The anabolic androgenic steroid nandrolone decanoate disrupts redox homeostasis in liver, heart and kidney of male Wistar rats

Supraphysiological doses of nandrolone decanoate disrupts spermatogenesis but did not interfere on embryo rate

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of 10 mg/kg/week of nandrolone decanoate (DECA - Deca Durabolin®) on body composition, hormonal levels, spermatic parameters, redox status, and morphometric parameters of testicle and epididymis; furthermore, the fertility capacity of Wistar rats was measured thought in vitro fertilization (IVF). The animals (n = 16) were divided into two groups: control group (CTRL, n = 8), which received only vehicle composed by peanut oil and 10% of the benzoic alcohol and nandrolone decanoate group (DECA, n = 8), which received intramuscular injections of DECA for 8 weeks, both groups were treated for 8 weeks. The results demonstrate significative decrease in visceral fat, testosterone levels, and thiol content on epididymis, reduction on normal sperm parameters, and deleterious effect on testicles and epididymis tissue morphology showing reduction of germ height and luminal diameter on the DECA group. Thus, it can be concluded that high doses of nandrolone decanoate impairs male reproductive parameters.

Beneficial role of amygdalin extracts against animal growth regulator Boldjan induced cardiac toxicity, injury and oxidative stress in male rats

Millions of individuals have used illicit anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), but the long-term cardiovascular associations of these drugs remain incompletely understood. Boldjan is AAS medication which is used in veterinary medicine and by young adults aiming to have a better appearance improving their self-esteem. Therefore; the objective of the current investigation was to examine any potential preventative effects of amygdalin extract against anabolic steroid Boldjan induced cardic toxicity, injury and oxidative stress in male rat. Forty adult male Wistar rats were classified into five groups (Gp1, Control Gp; Gp2, Amygdalin Gp in which rats treated with amygdalin (100 mg/kg body weight/day) daily for 2 weeks; Gp3, Boldjan Gp in which rats treated with Boldjan (10 mg/Kg BW/week) for 4 weeks; Gp4, Boldjan + Amygdalin). Boldjan induced a significant rises in serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK) and creatine kinase MB (CK MB), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), and very-low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL-C), cardiac injury, and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and a significant depletion in serum high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), cardiac reduced glutathione (GSH), Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (Cat) activities as compared to control Gp. In contrast, Amygdalin significantly reversed the Boldjan induced cardiac toxicity in post treated rats Gp (Boldjan + Amygdalin). Amygdalin could be an efficient preventive supplement for mitigating Boldjan induced cardiac toxicity, possibly via controlling oxidative stress events.

Using Proteins As Markers for Anabolic Steroid Abuse: A New Perspective in Doping Control?

Drug toxicity is a major concern and has motivated numerous studies to elucidate specific adverse mechanisms, with acetaminophen being the favorite candidate in toxicology studies. Conversely, androgenic anabolic steroids (AASs) also represent a severe public health issue in sports for elite and non-elite athletes. Supraphysiological dosages of AASs are associated with various adverse effects, from cardiovascular to neurological repercussions including liver dysfunction. Yet, few studies have addressed the toxicity of anabolic steroids, and a significant amount of work will be needed to elucidate and understand steroid toxicity properly. This Perspective suggests ideas on how proteomics and liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) can contribute to (1) pinpoint serum proteins affected by substantial doses of anabolic steroids that would represent interesting novel candidates for routine testing and (2) provide additional knowledge on androgenic anabolic steroid toxicity to help raise awareness on the harmful effects.

The toxic effects of anabolic steroids "nandrolone decanoate" on cardiac and skeletal muscles with the potential ameliorative effects of silymarin and fenugreek seeds extract in adult male albino rats

BACKGROUND

Anabolic steroids (AS) are commonly abused by body builders and athletes aiming to increase their strength and muscle mass but unfortunately, the long-term use of AS may lead to serious side effects. Nandrolone Decanoate is one of the Class II anabolic androgenic steroids which quickly spread globally and used clinically and illicitly. Our research was directed to assess the toxic effects of anabolic steroids on cardiac and skeletal muscles in male albino rats and to evaluate the potential ameliorative effects of fenugreek seeds extract and silymarin.

METHODS

Our research was done on 120 male albino rats that were allocated into 6 groups; group I: Served as a control group, group II: Received the anabolic steroid Nandrolone Decanoate, group III: Received silymarin orally, group IV: Received fenugreek seeds extract orally, group (V): Received the anabolic steroid Nandrolone Decanoate and silymarin and group (VI): Received the anabolic steroid Nandrolone Decanoate and fenugreek seeds extract. By the end of the study, rats were sacrificed, and blood samples were collected for biochemical analysis and autopsy samples for histopathological examination.

RESULTS

The anabolic steroids toxic effects on rats showed a significant decrease in serum High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) level and increase in cholesterol, triglycerides, and Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) levels. There was a significant elevation in cardiac troponin I level. As regards to histopathological examination of the cardiac and skeletal muscles, the study showed marked degenerative changes and necrosis. Both silymarin and fenugreek seeds extract provided a protective effect on the biochemical and histopathological changes. The antioxidant effects of silymarin and fenugreek seeds extract were evaluated on the heart, skeletal muscles and showed that, the tissue levels of Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase and reduced glutathione (GSH) decreased in AS treated rats compared to the control group. On the other hand, the tissue Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were elevated.

CONCLUSIONS

Anabolic steroids have a toxic effect on the cardiac and skeletal muscles of albino rats with improvement by treatment with fenugreek seeds extract and silymarin.

A study to demonstrate the potential of Anabolic Androgen Steroid to activate oxidative tissue damage, nephrotoxicity and decline endogenous antioxidant system in renal tissue of Adult Wistar Rats

Anabolic Androgenic steroids (AAS) are abused and reports have been made on their deleterious effects on various organs. It is imperative to report the mechanism of inducing oxidative tissue damage even in the presence of an intracellular antioxidant system by the interaction between lipid peroxidation and the antioxidant system in the kidney. Twenty (20) adult male Wistar rats used were grouped into: A- Control, BOlive oil vehicle, C- 120 mg/kg of AAS orally for three weeks, and D- 7 days withdrawal group following 120 mg/kg/ 21days of AAS intake. Serum was assayed for lipid peroxidation marker Malondialdehyde (MDA) and antioxidant enzyme -superoxide Dismutase (SOD). Sectioned of kidneys were stained to see the renal tissue, mucin granules, and basement membrane. AAS-induced oxidative tissue damage, in the presence of an endogenous antioxidant, is characterized by increased lipid peroxidation and decreased SOD level which resulted in the loss of renal tissue cells membrane integrity which is a characteristic of the pathophysiology of nephron toxicity induced by a toxic compound. However, this was progressively reversed by a period of discontinuation of AAS drug exposure.

