that lead to inflammatory infiltrate in pancreatic islets, beta cell dysfunction and T cell-mediated killing of beta cells. Although therapies that broadly inhibit immunity show promise to mitigate autoinflammatory damage caused by effector T cells, these are unlikely to permanently reset tolerance or promote regeneration of the already diminished pool of beta cells. An emerging concept is that certain populations of immune cells may have the capacity to both promote tolerance and support the restoration of beta cells by supporting proliferation, differentiation and/or regeneration. Here we will highlight three immune cell types-macrophages, regulatory T cells and innate lymphoid cells-for which there is evidence of dual roles of immune regulation and tissue regeneration. We explore how findings in this area from other fields might be extrapolated to type 1 diabetes and highlight recent discoveries in the context of type 1 diabetes. We also discuss technological advances that are supporting this area of research and contextualise new therapeutic avenues to consider for type 1 diabetes.

The Diabetes Gene JAZF1 Is Essential for the Homeostatic Control of Ribosome Biogenesis and Function in Metabolic Stress

The ability of pancreatic β-cells to respond to increased demands for insulin during metabolic stress critically depends on proper ribosome homeostasis and function. Excessive and long-lasting stimulation of insulin secretion can elicit endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, unfolded protein response, and β-cell apoptosis. Here we show that the diabetes susceptibility gene JAZF1 is a key transcriptional regulator of ribosome biogenesis, global protein, and insulin translation. JAZF1 is excluded from the nucleus, and its expression levels are reduced upon metabolic stress and in diabetes. Genetic deletion of Jazf1 results in global impairment of protein synthesis that is mediated by defects in ribosomal protein synthesis, ribosomal RNA processing, and aminoacyl-synthetase expression, thereby inducing ER stress and increasing β-cell susceptibility to apoptosis. Importantly, JAZF1 function and its pleiotropic actions are impaired in islets of murine T2D and in human islets exposed to metabolic stress. Our study identifies JAZF1 as a central mediator of metabolic stress in β-cells.

Type I interferons as key players in pancreatic β-cell dysfunction in type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by pancreatic islet inflammation (insulitis) and specific pancreatic β-cell destruction by an immune attack. Although the precise underlying mechanisms leading to the autoimmune assault remain poorly understood, it is well accepted that insulitis takes place in the context of a conflicting dialogue between pancreatic β-cells and the immune cells. Moreover, both host genetic background (i.e., candidate genes) and environmental factors (e.g., viral infections) contribute to this inadequate dialogue. Accumulating evidence indicates that type I interferons (IFNs), cytokines that are crucial for both innate and adaptive immune responses, act as key links between environmental and genetic risk factors in the development of T1D. This chapter summarizes some relevant pathways involved in β-cell dysfunction and death, and briefly reviews how enteroviral infections and genetic susceptibility can impact insulitis. Moreover, we present the current evidence showing that, in β-cells, type I IFN signaling pathway activation leads to several outcomes, such as long-lasting major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I hyperexpression, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, epigenetic changes, and induction of posttranscriptional as well as posttranslational modifications. MHC class I overexpression, when combined with ER stress and posttranscriptional/posttranslational modifications, might lead to sustained neoantigen presentation to immune system and β-cell apoptosis. This knowledge supports the concept that type I IFNs are implicated in the early stages of T1D pathogenesis. Finally, we highlight the promising therapeutic avenues for T1D treatment directed at type I IFN signaling pathway.

Insulin Receptor-Expressing T Cells Appear in Individuals at Risk for Type 1 Diabetes and Can Move into the Pancreas in C57BL/6 Transgenic Mice

Insulin receptor (IR) expression on the T cell surface can indicate an activated state; however, the IR is also chemotactic, enabling T cells with high IR expression to physically move toward insulin. In humans with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and the NOD mouse model, a T cell-mediated autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic β cells occurs. In previous work, when purified IR⁺ and IR^- T cells were sorted from diabetic NOD mice and transferred into irradiated nondiabetic NOD mice, only those that received IR⁺ T cells developed insulitis and diabetes. In this study, peripheral blood samples from individuals with T1D (new onset to 14 y of duration), relatives at high-risk for T1D, defined by positivity for islet autoantibodies, and healthy controls were examined for frequency of IR⁺ T cells. High-risk individuals had significantly higher numbers of IR⁺ T cells as compared with those with T1D (p < 0.01) and controls (p < 0.001); however, the percentage of IR⁺ T cells in circulation did not differ significantly between T1D and control subjects. With the hypothesis that IR⁺ T cells traffic to the pancreas in T1D, we developed a (to our knowledge) novel mouse model exhibiting a FLAG-tagged mouse IR on T cells on the C57BL/6 background, which is not susceptible to developing T1D. Interestingly, these C57BL/6-CD3FLAGmIR/mfm mice showed evidence of increased IR⁺ T cell trafficking into the islets compared with C57BL/6 controls (p < 0.001). This transgenic animal model provides a (to our knowledge) novel platform for investigating the influence of IR expression on T cell trafficking and the development of insulitis.

Harnessing CD8+ T-cell exhaustion to treat type 1 diabetes

Although immune interventions have shown great promise in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) clinical trials, none are yet in routine clinical use or able to achieve insulin independence in patients. In addition to this, the principles of T1D treatment remain essentially unchanged since the isolation of insulin, almost a century ago. T1D is characterized by insulin deficiency as a result of destruction of insulin-producing beta cells mediated by autoreactive T cells. Therapies that target beta-cell antigen-specific T cells are needed to prevent T1D. CD8⁺ T-cell exhaustion is an emerging area of research in chronic infection, cancer immunotherapy, and more recently, autoimmunity. Recent data suggest that exhausted T-cell populations are associated with improved markers of T1D. T-cell exhaustion is both characterized and mediated by inhibitory receptors. This review aims to identify which inhibitory receptors may prove useful to induce T-cell exhaustion to treat T1D and identify limitations and gaps in the current literature.

Single-cell RNA sequencing of murine islets shows high cellular complexity at all stages of autoimmune diabetes

Tissue-specific autoimmune diseases are driven by activation of diverse immune cells in the target organs. However, the molecular signatures of immune cell populations over time in an autoimmune process remain poorly defined. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, we performed an unbiased examination of diverse islet-infiltrating cells during autoimmune diabetes in the nonobese diabetic mouse. The data revealed a landscape of transcriptional heterogeneity across the lymphoid and myeloid compartments. Memory CD4 and cytotoxic CD8 T cells appeared early in islets, accompanied by regulatory cells with distinct phenotypes. Surprisingly, we observed a dramatic remodeling in the islet microenvironment, in which the resident macrophages underwent a stepwise activation program. This process resulted in polarization of the macrophage subpopulations into a terminal proinflammatory state. This study provides a single-cell atlas defining the staging of autoimmune diabetes and reveals that diabetic autoimmunity is driven by transcriptionally distinct cell populations specialized in divergent biological functions.

Context Is Key: Delineating the Unique Functions of IFNα and IFNβ in Disease

Type I interferons (IFNs) are critical effector cytokines of the immune system and were originally known for their important role in protecting against viral infections; however, they have more recently been shown to play protective or detrimental roles in many disease states. Type I IFNs consist of IFNα, IFNβ, IFNϵ, IFNκ, IFNω, and a few others, and they all signal through a shared receptor to exert a wide range of biological activities, including antiviral, antiproliferative, proapoptotic, and immunomodulatory effects. Though the individual type I IFN subtypes possess overlapping functions, there is growing appreciation that they also have unique properties. In this review, we summarize some of the mechanisms underlying differential expression of and signaling by type I IFNs, and we discuss examples of differential functions of IFNα and IFNβ in models of infectious disease, cancer, and autoimmunity.

IL-17F induces inflammation, dysfunction and cell death in mouse islets

Type 17 immune responses, typified by the production of the cytokines IL-17A and IL-17F, have been implicated in the development of type 1 diabetes in animal models and human patients, however the underlying pathogenic mechanisms have not been clearly elucidated. While previous studies show that IL-17A enhances inflammatory gene expression and cell death in mouse β-cells and human islets, the function of IL-17F in pancreatic β-cells is completely untested to date. Here we show that IL-17F exhibits potent pathogenic effects in mouse β-cell lines and islets. IL-17F signals via the IL-17RA and -RC subunits in β-cells and in combination with other inflammatory cytokines induces expression of chemokine transcripts, suppresses the expression of β-cell identity genes and impairs glucose stimulated insulin secretion. Further IL-17F induces cell death in primary mouse islets. This occurs via Jnk, p38 and NF-κB dependent induction of Nos2 and is completely ablated in the presence of an inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibitor. Together these data indicate that IL-17F possesses similar pathogenic activities to IL-17A in mouse β-cell lines and islets and is likely to be a type 17 associated pathogenic factor in type 1 diabetes.

NKG2D Signaling Within the Pancreatic Islets Reduces NOD Diabetes and Increases Protective Central Memory CD8+ T-Cell Numbers

NKG2D is implicated in autoimmune diabetes. However, the role of this receptor in diabetes pathogenesis is unclear owing to conflicting results with studies involving global inhibition of NKG2D signaling. We found that NKG2D and its ligands are present in human pancreata, with expression of NKG2D and its ligands increased in the islets of patients with type 1 diabetes. To directly assess the role of NKG2D in the pancreas, we generated NOD mice that express an NKG2D ligand in β-islet cells. Diabetes was reduced in these mice. The reduction corresponded with a decrease in the effector to central memory CD8⁺ T-cell ratio. Further, NKG2D signaling during in vitro activation of both mouse and human CD8⁺ T cells resulted in an increased number of central memory CD8⁺ T cells and diabetes protection by central memory CD8⁺ T cells in vivo. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that there is a protective role for central memory CD8⁺ T cells in autoimmune diabetes and that this protection is enhanced with NKG2D signaling. These findings stress the importance of anatomical location when determining the role NKG2D signaling plays, as well as when developing therapeutic strategies targeting this pathway, in type 1 diabetes development.

Cutting Edge: ST8Sia6-Generated α-2,8-Disialic Acids Mitigate Hyperglycemia in Multiple Low-Dose Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes

The immune system contains a series of checks and balances that maintain tolerance and prevent autoimmunity. Sialic acid-binding Ig-type lectins (Siglecs) are cell surface receptors found on immune cells and inhibit inflammation by recruiting protein tyrosine phosphatases to ITIMs. Islet-resident macrophages express Siglec-E, and Siglec-E expression decreases on islet-resident macrophages as insulitis progresses in the NOD mouse. The sialyltransferase ST8Sia6 generates α-2,8-disialic acids that are ligands for Siglec-E in vivo. We hypothesized that engaging Siglec-E through ST8Sia6-generated ligands may inhibit the development of immune-mediated diabetes. Constitutive overexpression of ST8Sia6 in pancreatic β cells mitigated hyperglycemia in the multiple low-dose streptozotocin model of diabetes, demonstrating that engagement of this immune receptor facilitates tolerance in the setting of inflammation and autoimmune disease.