Neutralising the testosterone enanthate-induced oxidative stress in rats uterine tissue by propolis and chicory as natural antioxidants

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of eight weeks of propolis and chicory on oxidative stress of uterine tissue in rats consuming testosterone enanthate. Thirty-five female Wistar rats (8 weeks old and weighing 200±12 g) were randomly divided between five groups (n=8) resistance training+ testosterone enanthate (RT+TE), resistance training+ testosterone enanthate+ chicory (RT+TE+CH), resistance training+ testosterone enanthate+ propolis (RT+TE+PR), control (CO), and sham (RT). The protocols were as follows: exercise protocol including climb on a 1-meter ladder with 26 steps five days a week for eight weeks, received a dose of 20 mg/kg of body weight of testosterone weekly for eight weeks, and received a dose of 400 mg/kg proplis and 6 g/kg chicory of body weight all days a week for eight weeks. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured as oxidative stress markers. Testosterone treatment resulted in a significant decrease in the amount of SOD and GPX only in RT+TE group compared to the RT+TE+CH and RT+TE+PR groups (P=0.001). There was no significant difference in mean SOD and GPX levels between RT+TE+CH and RT+TE+PR with CO and RT groups (P>0.05). MDA level was significantly higher in RT+TE group compared to the other groups (P=0.001). This level was also significantly higher in RT+TE+CH group compared to the CO group (P=0.000) and in RT+TE+PR group compared to CO (P=0.000) and RT (P=0.003) groups. Although testosterone enanthate leads to oxidative stress in uterine tissue, propolis and chicory reduced this oxidative stress. It seems that more research can be done on the potential effects of natural antioxidants to neutralise the harmful effects of steroids.

Nandrolone combined with strenuous resistance training impairs myocardial proteome profile of rats

We aimed to investigate the effects of high doses of nandrolone decanoate and resistance training (RT) on the proteomic profile of the left ventricle (LV) of rats, using a label-free quantitative approach. Male rats were randomized into four groups: untrained vehicle (UTV), trained vehicle (TV), untrained nandrolone (UTN), and trained nandrolone (TN). Rats were familiarized with the exercise training protocol (jump exercise) for one week. Jump-exercise was performed five days a week for 6 weeks, with 30 s of inter-set rest intervals. Nandrolone was administrated for 6 weeks (5 mg/kg, twice a week, via intramuscular). Systolic and diastolic arterial pressure and heart rate were measured 48 h post-training. LV was isolated and collagen content was measured. The expression of cardiac proteins was analyzed by ultra-efficiency liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry high / low collision energy (UPLC/MS^E). Nandrolone and RT led to cardiac hypertrophy, even though high doses of nandrolone counteracted the RT-induced arterial pressures lowering. Nandrolone also affected the proteome profile negatively in LV of rats, including critical proteins related to biological processes (metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammation), structural function and membrane transporters. Our findings show physiological relevance since high doses of nandrolone induced detrimental effects on the proteome profile of heart tissue and hemodynamic parameters of rats. Furthermore, as nandrolone abuse has become increasingly common among recreational athletes and casual fitness enthusiasts, we consider that our findings have clinical relevance as well.

Dietary Regulation of Oxidative Stress in Chronic Metabolic Diseases

Oxidative stress is a status of imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants, resulting in molecular damage and interruption of redox signaling in an organism. Indeed, oxidative stress has been associated with many metabolic disorders due to unhealthy dietary patterns and may be alleviated by properly increasing the intake of antioxidants. Thus, it is quite important to adopt a healthy dietary mode to regulate oxidative stress and maintain cell and tissue homeostasis, preventing inflammation and chronic metabolic diseases. This review focuses on the links between dietary nutrients and health, summarizing the role of oxidative stress in ‘unhealthy’ metabolic pathway activities in individuals and how oxidative stress is further regulated by balanced diets.

Anabolic-androgenic steroids impair mitochondrial function and redox status in the heart and liver of mice

Supraphysiological doses of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) may cause long-term functional abnormalities, particularly in the heart and liver, which may only represent the later-stage of the cumulative damage caused by dysfunctional organelles. We investigated whether mid-term supraphysiological doses of Testosterone and Nandrolone impair mitochondrial Ca²⁺ and membrane potential (ΔΨm) dynamics, and redox machinery in the heart and liver of mice. CF1 albino mice were treated daily with 15 mg/kg of Nandrolone (ND) or Testosterone (T), or oil (vehicle) for 19 days. Preparations enriched in mitochondria from the heart or liver were used to perform assays of Ca²⁺ influx/efflux, ΔΨm, and H₂O₂ production. ND significantly impaired mitochondrial Ca²⁺ influx in the heart, and ΔΨm in both organs. ND and T increased H₂O₂ levels in the heart and liver relative to controls. Also, ND increased oxidative damage to lipids and proteins (TBARS and carbonyls) in the heart, and both AAS decreased glutathione peroxidase activity in the heart and liver. In summary, supraphysiological doses of ND, and in a lesser extend T, impaired mitochondrial Ca²⁺ influx and ΔΨm, and redox homeostasis being early mechanistic substrates for inducing heart and liver tissue damage.

Morphometric analysis and redox state of the testicles in nandrolone decanoate and swimming treated adult male rats

Background

During the last decades, the abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) has become popular among professional and recreational athletes. The abuse of AASs leads to decreased levels of sex hormones, but the available literature a gives very small pool of data regarding the effects of swimming alone or combined with AASs on testicle tissue. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of four-week administration of nandrolone decanoate and swimming training alone or in combination on morphometric parameters, androgen receptor (AR) and redox state in testicle tissue. The study included Wistar albino male rats, 10 weeks old, classified into 4 groups: control (T-N-), nandrolone (T-N+), swimming training (T+N-) and swimming training with nandrolone (T+N+). The rats from nandrolone (N+) groups received nandrolone decanoate 20 mg/kg b.w.once per week. The rats from training (T+) groups, swam 1 h/day 5 days/week. The isolated testicles were measured, left testicles were routinely processed for histological analysis, while right testicles were homogenized and prepared for the analysis of the following oxidative stress biomarkers: index of lipid peroxidation (TBARS), nitrites, catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and reduced glutathione (GSH).

Results

Diameter, as well as cross-section area of seminiferous tubules were decreased by 10 % and 21 % (respectively) in the T-N+ group and by 15% and 41 % (respectively) in the T+N+ group compared to control. Interstitium of the testicles was decreased in all experimental groups. Reduction of immunoreactivity of AR in T-N+ group was 22 %, in T+N+ group was 9 % compared to control. TBARS levels were increased in T+N- and T+N+ groups. Nitrites were decreased in T+N+ group. Catalase activity was increased in all experimental groups. Swimming alone or combined with nandrolone decreased the level of GSH compared to control. SOD activity was decreased in T-N+ and T+N+ groups compared to control.