Chemokines as Drivers of the Autoimmune Destruction in Type 1 Diabetes: Opportunity for Therapeutic Intervention in Consideration of an Optimal Treatment Schedule

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is mainly precipitated by the destruction of insulin-producing β-cells in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans by autoaggressive T cells. The etiology of the disease is still not clear, but besides genetic predisposition the exposure to environmental triggers seems to play a major role. Virus infection of islets has been demonstrated in biopsies of T1D patients, but there is still no firm proof that such an infection indeed results in islet-specific autoimmunity. However, virus infection results in a local inflammation with expression of inflammatory factors, such as cytokines and chemokines that attract and activate immune cells, including potential autoreactive T cells. Many chemokines have been found to be elevated in the serum and expressed by islet cells of T1D patients. In mouse models, it has been demonstrated that β-cells express chemokines involved in the initial recruitment of immune cells to the islets. The bulk load of chemokines is however released by the infiltrating immune cells that also express multiple chemokine receptors. The result is a mutual attraction of antigen-presenting cells and effector immune cells in the local islet microenvironment. Although there is a considerable redundancy within the chemokine ligand-receptor network, a few chemokines, such as CXCL10, seem to play a key role in the T1D pathogenesis. Studies with neutralizing antibodies and investigations in chemokine-deficient mice demonstrated that interfering with certain chemokine ligand-receptor axes might also ameliorate human T1D. However, one important aspect of such a treatment is the time of administration. Blockade of the recruitment of immune cells to the site of autoimmune destruction might not be effective when the disease process is already ongoing. By that time, autoaggressive cells have already arrived in the islet microenvironment and a blockade of migration might even hold them in place leading to accelerated destruction. Thus, an anti-chemokine therapy makes most sense in situations where the cells have not yet migrated to the islets. Such situations include treatment of patients at risk already carrying islet-antigen autoantibodies but are not yet diabetic, islet transplantation recipients, and patients that have undergone a T cell reset as occurring after anti-CD3 antibody treatment.

IL-21 regulates SOCS1 expression in autoreactive CD8+ T cells but is not required for acquisition of CTL activity in the islets of non-obese diabetic mice

In type 1 diabetes, maturation of activated autoreactive CD8⁺ T cells to fully armed effector cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) occurs within the islet. At present the signals required for the maturation process are poorly defined. Cytokines could potentially provide the necessary "third signal" required to generate fully mature CTL capable of killing insulin-producing β-cells. To determine whether autoreactive CTL within islets respond to cytokines we generated non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice with a reporter for cytokine signalling. These mice express a reporter gene, hCD4, under the control of the endogenous regulatory elements for suppressor of cytokine signalling (SOCS)1, which is itself regulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines. In NOD mice, the hCD4 reporter was expressed in infiltrated islets and the expression level was positively correlated with the frequency of infiltrating CD45⁺ cells. SOCS1 reporter expression was induced in transferred β-cell-specific CD8⁺ 8.3T cells upon migration from pancreatic draining lymph nodes into islets. To determine which cytokines induced SOCS1 promoter activity in islets, we examined hCD4 reporter expression and CTL maturation in the absence of the cytokine receptors IFNAR1 or IL-21R. We show that IFNAR1 deficiency does not confer protection from diabetes in 8.3 TCR transgenic mice, nor is IFNAR1 signalling required for SOCS1 reporter upregulation or CTL maturation in islets. In contrast, IL-21R-deficient 8.3 mice have reduced diabetes incidence and reduced SOCS1 reporter activity in islet CTLs. However IL-21R deficiency did not affect islet CD8⁺ T cell proliferation or expression of granzyme B or IFNγ. Together these data indicate that autoreactive CD8⁺ T cells respond to IL-21 and not type I IFNs in the islets of NOD mice, but neither IFNAR1 nor IL-21R are required for islet intrinsic CTL maturation.

Kinetics of immune cell responses in the multiple low-dose streptozotocin mouse model of type 1 diabetes

In type 1 diabetes (T1D), the insulin-producing β cells are destructed by immune mechanisms. It has been hypothesized that the very first immune response in T1D onset comes from innate immune cells, which further activates the adaptive immune cells to attack the islets. Despite intensive research on characterization of islet-infiltrating immune cells, the kinetics of different immune cells in multiple low-dose streptozotocin (MLDSTZ)-induced T1D mouse model is still much unclear. Therefore, we investigated the proportions of innate immune cells such as neutrophils, dendritic cells (DCs), plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and adaptive immune cells (T and B lymphocytes) in thymi, pancreatic-draining lymph nodes, and spleens of MLDSTZ mice on days 3, 7, 10, and 21 after the first injection of STZ by flow cytometry. The proportions of DCs and B cells were increased from day 3, while the proportions of B-1a lymphocytes and interferon-γ+ cells among NK cells were increased, but NK cells were decreased on day 10 in MLDSTZ-treated mice, illustrating that the initial immune response is induced by DCs and B cells. Later, the proportions of T helper 1 and cytotoxic T cells were increased from day 7, suggesting that the innate immune cells precede adaptive immune cell response in MLDSTZ mice. Altogether, our data demonstrate a possible sequence of events regarding the involvement of DCs, pDCs, NK cells, B-1a lymphocytes, B, and T cells at the early stage of T1D development.

Immune cell trafficking to the islets during type 1 diabetes

Inhibition of immune cell trafficking to the pancreatic islets during type 1 diabetes (T1D) has therapeutic potential, since targeting of T cell and B cell trafficking has been clinically effective in other autoimmune diseases. Trafficking to the islets is characterized by redundancy in adhesion molecule and chemokine usage, which has not enabled effective targeting to date. Additionally, cognate antigen is not consistently required for T cell entry into the islets throughout the progression of disease. However, myeloid cells are required to enable T cell and B cell entry into the islets, and may serve as a convergence point in the pathways controlling this process. In this review we describe current knowledge of the factors that mediate immune cell trafficking to pancreatic islets during T1D progression.