Conclusions

Nandrolone alone or combined with swimming decreased morphometric parameters and amount of AR in testicle tissue. Changes in the redox state indicate reproductive dysfunction.

Low and high doses of oxandrolone promote pathological cardiac remodeling in young male rats

Oxandrolone (OXA) used in clinical practice, however, its misuse is frequent, including by adolescents pursuing an aesthetic goal. However, the impacts of noxious doses on the cardiovascular system remain unknown.

AIM

To investigate cardiac effects of OXA in low (LD) and high (HD) doses.

METHODS

Male Wistar prepubescent rats were separated into 3 experimental groups: control (CON), LD, and HD. Only the CON group received the carrier (carboxymethylcellulose, 0.5%), while the LD and HD groups received, respectively, 2.5 and 37.5 mg/kg/day of OXA via gavage for 4 weeks. The hemodynamic parameters (+dP/dtmax, -dP/dtmin, and Tau) and cardiac autonomic tonus were assessed. Hearts were retrieved for histological analyses and oxidative stress evaluation. Expression levels of calcium-handling proteins were measured by western blot.

RESULTS

The OXA treatment changed neither the cardiac contractility nor the cardiac autonomic tonus. However, cardiac hypertrophy, collagen deposition, and increased angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) expression were observed in a dose-dependent way. Also, the p-phospholamban (p-PLB)/PLB ratio was observed to decrease and increase, respectively, in the LD and HD groups; the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2a (SERCA2a)/PLB ratio being higher in both groups. OXA increased SOD1 expression and decreased catalase expression only in the LD group, and protein oxidation was increased in HD.

CONCLUSION

Both doses of OXA could promote pathological cardiac remodeling, probably via increased ACE, and these effects were exacerbated in the HD treatment, but cardiac contractility was not affected regardless of the dose.

Boldenone Undecylenate-Mediated Hepatorenal Impairment by Oxidative Damage and Dysregulation of Heat Shock Protein 90 and Androgen Receptors Expressions: Vitamin C Preventive Role

Boldenone Undecylenate (BLD) is a synthetic derivative of testosterone and a widely used anabolic androgenic steroid. The health risk of BLD use as a pharmaceutical or dietary supplement is still underestimated and under-reported. Vitamin C (VC) has been recognized as an antioxidant with prominent hepatorenal protective effects. This study investigated the possible preventive activity of VC against BLD-induced hepatorenal damage. Forty adult male Wistar rats were classified into five groups: control, vehicle control, VC (orally given 120 mg/kg b. wt./day), BLD (intramuscularly injected 5 mg/kg b. wt./week), and BLD + VC-treated groups. The experiment continued for eight weeks. Serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were measured. Serum contents of total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), globulin, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), and very-low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL-C) were also assayed. Urea, creatinine, and uric acid levels were determined together with sodium and potassium electrolytes measuring. Moreover, oxidative stress indicators including reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and glutathione reductase (GSR) as well as malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured in both hepatic and renal tissues. Corresponding histological examination of renal and hepatic tissues was conducted. Besides, immunohistochemical evaluations for androgen receptors protein (AR) and heat shock protein 90 (Hsp 90) expressions were performed. BLD caused significant rises in serum ALT, AST, TP, ALB, TC, TG, LDL-C, VLDL-C, urea, creatinine, uric acid, potassium, and MDA levels. Further, BLD-injected rats showed significant declines in the serum levels of HDL-C, sodium, GSH, GPx, GST, and GSR. Besides, distinct histopathological perturbations were detected in renal and hepatic tissues of BLD-injected rats. AR and Hsp 90 immunoexpression were increased in hepatic and renal tissues. In contrast, VC significantly reversed the BLD-induced hepatorenal damage in co-treated rats but not ameliorated AR protein overexpression. VC could be an efficient preventive supplement for mitigating BLD-induced hepatorenal damage, possibly via controlling oxidative stress events.

Adverse Effects of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids: A Literature Review

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are a large group of molecules including endogenously produced androgens, such as testosterone, as well as synthetically manufactured derivatives. AAS use is widespread due to their ability to improve muscle growth for aesthetic purposes and athletes’ performance, minimizing androgenic effects. AAS use is very popular and 1–3% of US inhabitants have been estimated to be AAS users. However, AASs have side effects, involving all organs, tissues and body functions, especially long-term toxicity involving the cardiovascular system and the reproductive system, thereby, their abuse is considered a public health issue. The aim of the proposed review is to highlight the most recent evidence regarding the mechanisms of action of AASs and their unwanted effects on organs and lifestyle, as well as suggesting that AAS misuse and abuse lead to adverse effects in all body tissues and organs. Oxidative stress, apoptosis, and protein synthesis alteration are common mechanisms involved in AAS-related damage in the whole body. The cardiovascular system and the reproductive system are the most frequently involved apparatuses. Epidemiology as well as the molecular and pathological mechanisms involved in the neuropsychiatric side-effects of AAS abuse are still unclear, further research is needed in this field. In addition, diagnostically reliable tests for AAS abuse should be standardized. In this regard, to prevent the use of AASs, public health measures in all settings are crucial. These measures consist of improved knowledge among healthcare workers, proper doping screening tests, educational interventions, and updated legislation.

High-dose testosterone supplementation disturbs liver pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance and function in adolescent male Wistar rats undergoing moderate-intensity endurance training

In some countries, anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse is rampant among adolescent boys and young men, including some of those seeking physical fitness and/or pleasing appearance through various exercise types. This tactic carries the risk of severe harmful health effects, including liver injury. Most anabolic-androgenic steroid stacking protocols employed are based on the use of the ‘prototypic’ anabolic-androgenic steroid testosterone and/or its esters. There is a vast body of data on the effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids’ abuse combined with physical exercise training on the liver antioxidant barrier in adult subjects, whereas those concerning adolescents are scant. This study aimed to assess, in adolescent male Wistar rats undergoing a 6-week moderate-intensity endurance training (treadmill running), the influence of concurrent weekly supplementation with intramuscular testosterone enanthate (TE, 8 or 80 mg/kg body weight/week) on selected indices of liver status and oxidative stress. The rats were sacrificed, and their livers and blood samples were harvested two days after the last training session. High-dose TE treatment significantly reduced body and liver weight gains. Neither low-dose nor high-dose TE treatment affected liver α-tocopherol or γ-tocopherol content, whereas low-dose TE treatment significantly lowered hepatic reduced glutathione content. TE treatment significantly elevated liver thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances content and blood activities of alkaline phosphatase and γ-glutamyltransferase, but not of aspartate aminotransferase or alanine aminotransferase. Liver catalase activity was lowered by >50% in both TE-treated groups, while superoxide dismutase activity was significantly but slightly affected (−15%) only by the high-dose TE treatment. Glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase activities were not significantly altered. TE treatment significantly increased liver thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances content and lowered blood HDL-cholesterol, but did not significantly affect LDL-cholesterol or triglycerides level. In conclusion, high-dose TE treatment significantly disturbed liver antioxidant barrier and prooxidative-antioxidative balance and hence counteracted favorable effects of concurrent moderate-intensity endurance training in adolescent male rats.