The Immunoreactive Platform of the Pancreatic Islets Influences the Development of Autoreactivity

Tissue homeostasis is maintained through a finely tuned balance between the immune system and the organ-resident cells. Disruption of this process not only results in organ dysfunction but also may trigger detrimental autoimmune responses. The islet of Langerhans consists of the insulin-producing β-cells essential for proper control of body metabolism, but less appreciated is that these cells naturally interact with the immune system, forming a platform by which the β-cell products are sensed, processed, and responded to by the local immune cells, particularly the islet-resident macrophages. Although its physiological outcomes are not completely understood, this immunoreactive platform is crucial for precipitating islet autoreactivity in individuals carrying genetic risks, leading to the development of type 1 diabetes. In this Perspective, we summarize recent studies that examine the cross talk between the β-cells and various immune components, with a primary focus on discussing how antigenic information generated during normal β-cell catabolism can be delivered to the resident macrophage and further recognized by the adaptive CD4 T-cell system, a critical step to initiate autoimmune diabetes. The core nature of the islet immune platform can be extrapolated to other endocrine tissues and may represent a common mechanism underlying the development of autoimmune syndromes influencing multiple endocrine organs.

DEXI, a candidate gene for type 1 diabetes, modulates rat and human pancreatic beta cell inflammation via regulation of the type I IFN/STAT signalling pathway

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

The initial stages of type 1 diabetes are characterised by an aberrant islet inflammation that is in part regulated by the interaction between type 1 diabetes susceptibility genes and environmental factors. Chromosome 16p13 is associated with type 1 diabetes and CLEC16A is thought to be the aetiological gene in the region. Recent gene expression analysis has, however, indicated that SNPs in CLEC16A modulate the expression of a neighbouring gene with unknown function named DEXI, encoding dexamethasone-induced protein (DEXI). We therefore evaluated the role of DEXI in beta cell responses to 'danger signals' and determined the mechanisms involved.

METHODS

Functional studies based on silencing or overexpression of DEXI were performed in rat and human pancreatic beta cells. Beta cell inflammation and apoptosis, driven by a synthetic viral double-stranded RNA, were evaluated by real-time PCR, western blotting and luciferase assays.

RESULTS

DEXI-silenced beta cells exposed to a synthetic double-stranded RNA (polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid [PIC], a by-product of viral replication) showed reduced activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1 and lower production of proinflammatory chemokines that was preceded by a reduction in IFNβ levels. Exposure to PIC increased chromatin-bound DEXI and IFNβ promoter activity. This effect on IFNβ promoter was inhibited in DEXI-silenced beta cells, suggesting that DEXI is implicated in the regulation of IFNβ transcription. In a mirror image of knockdown experiments, DEXI overexpression led to increased levels of STAT1 and proinflammatory chemokines.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

These observations support DEXI as the aetiological gene in the type 1 diabetes-associated 16p13 genomic region, and provide the first indication of a link between this candidate gene and the regulation of local antiviral immune responses in beta cells. Moreover, our results provide initial information on the function of DEXI.

CD11c+ Cells Are Gatekeepers for Lymphocyte Trafficking to Infiltrated Islets During Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a T cell mediated autoimmune disease that affects more than 19 million people with incidence increasing rapidly worldwide. For T cells to effectively drive T1D, they must first traffic to the islets and extravasate through the islet vasculature. Understanding the cues that lead to T cell entry into inflamed islets is important because diagnosed T1D patients already have established immune infiltration of their islets. Here we show that CD11c⁺ cells are a key mediator of T cell trafficking to infiltrated islets in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice. Using intravital 2-photon islet imaging we show that T cell extravasation into the islets is an extended process, with T cells arresting in the islet vasculature in close proximity to perivascular CD11c⁺ cells. Antigen is not required for T cell trafficking to infiltrated islets, but T cell chemokine receptor signaling is necessary. Using RNAseq, we show that islet CD11c⁺ cells express over 20 different chemokines that bind chemokine receptors expressed on islet T cells. One highly expressed chemokine-receptor pair is CXCL16-CXCR6. However, NOD. CXCR6^-/- mice progressed normally to T1D and CXCR6 deficient T cells trafficked normally to the islets. Even with CXCR3 and CXCR6 dual deficiency, T cells trafficked to infiltrated islets. These data reinforce that chemokine receptor signaling is highly redundant for T cell trafficking to inflamed islets. Importantly, depletion of CD11c⁺ cells strongly inhibited T cell trafficking to infiltrated islets of NOD mice. We suggest that targeted depletion of CD11c⁺ cells associated with the islet vasculature may yield a therapeutic target to inhibit T cell trafficking to inflamed islets to prevent progression of T1D.

Macrophage IFN-I signaling promotes autoreactive T cell infiltration into islets in type 1 diabetes model

Here, we report a pathogenic role for type I IFN (IFN-I) signaling in macrophages, and not β cells in the islets, for the development of type 1 diabetes (T1D). Following lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCMV) infection in the Rip-LCMV-GP T1D model, macrophages accumulated near islets and in close contact to islet-infiltrating GP-specific (autoimmune) CD8+ T cells. Depletion of macrophages with clodronate liposomes or genetic ablation of Ifnar in macrophages aborted T1D, despite proliferation of GP-specific (autoimmune) CD8+ T cells. Histopathologically, disrupted IFNα/β receptor (IFNAR) signaling in macrophages resulted in restriction of CD8+ T cells entering into the islets with significant lymphoid accumulation around the islet. Collectively, these results provide evidence that macrophages via IFN-I signaling, while not entering the islets, are directly involved in interacting, directing, or restricting trafficking of autoreactive-specific T cells into the islets as an important component in causing T1D.

IFNγ-Induced MHC Class II Expression on Islet Endothelial Cells Is an Early Marker of Insulitis but Is Not Required for Diabetogenic CD4+ T Cell Migration

Diabetogenic T cells infiltrate the pancreatic islets by transmigrating across the microcapillaries residing close to, or within, the pancreatic islets. Deficiency in IFNγ signaling prevents efficient migration of T cells into the pancreatic islets, but the IFNγ-regulated molecules that mediate this are uncertain. Homing of autoreactive T cells into target tissues may require antigen specificity through presentation of cognate antigen by MHC expressed on the vascular endothelium. We investigated the hypothesis that IFNγ promotes the migration of islet antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cells by upregulating MHC class II on islet endothelial cells (IEC), thereby providing an antigen-specific signal for islet infiltration. Upon IFNγ stimulation, MHC class II, which is not constitutively expressed on IEC, was induced. IFNγ-dependent upregulation of MHC class II was detected in IEC isolated from prediabetic NOD mice at the earliest stages of insulitis, before other markers of inflammation were present. Using a CD4⁺ T cell-mediated adoptive transfer model of autoimmune diabetes we observed that even though diabetes does not develop in recipient mice lacking IFNγ receptors, mice with MHC class II-deficient IEC were not protected from disease. Thus, IFNγ-regulated molecules, but not MHC class II or antigen presentation by IECs is required for the early migration of antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cells into the pancreatic islets.

Antigen recognition in autoimmune diabetes: a novel pathway underlying disease initiation

Development of human autoimmune disorders results from complex interplay among genetic, environmental, and immunological risk factors. Despite much heterogeneity in environmental triggers, the leading genes that give the propensity for tissue-specific autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, are those associated with particular class II major histocompatibility complex alleles. Such genetic predisposition precipitates presentation of tissue antigens to MHC-II-restricted CD4 T cells. When properly activated, these self-reactive CD4 T cells migrate to the target tissue and trigger the initial immune attack. Using the non-obese diabetic mouse model of spontaneous autoimmune diabetes, much insight has been gained in understanding how presentation of physiological levels of self-antigens translates into pathological outcomes. In this review, we summarize recent advances illustrating the features of the antigen presenting cells, the sites of the antigen recognition, and the nature of the consequent T cell responses. We emphasize emerging evidence that highlights the importance of systemic presentation of catabolized tissue antigens in mobilization of pathogenic T cells. The implication of these studies in therapeutic perspectives is also discussed.

Abnormal neutrophil signature in the blood and pancreas of presymptomatic and symptomatic type 1 diabetes

BACKGROUND

Neutrophils and their inflammatory mediators are key pathogenic components in multiple autoimmune diseases, while their role in human type 1 diabetes (T1D), a disease that progresses sequentially through identifiable stages prior to the clinical onset, is not well understood. We previously reported that the number of circulating neutrophils is reduced in patients with T1D and in presymptomatic at-risk subjects. The aim of the present work was to identify possible changes in circulating and pancreas-residing neutrophils throughout the disease course to better elucidate neutrophil involvement in human T1D.

METHODS

Data collected from 389 subjects at risk of developing T1D, and enrolled in 4 distinct studies performed by TrialNet, were analyzed with comprehensive statistical approaches to determine whether the number of circulating neutrophils correlates with pancreas function. To obtain a broad analysis of pancreas-infiltrating neutrophils throughout all disease stages, pancreas sections collected worldwide from 4 different cohorts (i.e., nPOD, DiViD, Siena, and Exeter) were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. Finally, circulating neutrophils were purified from unrelated nondiabetic subjects and donors at various T1D stages and their transcriptomic signature was determined by RNA sequencing.

RESULTS

Here, we show that the decline in β cell function is greatest in individuals with the lowest peripheral neutrophil numbers. Neutrophils infiltrate the pancreas prior to the onset of symptoms and they continue to do so as the disease progresses. Of interest, a fraction of these pancreas-infiltrating neutrophils also extrudes neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), suggesting a tissue-specific pathogenic role. Whole-transcriptome analysis of purified blood neutrophils revealed a unique molecular signature that is distinguished by an overabundance of IFN-associated genes; despite being healthy, said signature is already present in T1D-autoantibody-negative at-risk subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

These results reveal an unexpected abnormality in neutrophil disposition both in the circulation and in the pancreas of presymptomatic and symptomatic T1D subjects, implying that targeting neutrophils might represent a previously unrecognized therapeutic modality.

FUNDING

Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation (JDRF), NIH, Diabetes UK.

Regulators of G protein signaling in cardiovascular function during pregnancy

G protein-coupled receptor signaling mechanisms are implicated in many aspects of cardiovascular control, and dysfunction of such signaling mechanisms is commonly associated with disease states. Investigators have identified a large number of regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins that variously contribute to the modulation of intracellular second-messenger signaling kinetics. These many RGS proteins each interact with a specific set of second-messenger cascades and receptor types and exhibit tissue-specific expression patterns. Increasing evidence supports the contribution of RGS proteins, or their loss, in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular dysfunctions. This review summarizes the current understanding of the functional contributions of RGS proteins, particularly within the B/R4 family, in cardiovascular disorders of pregnancy including gestational hypertension, uterine artery dysfunction, and preeclampsia.