Nandrolone Decanoate: Use, Abuse and Side Effects

Background and Objectives: Androgens play a significant role in the development of male reproductive organs. The clinical use of synthetic testosterone derivatives, such as nandrolone, is focused on maximizing the anabolic effects and minimizing the androgenic ones. Class II anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), including nandrolone, are rapidly becoming a widespread group of drugs used both clinically and illicitly. The illicit use of AAS is diffused among adolescent and bodybuilders because of their anabolic proprieties and their capacity to increase tolerance to exercise. This systematic review aims to focus on side effects related to illicit AAS abuse, evaluating the scientific literature in order to underline the most frequent side effects on AAS abusers’ bodies. Materials and Methods: A systematic review of the scientific literature was performed using the PubMed database and the keywords “nandrolone decanoate”. The inclusion criteria for articles or abstracts were English language and the presence of the following words: “abuse” or “adverse effects”. After applying the exclusion and inclusion criteria, from a total of 766 articles, only 148 were considered eligible for the study. Results: The most reported adverse effects (found in more than 5% of the studies) were endocrine effects (18 studies, 42%), such as virilization, gynecomastia, hormonal disorders, dyslipidemia, genital alterations, and infertility; cardiovascular dysfunctions (six studies, 14%) such as vascular damage, coagulation disorders, and arteriosus hypertension; skin disorders (five studies, 12%) such as pricking, acne, and skin spots; psychiatric and mood disorders (four studies, 9%) such as aggressiveness, sleep disorders and anxiety; musculoskeletal disorders (two studies, 5%), excretory disorders (two studies, 5%), and gastrointestinal disorders (two studies, 5%). Conclusions: Based on the result of our study, the most common adverse effects secondary to the abuse of nandrolone decanoate (ND) involve the endocrine, cardiovascular, skin, and psychiatric systems. These data could prove useful to healthcare professionals in both sports and clinical settings.

Progression of heart failure is attenuated by antioxidant therapy with N-acetylcysteine in myocardial infarcted female rats

This study investigated the therapeutic potential of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in the treatment of heart failure in female rats. Myocardial infarcted (MI) rats were given NAC (250 mg/kg/day p.o.) during 28 days after surgery (MI + NAC) or vehicle (MI + Placebo), and sham-operated rats received the same treatments (Sham + NAC and Sham + Placebo). Electrocardiographic and echocardiographic analyses were performed in the last week of treatment. Cardiac mRNA levels of types I and II superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, types I and III glutathione peroxidase (GPX), nerve growth factor (NGF), β1-adrenergic receptor (β1ADR), and type 2 muscarinic receptor (M2R) were assessed. Cardiac levels NADPH oxidase (NOX) activity_, total content of reduced thiols, and SOD, GPX, and catalase activity were assessed. Compared to MI + Placebo group, MI + NAC group exhibited decreased NOX activity, increased content of reduced thiols, increased GPX activity, and normalized GPX III mRNA levels (p < 0.05). Heart and lung weights, left ventricular (LV) end-diastolic volume and left atrium/aorta ratio were decreased, while LV posterior wall thickness and ejection fraction were increased in MI + NAC group versus MI + Placebo rats (p < 0.05). Power density of low frequency band was decreased, while power density of high frequency and the root mean square of the successive differences were increased in MI + NAC rats versus MI + Placebo (p < 0.05). These findings indicate that NAC promotes therapeutic effects in the progression of MI-induced heart failure in female rats.

High-dose Nandrolone Decanoate induces oxidative stress and inflammation in retroperitoneal adipose tissue of male rats

The non-therapeutic use of the androgenic anabolic steroid Nandrolone Decanoate is popular due to its effects on physical performance and body composition, especially for its lipolytic and anabolic effects associated. However, high doses of such drugs are often associated with a series of pathologies related to unbalanced redox homeostasis, which, in turn, can be linked to inflammation. The oxidative stress onset could deregulate the secretion of cytokines, evidencing a dysfunctional adipocyte. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of supraphysiological doses of Nandrolone Decanoate on redox homeostasis of retroperitoneal fatpad of male rats and its relationship with cytokines-based inflammatory signaling. Hydrogen peroxide production was assessed in the retroperitoneal fat pad of adult male rats which received either 10 mg kg of Nandrolone Decanoate or only a vehicle. Also, catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities were measured, together with total reduced thiols and protein carbonylation, as well as IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 local levels. High doses of Nandrolone Decanoate caused an increase in the hydrogen peroxide production, together with lower activities of the antioxidant enzymes and lower levels of total reduced thiol. There were also higher protein carbonylation and greater levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 in the treated group compared to control group. Therefore, it was possible to verify that high doses of Nandrolone Decanoate cause oxidative stress and induce higher inflammatory signaling in retroperitoneal fat pad of male rats.

Anabolic steroid excess and myocardial infarction: From ischemia to reperfusion injury

Anabolic steroids (AS) are synthetic testosterone-derivatives developed by the pharmaceutical industry to mimic testosterone biological effects. So far, AS have been implicated in the treatment of pathological conditions, such as hypogonadism, anemia, and cachexia. Since their discovery, though, AS have been illicitly used by elite and recreational athletes, bodybuilders and weightlifters in order to enhance athletic and aesthetic performance. This practice is characterized by cycles of administration and withdrawal, the combination of different AS compounds, and administration of doses 50 - 1000 times higher than those recommended for therapeutic purposes. AS excess has been correlated to cardiovascular detrimental effects, including cardiac hypertrophy, arrhythmias, and hypertension. Particularly, acute myocardial infarction (AMI) has been extensively reported by clinical and post-mortem studies. Atherosclerosis, hypercoagulability state, increased thrombogenesis and vasospasm have arisen as potential causes of myocardial ischemia in AS users. Additionally, several experimental reports have demonstrated that AS can increase the susceptibility to cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury, whereas the cardioprotection elicited by physical exercise and ischemic postconditioning is blunted. Altogether, these factors can contribute to increased AMI morbidity and mortality during AS excess, particularly when AS are combined with other compounds, such as thyroid hormones, growth hormones, insulin, and diuretics.