The Role of Natural Killer Group 2, Member D in Chronic Inflammation and Autoimmunity

Current medicine and medical science puts great effort into elucidating the basis of chronicity and finding appropriate treatments for inflammatory diseases; however, the mechanisms driving aberrant immune responses are mostly unknown and deserve further study. Of particular interest is the identification of checkpoints that regulate the function and differentiation of pro-inflammatory cells during pathogenesis, along with means of their modulation for therapeutic purposes. Natural killer group 2, member D (NKG2D) is a potent activator of the immune system, known as a sensor for “induced-self” ligands, i.e., cellular danger signals that, in the context of chronic inflammation and autoimmunity, can be presented by cells being exposed to an inflammatory cytokine milieu, endoplasmic reticulum stress, or cell death. Engagement by such ligands can be translated by NKG2D into activation or co-stimulation of NK cells and different subsets of T cells, respectively, thus contributing to the regulation of the inflammatory response. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge on the contribution of the NKG2D–NKG2DL signaling axis during intestinal inflammation, type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis, where the role of NKG2D has been associated either by aberrant expression of the receptor and its ligands and/or by functional data in corresponding mouse models.

Paquinimod prevents development of diabetes in the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse

Quinoline-3-carboxamides (Q compounds) are immunomodulatory compounds that have shown efficacy both in autoimmune disease and cancer. We have in here investigated the impact of one such compound, paquinimod, on the development of diabetes in the NOD mouse model for type I diabetes (T1D). In cohorts of NOD mice treated with paquinimod between weeks 10 to 20 of age and followed up until 40 weeks of age, we observed dose-dependent reduction in incidence of disease as well as delayed onset of disease. Further, in contrast to untreated controls, the majority of NOD mice treated from 15 weeks of age did not develop diabetes at 30 weeks of age. Importantly, these mice displayed significantly less insulitis, which correlated with selectively reduced number of splenic macrophages and splenic Ly6Chi inflammatory monocytes at end point as compared to untreated controls. Collectively, these results demonstrate that paquinimod treatment can significantly inhibit progression of insulitis to T1D in the NOD mouse. We propose that the effect of paquinimod on disease progression may be related to the reduced number of these myeloid cell populations. Our finding also indicates that this compound could be a candidate for clinical development towards diabetes therapy in humans.

NF-κB is weakly activated in the NOD mouse model of type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease characterised by selective destruction of pancreatic beta cells by the immune system. The transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) regulates innate and adaptive immune responses. Using gene targeting and in vitro analysis of pancreatic islets and immune cells, NF-κB activation has been implicated in type 1 diabetes development. Here we use a non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse model that expresses a luciferase reporter of transcriptionally active NF-κB to determine its activation in vivo during development of diabetes. Increased luciferase activity was readily detected upon treatment with Toll-like receptor ligands in vitro and in vivo, indicating activation of NF-κB. However, activated NF-κB was detectable at low levels above background in unmanipulated NOD mice, but did not vary with age, despite the progression of inflammatory infiltration in islets over time. NF-κB was highly activated in an accelerated model of type 1 diabetes that requires CD4⁺ T cells and inflammatory macrophages. These data shed light on the nature of the inflammatory response in the development of type 1 diabetes.

Islet proteomics reveals genetic variation in dopamine production resulting in altered insulin secretion

The mouse is a critical model in diabetes research, but most research in mice has been limited to a small number of mouse strains and limited genetic variation. Using the eight founder strains and both sexes of the Collaborative Cross (C57BL/6J (B6), A/J, 129S1/SvImJ (129), NOD/ShiLtJ (NOD), NZO/HILtJ (NZO), PWK/PhJ (PWK), WSB/EiJ (WSB), and CAST/EiJ (CAST)), we investigated the genetic dependence of diabetes-related metabolic phenotypes and insulin secretion. We found that strain background is associated with an extraordinary range in body weight, plasma glucose, insulin, triglycerides, and insulin secretion. Our whole-islet proteomic analysis of the eight mouse strains demonstrates that genetic background exerts a strong influence on the islet proteome that can be linked to the differences in diabetes-related metabolic phenotypes and insulin secretion. We computed protein modules consisting of highly correlated proteins that enrich for biological pathways and provide a searchable database of the islet protein expression profiles. To validate the data resource, we identified tyrosine hydroxylase (Th), a key enzyme in catecholamine synthesis, as a protein that is highly expressed in β-cells of PWK and CAST islets. We show that CAST islets synthesize elevated levels of dopamine, which suppresses insulin secretion. Prior studies, using only the B6 strain, concluded that adult mouse islets do not synthesize l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA), the product of Th and precursor of dopamine. Thus, the choice of the CAST strain, guided by our islet proteomic survey, was crucial for these discoveries. In summary, we provide a valuable data resource to the research community, and show that proteomic analysis identified a strain-specific pathway by which dopamine synthesized in β-cells inhibits insulin secretion.

Restoration of the type I IFN-IL-1 balance through targeted blockade of PTGER4 inhibits autoimmunity in NOD mice

Type I IFN (IFN-I) dysregulation contributes to type 1 diabetes (T1D) development, and although increased IFN-I signals are pathogenic at the initiation of autoimmune diabetes, IFN-I dysregulation at later pathogenic stages more relevant for therapeutic intervention is not well understood. We discovered that 5 key antigen-presenting cell subsets from adult prediabetic NOD mice have reduced responsiveness to IFN-I that is dominated by a decrease in the tonic-sensitive subset of IFN-I response genes. Blockade of IFNAR1 in prediabetic NOD mice accelerated diabetes and increased Th1 responses. Therefore, IFN-I responses shift from pathogenic to protective as autoimmunity progresses, consistent with chronic IFN-I exposure. In contrast, IL-1-associated inflammatory pathways were elevated in prediabetic mice. These changes correlated with human T1D onset-associated gene expression. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and prostaglandin receptor 4 (PTGER4), a receptor for PGE2 that mediates both inflammatory and regulatory eicosanoid signaling, were higher in NOD mice and drive innate immune dysregulation. Treating prediabetic NOD mice with a PTGER4 antagonist restored IFNAR signaling, decreased IL-1 signaling, and decreased infiltration of leukocytes into the islets. Therefore, innate cytokine alterations contribute to both T1D-associated inflammation and autoimmune pathogenesis. Modulating innate immune balance via signals such as PTGER4 may contribute to treatments for autoimmunity.

Autoimmune manifestations in aged mice arise from early-life immune dysregulation

Autoantibodies can be present years to decades before the onset of disease manifestations in autoimmunity. This finding suggests that the initial autoimmune trigger involves a peripheral lymphoid component, which ultimately drives disease pathology in local tissues later in life. We show that Sjögren's syndrome manifestations that develop in aged NOD.H-2h4 mice were driven by and dependent on peripheral dysregulation that arose in early life. Specifically, elimination of spontaneous germinal centers in spleens of young NOD.H-2h4 mice by transient blockade of CD40 ligand (CD40L) or splenectomy abolished Sjögren's pathology of aged mice. Strikingly, a single injection of anti-CD40L at 4 weeks of age prevented tertiary follicle neogenesis and greatly blunted the formation of key autoantibodies implicated in glandular pathology, including anti-muscarinic receptor antibodies. Microarray profiling of the salivary gland characterized the expression pattern of genes that increased with disease progression and showed that early anti-CD40L greatly repressed B cell function while having a broader effect on multiple biological pathways, including interleukin-12 and interferon signaling. A single prophylactic treatment with anti-CD40L also inhibited the development of autoimmune thyroiditis and diabetes in NOD.H-2h4 and nonobese diabetic mice, respectively, supporting a key role for CD40L in the pathophysiology of several autoimmune models. These results strongly suggest that early peripheral immune dysregulation gives rise to autoimmune manifestations later in life, and for diseases predated by autoantibodies, early prophylactic intervention with biologics may prove efficacious.

Shuffling peptides to create T-cell epitopes: does the immune system play cards?

For a long time, immunologists have believed that classical CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells recognize peptides (referred to as epitopes), derived from protein antigens presented by MHC/HLA class I or II. Over the past 10-15 years, it has become clear that epitopes recognized by CD8⁺, and more recently CD4⁺ T cells, can be formed by protein splicing. Here, we review the discovery of spliced epitopes recognized by tumor-specific human CD8⁺ T cells. We discuss how these epitopes are formed and some of the unusual variants that have been reported. Now, over a decade since the first report, evidence is emerging that spliced CD8⁺ T-cell epitopes are much more common, and potentially much more important, than previously imagined. Recent work has shown that epitopes recognized by CD4⁺ T cells can also be formed by protein splicing. We discuss the recent discovery of spliced CD4⁺ T-cell epitopes and their potential role as targets of autoimmune T-cell responses. Finally, we highlight some of the new questions raised from our growing appreciation of T-cell epitopes formed by peptide splicing.

Type 1 Interferons Potentiate Human CD8+ T-Cell Cytotoxicity Through a STAT4- and Granzyme B-Dependent Pathway

Events defining the progression to human type 1 diabetes (T1D) have remained elusive owing to the complex interaction between genetics, the immune system, and the environment. Type 1 interferons (T1-IFN) are known to be a constituent of the autoinflammatory milieu within the pancreas of patients with T1D. However, the capacity of IFNα/β to modulate human activated autoreactive CD8⁺ T-cell (cytotoxic T lymphocyte) responses within the islets of patients with T1D has not been investigated. Here, we engineer human β-cell-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes and demonstrate that T1-IFN augments cytotoxicity by inducing rapid phosphorylation of STAT4, resulting in direct binding at the granzyme B promoter within 2 h of exposure. The current findings provide novel insights concerning the regulation of effector function by T1-IFN in human antigen-experienced CD8⁺ T cells and provide a mechanism by which the presence of T1-IFN potentiates diabetogenicity within the autoimmune islet.

Hyaluronan content governs tissue stiffness in pancreatic islet inflammation

We have identified a novel role for hyaluronan (HA), an extracellular matrix polymer, in governing the mechanical properties of inflamed tissues. We recently reported that insulitis in type 1 diabetes of mice and humans is preceded by intraislet accumulation of HA, a highly hygroscopic polymer. Using the double transgenic DO11.10 × RIPmOVA (DORmO) mouse model of type 1 diabetes, we asked whether autoimmune insulitis was associated with changes in the stiffness of islets. To measure islet stiffness, we used atomic force microscopy (AFM) and developed a novel "bed of nails"-like approach that uses quartz glass nanopillars to anchor islets, solving a long-standing problem of keeping tissue-scale objects immobilized while performing AFM. We measured stiffness via AFM nanoindentation with a spherical indenter and found that insulitis made islets mechanically soft compared with controls. Conversely, treatment with 4-methylumbelliferone, a small-molecule inhibitor of HA synthesis, reduced HA accumulation, diminished swelling, and restored basal tissue stiffness. These results indicate that HA content governs the mechanical properties of islets. In hydrogels with variable HA content, we confirmed that increased HA leads to mechanically softer hydrogels, consistent with our model. In light of recent reports that the insulin production of islets is mechanosensitive, these findings open up an exciting new avenue of research into the fundamental mechanisms by which inflammation impacts local cellular responses.