Anabolic androgenic steroid abuse in the United Kingdom: An update

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) are prescribed for medical conditions related to low testosterone. Abuse of AASs has surged as they become recognised as potent image enhancement drugs. The primary goal of most abusers is to obtain a more attractive outward appearance. Abuse is complex. There are a vast range of AAS substances illegally available, the nature of their true composition is difficult to evaluate. Users follow dosing patterns which incorporate a number of different AASs, in addition to other pharmaceutical substances believed to complement the desired physical effects or manage unwanted effects. Animal work and medical case reports suggest potential to cause serious hepatotoxicity, plus possible neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity and damage to the cardiovascular and reproductive systems. As the long-term AASs users reach maturity, further controlled experimentation, with larger sample sizes, is required. Data gathering should be directed towards the most vulnerable group of AAS users, females and adolescent boys.

Nandrolone decanoate relieves joint pain in hypogonadal men: a novel prospective pilot study and review of the literature

Testosterone is an archetypal androgenic-anabolic steroid (AAS), while its exogenous administration is considered to be the gold standard for the treatment of male hypogonadism. The benefits are not due to its intrinsic nature alone but are due to the result of its interactions with the androgen receptor (AR). As the management of hypogonadism continues to advance into the modern era, it would be preferable for modern andrologists to have multiple tools at their disposal to influence AR activity. Nandrolone, or 19-nortestosterone, is one such compound. In the following review of the literature, we examine the history, pharmacology, and clinical applications of this medication. We also present the results of our novel pilot study examining the favorable effects of nandrolone on joint pain for hypogonadal men.

Abuse of androgenic anabolic drugs with "Cycling" induces hepatic steatosis in adult male mice

BACKGROUND

The importance of the present study comes from the lack of sufficient information about the reversibility of the potential hepatic histopathological alterations which may result from anabolic androgenic drugs abuse by "Cycling" protocol. So, the aim of this study is to explore the negative effects of Deca-Durabolin abuse in hepatic function and structure during an administration cycle.

METHODS

For our purpose, study was performed on 40 male adult mices. Animals were divided into five groups of 8 animals each treated weekly by Deca-Durabolin (nandrolone decanoate) at 30 g/kg of BW during one month (GI); during two months (GII); during three months (GIII); during three months followed by six weeks of treatment discontinuation (GIV) and Control (C). Plasma assay of liver enzymes (ALT and AST) and cytohistological examination to determine the histopathological damage properties of the liver were performed.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the animals supported very well the administrated substance. Our study showed an increase in plasma levels of liver enzymes (ALT and AST) with the duration of treatment accompanied by important degenerative changes in hepatic tissue with peliosis evolution after two months of treatment. These damages worsen again 6 weeks after stopping treatment and ended by the development of hepatic steatosis with increases hepatic distress.

CONCLUSION

These results ported that the use of AAS with "Cycling" may lead to the development of hepatic steatosis before progressing to more serious pathological liver situations in AAS abusers.

Evolutions in cardiac and gonadal ultra-structure during a "cycle" of androgenic anabolic abuse in adult male mice

BACKGROUND

The importance of the present study comes from the lack of sufficient information about the reversibility of the potential histopathological alterations which may result from anabolic androgenic drugs abuse by "Cycling" protocol. So, the aim of this study is to explore the negative effects of Deca-Durabolin abuse in cardiac and gonadal ultra-structures during an administration cycle.

METHODS

For our purpose, study was performed on 40 male adult mices. Animals were divided into five groups of 8 animals each treated weekly by Deca-Durabolin (nandrolone decanoate) at 30 g/kg of BW during one month (GI); during two months (GII); during three months (GIII); during three months followed by six weeks of treatment discontinuation (GIV) and Control (C). Cytohistological examinations to determine the histopathological damage properties of the heart and tests were performed.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the animals supported very well the administrated substance. Our study showed important degenerative changes in cardiac and gonadal tissues after one months of androgen abuse. These damages increases with the duration of treatment with well marked cell lesions, and worsen again 6 weeks after stopping treatment in cardiac tissue, whereas the gonadal tissue does not recover completely during this period.

CONCLUSION

These results ported that the use of AAS with "Cycling" may lead to irreversibly destroy the heart tissue. Either, "Cycling" does not ensure the complete recovery of fertility in AAS abusers.

Cynara scolymus leaves extract alleviates nandrolone decanoate-induced alterations in testicular function and sperm quality in albino rats

Nandrolone decanoate (ND) is a commonly used anabolic-androgenic steroid. These drugs are illegally self-administered by athletes to enhance their sports performance. However, their abuse could influence the testicular function and fertility. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the possible protective effects of Cynara scolymus leaf extract (CLE) on ND-induced testicular dysfunction in rats. Five groups of adult male rats (10 rats each) were used. Group I rats received only saline and served as controls. Group II rats were injected with a vehicle once weekly, while group III rats received intramuscular injections of ND (20 mg/kg/week for 60 days). Group IV rats orally received 1 g/kg/day of CLE and group V rats received ND and CLE at the aforementioned doses. The results revealed that ND has a negative impact on the testicular function as evidenced by the significant increases (p ≤ 0.05) in testicular malondialdehyde concentration and serum non-prostatic acid phosphatase activity, as well as the significant decreases in serum testosterone levels, testicular weight, glutathione concentration, catalase enzyme activity, and total antioxidant capacity. These results were accompanied by considerable alterations of sperm characters and histopathological studies of the testicular tissue. However, co-treatment with CLE extract significantly alleviated (p ≤ 0.05) almost all ND-induced pathological alterations. In conclusion, co-treatment of ND-intoxicated rats with CLE ameliorated the toxic effects of ND on the testicular structure and function, probably due to its antioxidant activity.

Eight weeks of treatment with nandrolone decanoate in female rats promotes disruption in the redox homeostasis and impaired renal function

INTRODUCTION

Misuse of AAS is emergent among both genders, however, few studies were performed evaluating AAS effects on female body and none evaluate the impact of nandrolone decanoate (ND) in renal function.

AIM

Determine the effects of chronic treatment with ND on kidney function of female rats and evaluate the influence of oxidative stress on it.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Female rats were separated into two groups (n = 8 each), the treated group (DECA), which received ND at a dose of 20 mg/kg/week (i.m), and the control group (C), which was treated with the vehicle (peanut oil, i.m.). All treatments were performed during eight weeks. After this period, 24 h urine, blood and organs (heart, gastrocnemius muscle, liver and kidney) were collected. Organ hypertrophy was calculated, and kidney collagen content was evaluated. AOPP, TBARS, SOD and catalase activity were determined in the kidney. Moreover, proteinuria and creatinine clearance were also investigated.