Resident macrophages of pancreatic islets have a seminal role in the initiation of autoimmune diabetes of NOD mice

Our studies indicate that the resident macrophages of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans have a seminal role in the initiation and progression of autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice. In this study, islet macrophages were depleted by administration of a monoclonal antibody to the CSF-1 receptor. Macrophage depletion, either at the start of the autoimmune process or when diabetogenesis is active, leads to a significant reduction in diabetes incidence. Depletion of the islet macrophages reduces the entrance of T cells into islets and results in the absence of antigen presentation. Concordantly, a regulatory pathway develops that controls diabetes progression. We conclude that treatments that target the islet macrophages may have important clinical relevance for the control of autoimmune type 1 diabetes.

Treatment of C57BL/6 or NOD mice with a monoclonal antibody to the CSF-1 receptor resulted in depletion of the resident macrophages of pancreatic islets of Langerhans that lasted for several weeks. Depletion of macrophages in C57BL/6 mice did not affect multiple parameters of islet function, including glucose response, insulin content, and transcriptional profile. In NOD mice depleted of islet-resident macrophages starting at 3 wk of age, several changes occurred: (i) the early entrance of CD4 T cells and dendritic cells into pancreatic islets was reduced, (ii) presentation of insulin epitopes by dispersed islet cells to T cells was impaired, and (iii) the development of autoimmune diabetes was significantly reduced. Treatment of NOD mice starting at 10 wk of age, when the autoimmune process has progressed, also significantly reduced the incidence of diabetes. Despite the absence of diabetes, NOD mice treated with anti–CSF-1 receptor starting at 3 or 10 wk of age still contained variably elevated leukocytic infiltrates in their islets when examined at 20–40 wk of age. Diabetes occurred in the anti–CSF-1 receptor protected mice after treatment with a blocking antibody directed against PD-1. We conclude that treatment of NOD mice with an antibody against CSF-1 receptor reduced diabetes incidence and led to the development of a regulatory pathway that controlled autoimmune progression.

A Protective Role for NKG2D-H60a Interaction via Homotypic T Cell Contact in Nonobese Diabetic Autoimmune Diabetes Pathogenesis

The NK group 2 member D (NKG2D) immune receptor is implicated in both human and mouse autoimmune diabetes. However, the significance of NKG2D in diabetes pathogenesis has been unclear due to conflicting reports as to the importance of this receptor in the NOD mouse model. In this study we demonstrate that NKG2D expression affects NOD diabetes development by at least two previously undescribed, and opposing, mechanisms. First, we demonstrate that the NKG2D ligand H60a is induced on activated NOD T cells, and that NKG2D-H60a interaction during CD8⁺ T cell differentiation into CTLs generally decreases the subsequent CTL effector cytokine response. This corresponds to an increase in diabetes development in NKG2D-deficient compared with wild-type NOD mice under microbiota-depleted conditions. Second, we demonstrate that NKG2D promotes NOD diabetes development through interaction with the microbiota. Together these findings reveal a previously undescribed role for NKG2D ligand expression by activated T cells in CTL development. Further, they demonstrate that NKG2D has both diabetogenic and antidiabetogenic roles in NOD diabetes development.

The Importance of Dendritic Cells in Maintaining Immune Tolerance

Immune tolerance is necessary to prevent the immune system from reacting against self, and thus to avoid the development of autoimmune diseases. In this review, we discuss key findings that position dendritic cells (DCs) as critical modulators of both thymic and peripheral immune tolerance. Although DCs are important for inducing both immunity and tolerance, increased autoimmunity associated with decreased DCs suggests their nonredundant role in tolerance induction. DC-mediated T cell immune tolerance is an active process that is influenced by genetic variants, environmental signals, as well as the nature of the specific DC subset presenting Ag to T cells. Answering the many open questions with regard to the role of DCs in immune tolerance could lead to the development of novel therapies for the prevention of autoimmune diseases.

The innate immune receptor MDA5 limits rotavirus infection but promotes cell death and pancreatic inflammation

Melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA5) mediates the innate immune response to viral infection. Polymorphisms in IFIH1, the gene coding for MDA5, correlate with the risk of developing type 1 diabetes (T1D). Here, we demonstrate that MDA5 is crucial for the immune response to enteric rotavirus infection, a proposed etiological agent for T1D. MDA5 variants encoded by minor IFIH1 alleles associated with lower T1D risk exhibit reduced activity against rotavirus infection. We find that MDA5 activity limits rotavirus infection not only through the induction of antiviral interferons and pro-inflammatory cytokines, but also by promoting cell death. Importantly, this MDA5-dependent antiviral response is specific to the pancreas of rotavirus-infected mice, similar to the autoimmunity associated with T1D. These findings imply that MDA5-induced cell death and inflammation in the pancreas facilitate progression to autoimmune destruction of pancreatic β-cells.

Type 1 Diabetes and Type 1 Interferonopathies: Localization of a Type 1 Common Thread of Virus Infection in the Pancreas

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) has been associated with both genetic and environmental factors. Increasing incidence of T1D worldwide is prompting researchers to adopt different approaches to explain the biology of T1D, beyond the presence and activity of autoreactive lymphocytes. In this review, we propose inflammatory pathways as triggers for T1D. Within the scope of those inflammatory pathways and in understanding the pathogenesis of disease, we suggest that viruses, in particular Coxsackieviruses, act by causing a type 1 interferonopathy within the pancreas and the microenvironment of the islet. As such, this connection and common thread represents an exciting platform for the development of new diagnostic, treatment and/or prevention options.