KEY-FINDINGS

Hypertrophy was observed in the liver, gastrocnemius muscle, heart and kidney. Kidney hypertrophy was followed by a reduced organ function and an increase in collagen deposition. Oxidative stress upsurge occurred in both proteins and lipids, followed by a reduction in SOD activity.

SIGNIFICANCE

Administration of DN in rats was followed by renal damage and kidney fibrosis due to increased oxidative stress on that organ.

Kidney disease associated with androgenic-anabolic steroids and vitamin supplements abuse: Be aware!

The excessive chase for beauty standards and the rise of muscle dysmorphia have ultimately led to an increase in androgenic-anabolic steroids (AAS) and intramuscular injections of vitamins A, D and E (ADE) abuse, which is associated with several adverse effects and has become a public health issue. This review of literature discusses kidney injury associated with the use of AAS and ADE, highlighting the mechanisms of acute and chronic renal lesion, such as direct renal toxicity, glomerular hyperfiltration and hypercalcemia. Future perspectives regarding evaluation and early diagnosis of kidney injury in these patients are also discussed.

Combined effects of exercise training and high doses of anabolic steroids on cardiac autonomic modulation and ventricular repolarization properties in rats

Several studies have reported that high doses of synthetic anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) can have serious negative effects on health, including the cardiovascular system. The aim of this study was to evaluate the combined effects of AAS and exercise training on ventricular repolarization and cardiac autonomic modulation in rats. Male Wistar rats were allocated into 4 groups: sedentary rats treated with vehicle, sedentary rats treated with nandrolone decanoate, swimming-trained rats treated with vehicle, and swimming-trained rats treated with nandrolone decanoate. Ventricular repolarization was evaluated by electrocardiographic analysis of QT interval and QT dispersion. Cardiac autonomic modulation was assessed by heart rate variability. Our results show that AAS increased QT interval and QT dispersion in sedentary rats treated with nandrolone decanoate as compared to sedentary rats treated with vehicle, indicating AAS-induced ventricular repolarization abnormalities. When rats treated with nandrolone decanoate were subjected to concomitant exercise training, ventricular repolarization was normalized. On the other hand, AAS-induced reduction in cardiac parasympathetic modulation was not prevented by exercise training. In conclusion, AAS produced cardiac autonomic dysfunction and ventricular repolarization disturbances in rats. Combining an exercise training protocol during the AAS treatment attenuated the ventricular repolarization abnormalities and did not prevent cardiac autonomic dysfunction.

Remote transplantation of human adipose-derived stem cells induces regression of cardiac hypertrophy by regulating the macrophage polarization in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in hypertension has prognostic significance on cardiovascular mortality and morbidity. Recently, we have shown that n-butylidenephthalide (BP) improves human adipose-derived stem cell (hADSC) engraftment via attenuated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. This prompted us to investigate whether remote transplantation of BP-pretreated hADSCs confers attenuated LVH at an established phase of hypertension. Male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) aged 12 weeks were randomly allocated to receive right hamstring injection of vehicle, clinical-grade hADSCs, and BP-preconditioned hADSCs for 8 weeks. As compared with untreated SHRs, naïve hADSCs decreased the ratio of LV weight to tibia, cardiomyocyte cell size, and collagen deposition independent of hemodynamic changes. These changes were accompanied by attenuated myocardial ROS production and increased p-STAT3 levels. Compared with naïve hADSCs, BP-preconditioned hADSCs provided a further decrease of ROS and LVH and an increase of local hADSC engraftment, STAT3 phosphorylation, STAT3 activity, STAT3 nuclear translocation, myocardial IL-10 levels, and the percentage of M2 macrophage infiltration. SIN-1 or S3I-201 reversed the effects of BP-preconditioned ADSCs increase on myocardial IL-10 levels. Furthermore, SIN-1 abolished the phosphorylation of STAT3, whereas superoxide levels were not affected following the inhibition of STAT3. Our results highlighted the feasibility of remote transplantation of hADSCs can be considered as an alternative procedure to reverse cardiac hypertrophy even at an established phase of hypertension. BP-pretreated hADSCs polarize macrophages into M2 immunoregulatory cells more efficiently than naïve hADSCs via ROS/STAT3 pathway.

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Hypertension was associated with left ventricular hypertrophy.

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Compared with untreated SHRs, naïve hADSCs injected at the right hamstring decreased LV mass and cardiomyocyte cell size.

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BP-preconditioned ADSCs provided a further increase of the M2 macrophage infiltration.

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The beneficial effects of BP-preconditioned stem cell administration can be abolished by exogenous SIN-1 or 3SI-201.

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Remote transplantation of hADSCs can be considered as an alternative procedure to reverse cardiac hypertrophy.

Supraphysiologic-dose anabolic-androgenic steroid use: A risk factor for dementia?

Supraphysiologic-dose anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use is associated with physiologic, cognitive, and brain abnormalities similar to those found in people at risk for developing Alzheimer's Disease and its related dementias (AD/ADRD), which are associated with high brain β-amyloid (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau (tau-P) protein levels. Supraphysiologic-dose AAS induces androgen abnormalities and excess oxidative stress, which have been linked to increased and decreased expression or activity of proteins that synthesize and eliminate, respectively, Aβ and tau-P. Aβ and tau-P accumulation may begin soon after initiating supraphysiologic-dose AAS use, which typically occurs in the early 20s, and their accumulation may be accelerated by other psychoactive substance use, which is common among non-medical AAS users. Accordingly, the widespread use of supraphysiologic-dose AAS may increase the numbers of people who develop dementia. Early diagnosis and correction of sex-steroid level abnormalities and excess oxidative stress could attenuate risk for developing AD/ADRD in supraphysiologic-dose AAS users, in people with other substance use disorders, and in people with low sex-steroid levels or excess oxidative stress associated with aging.

Maternal high-fat diet consumption induces sex-dependent alterations of the endocannabinoid system and redox homeostasis in liver of adult rat offspring

Maternal diet plays a critical role in health development. Perinatal overnutrition induces metabolic dysfunctions and obesity in the offspring. Obesity is associated with endocannabinoid system (ECS) over activation and oxidative stress. Liver ECS activation induces hepatic steatosis, inflammation and fibrosis while the antagonism of cannabinoid receptors ameliorates these alterations. Here, we investigated the effect of perinatal maternal high-fat diet (HF, 29% of calories as fat) on the ECS and antioxidant system in liver of male and female adult rat offspring (180 days old). Maternal HF diet increased hepatic cannabinoid receptors, ECS metabolizing enzymes and triglyceride content, with male offspring more affected. ECS changes are likely independent of estradiol serum levels but associated with increased hepatic content of estrogen receptor, which can stimulate the expression of ECS components. Differently, maternal HF diet decreased the activity of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase, and increased oxidative stress markers in both sexes. Alterations in the redox homeostasis were associated with mitochondria damage but not with liver fibrosis. Our data suggest that maternal HF diet induces ECS over activation in adulthood, and that male offspring are at higher risk to develop liver disease compared with female rats.

Reversible effects of anabolic steroid abuse on cyto-architectures of the heart, kidneys and testis in adult male mice

The importance of the present study comes from the lack of sufficient information about the reversibility of the histopathological alterations which may result from anabolic androgenic drugs abuse after some times of stop treatment, as it is one of the prior studies which explored the negative effects of Deca-Durabolin abuse in particular on the hearts, kidneys and testis structures. For this aim, study was performed on 40 male adult mices. Animals were divided into five groups of 8 animals each as follows: treated by Deca-Durabolin (nandrolone decanoate) at 30 g/kg of BW, weekly during one month (GI); two months (GII); three months (GIII); three months followed by six weeks of treatment discontinuation (GIV) and Control (C). Cytohistological exam was performed to determine histopathological damage in heart, kidney and testis tissues. Results showed that the treated animals supported very well the administrated substance. The increase in muscle strength and the absence of aggression were the most noticeable traits in longer-term treated groups. In addition, the gains in body and heart weights increase with duration of treatment and even more after stopping treatment. Our study showed important degenerative changes and disorganization of the histological structure of heart, kidney and testis in the animals of GIII. These damages worsen again 6 weeks after stopping treatment in heart and kidney, and repairs incompletely in the testis. In conclusion, these results confirmed that the use of AAS is associated with a lot of deleterious effects on the cardiac, nephritic and gonadic tissues which cannot be reversible.

Effects of stanozolol on apoptosis mechanisms and oxidative stress in rat cardiac tissue

Stanozolol is a widely used 17α-alkylated anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) derivative. Despite stanozolol's adverse effects, its effect on oxidative stress parameters and mitochondrial apoptosis pathway is not clearly defined. In our study, thirty four male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 5 groups as control (C), vehicle control (VC), steroid (ST), vehicle control-exercise (VCE), and steroid-exercise (STE). Animals were subcutaneously administered stanozolol 5 mg/kg in steroid groups and propylene glycol 1 ml/kg in the vehicle-control groups. On the 28th day-after sacrification, oxidative stress (MDA, GSH, PC, SOD, CAT) and apoptosis parameters (TUNEL, Cytochrome-c) in cardiac tissue were evaluated. Also, blood vessel morphology of cardiac tissue was evaluated with Verhoeff-van Giesen staining. It has been demonstrated that stanozolol administration triggers apoptosis by using TUNEL assay and cytochrome-c immunohistochemical staining intensity, while this effect is significantly reduced in the presence of exercise. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that stanozolol administration induces apoptosis with increasing PC and CAT levels, while GSH, MDA and SOD parameters do not reveal any significant change. Exercise has a protective role in stanozolol induced oxidative stress and apoptosis. According to Verhoeff-van Giesen staining results for blood vessel morphology assessment, it has been seen that exercise has a protective role on cardiac blood vessels. This mechanism needs further investigations with long term exposure studies for clarifying possible pathways.

Oxidative imbalance in mice intoxicated by microcystin-LR can be minimized

Microcystins-LR (MC-LR) is a cyanotoxin produced by cyanobacteria. We evaluated the antioxidant potential of LASSBio-596 (LB-596, inhibitor of phosphodiesterases 4 and 5), per os, and biochemical markers involved in lung and liver injury induced by exposure to sublethal dose of MC-LR. Fifty male Swiss mice received an intraperitoneal injection of 60 μL of saline (CTRL group, n = 20) or a sublethal dose of MC-LR (40 μg/kg, TOX group, n = 20). After 6 h the animals received either saline (TOX and CTRL groups) or LB-596 (50 mg/kg, TOX + LASS group, n = 10) by gavage. At 6 h after exposure, respiratory mechanics was evaluated in 10 CTRL and 10 TOX mice: there was a significant increase of all lung mechanics parameters (static elastance, viscoelastic component of elastance and lung resistive and viscoelastic/inhomogeneous pressures) in TOX compared to CTRL. 8 h after saline or MC-LR administration, i.e., 2 h after treatment with LB-596, blood serum levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and content of malondialdehyde and carbonyl in lung and liver, NADPH oxidase 2 and 4 mRNA expressions, dual oxidase enzyme activity and H₂O₂ generation were analyzed in lung homogenates. All parameters were significantly higher in TOX than in the other groups. There was no significant difference between CTRL and TOX + LASS. MC-LR deteriorated lung and liver functions and induced redox imbalance in them, which was prevented by oral administration of LB-596.

Chronic endurance exercise antagonizes the cardiac UCP2 and UCP3 protein up-regulation induced by nandrolone decanoate

BACKGROUND

Several lines of evidence revealed that chronic treatment of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) is accompanied with some cardiovascular side effects and in addition they also negatively mask the beneficial effects of exercise training on cardiac performance.

METHODS

The present study examined whether the nandrolone decanoate (ND)-induced cardiac effects were mediated by changing the cardiac uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) and 3 (UCP3) expression. Five groups of male wistar-albino rats including sedentary control (SC), sedentary vehicle (SV), sedentary nandrolone decanoate (SND), exercise control (EC), and exercise nandrolone decanoate (END) were used. ND was injected (10 mg/kg/week, intramuscular) to the animals in the SND and END groups and endurance exercise training was performed on a treadmill five times per week.

RESULTS

The protein expressions of cardiac UCP2 and UCP3 have significantly increased in both the SND and EC groups compared to the SC ones. In contrast to UCP3, no significant differences were found between UCP2 protein expressions of the END and SC groups. Compared with the SND group, the exercise training significantly decreased the UCP2 and UCP3 protein expressions in the END group.

CONCLUSIONS

The study has indicated that endurance exercise in combination with ND can result in that the exercise effectively antagonizes the effects of ND treatment on UCP2 and UCP3 up-regulation.

Cardiovascular Toxicity of Illicit Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use

BACKGROUND

Millions of individuals have used illicit anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), but the long-term cardiovascular associations of these drugs remain incompletely understood.

METHODS

Using a cross-sectional cohort design, we recruited 140 experienced male weightlifters 34 to 54 years of age, comprising 86 men reporting ≥2 years of cumulative lifetime AAS use and 54 nonusing men. Using transthoracic echocardiography and coronary computed tomography angiography, we assessed 3 primary outcome measures: left ventricular (LV) systolic function (left ventricular ejection fraction), LV diastolic function (early relaxation velocity), and coronary atherosclerosis (coronary artery plaque volume).

RESULTS

Compared with nonusers, AAS users demonstrated relatively reduced LV systolic function (mean±SD left ventricular ejection fraction = 52±11% versus 63±8%; P<0.001) and diastolic function (early relaxation velocity = 9.3±2.4 cm/second versus 11.1±2.0 cm/second; P<0.001). Users currently taking AAS at the time of evaluation (N=58) showed significantly reduced LV systolic (left ventricular ejection fraction = 49±10% versus 58±10%; P<0.001) and diastolic function (early relaxation velocity = 8.9±2.4 cm/second versus 10.1±2.4 cm/second; P=0.035) compared with users currently off-drug (N=28). In addition, AAS users demonstrated higher coronary artery plaque volume than nonusers (median [interquartile range] 3 [0, 174] mL³ versus 0 [0, 69] mL³; P=0.012). Lifetime AAS dose was strongly associated with coronary atherosclerotic burden (increase [95% confidence interval] in rank of plaque volume for each 10-year increase in cumulative duration of AAS use: 0.60 SD units [0.16-1.03 SD units]; P=0.008).

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term AAS use appears to be associated with myocardial dysfunction and accelerated coronary atherosclerosis. These forms of AAS-associated adverse cardiovascular phenotypes may represent a previously underrecognized public-health problem.

Administration of anabolic steroid during adolescence induces long-term cardiac hypertrophy and increases susceptibility to ischemia/reperfusion injury in adult Wistar rats

Chronic administration of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) in adult rats results in cardiac hypertrophy and increased susceptibility to myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury. Molecular analyses demonstrated that hyperactivation of type 1 angiotensin II (AT1) receptor mediates cardiac hypertrophy induced by AAS and also induces down-regulation of myocardial ATP-sensitive potassium channel (K_ATP), resulting in loss of exercise-induced cardioprotection. Exposure to AAS during adolescence promoted long-term cardiovascular dysfunctions, such as dysautonomia. We tested the hypothesis that chronic AAS exposure in the pre/pubertal phase increases the susceptibility to myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury in adult rats. Male Wistar rats (26day old) were treated with vehicle (Control, n=12) or testosterone propionate (TP) (AAS, 5mgkg^-1 n=12) 5 times/week during 5 weeks. At the end of AAS exposure, rats underwent 23days of washout period and were submitted to euthanasia. Langendorff-perfused hearts were submitted to IR injury and evaluated for mechanical dysfunctions and infarct size. Molecular analysis was performed by mRNA levels of α-myosin heavy chain (MHC), βMHC and brain-derived natriuretic peptide (BNP), ryanodine receptor (RyR2) and sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2a (SERCA2a) by quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). The expression of AT1 receptor and K_ATP channel subunits (Kir6.1 and SURa) was analyzed by qRT-PCR and Western Blot. NADPH oxidase (Nox)-related reactive oxygen species generation was assessed by spectrofluorimetry. The expression of antioxidant enzymes was measured by qRT-PCR in order to address a potential role of redox unbalance. AAS exposure promoted long-term cardiac hypertrophy characterized by increased expression of βMHC and βMHC/αMHC ratio. Baseline derivative of pressure (dP/dt) was impaired by AAS exposure. Postischemic recovery of mechanical properties was impaired (decreased left ventricle [LV] developed pressure and maximal dP/dt; increased LV end-diastolic pressure and minimal dP/dt) and infarct size was larger in the AAS group. Catalase mRNA expression was significantly decreased in the AAS group. In conclusion, chronic administration of AAS during adolescence promoted long-term pathological cardiac hypertrophy and persistent increase in the susceptibility to myocardial IR injury possible due to disturbances on catalase expression.

Long-term treatment with Nandrolone Decanoate impairs mesenteric vascular relaxation in both sedentary and exercised female rats

Nandrolone Decanoate (ND) is an Anabolic Androgenic Steroid (AAS) that under abusive regimen can lead to multiple physiological adverse effects. Studies of AAS-mediated cardiovascular (CV) alterations were mostly taken from male subjects, even though women are also susceptible to the effects of AAS and gender-specific differences in susceptibility to vascular diseases exist. Here we investigate ND-induced vascular reactivity alterations in both sedentary and exercised female rats and whether these alterations depend on endothelium-derived factors. We show that chronic exposure of female Wistar rats to ND (20mg/Kg/week for 4weeks) impaired the vascular mesenteric bed (MVB) reactivity to vasodilator (acetylcholine) agonist. The endothelium-dependent Nitric Oxide (NO) component was reduced in ND-treated rats, whereas neither the endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) component nor prostanoids were altered in the MVBs. Endothelial dysfunction observed in ND-treated rats was associated with decreased eNOS (Ser¹¹⁷⁷) and Akt (Ser⁴⁷³) phosphorylation sites and upregulation of iNOS and NADPH oxidase expression. Exercise training by weight lifting in water did not improve the vascular alterations induced by ND treatment. ND treatment also significantly reduced the serum levels of estradiol in females, overriding its CV protective effect. These results help uncover the role of ND modulating endothelial function in the setting of CV disease caused by the abuse of AAS in females. If this translates to humans, young women abusing AAS can potentially lose the cardio protective effect rendered by estrogen and be more susceptible to CV alterations.

Estimation of Early Postmortem Interval Through Biochemical and Pathological Changes in Rat Heart and Kidney

Accurate estimation of time passed since death is a complicated task in forensic medicine especially in homicide or unwitnessed death investigations. Changes in oxidant/antioxidant parameters were investigated if it can be relied upon in estimating the early postmortem interval (EPI) in rat heart and kidney, and whether these changes were correlated with histopathological findings in these tissues. Heart and kidney tissues of 84 male albino rats were divided into 2 parts. One part used for estimation of levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), and total thiol as well as the activity of glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S transferase, and catalase. The second part was examined histopathologically. It was found that MDA and NO were significantly increased earlier in the heart than kidney tissues. Meanwhile, total thiol, catalase, glutathione S transferase, and GR were commenced to be significantly decreased in the heart before kidney tissues. Linear regression analysis of independent variables of heart was found to be of a high predictive value of 97.2% (EPI = 8.607 - 0.240 GR + 0.002 MDA + 0.014 NO). Structural deterioration of heart started 3 to 4 hours compared with renal sections that began 5 to 6 hours after death. The relationship between oxidant and antioxidant parameters is crucial in determining the EPI. The kidney was found to be more resistible to oxidative damage. Further research on humans is needed.

Acute effects of nandrolone decanoate on cardiodynamic parameters in isolated rat heart

Despite worldwide use of anabolic steroids in last decades, there is still contradictory information about their acute influence on myocardium. The aim of this study was to examine the acute effects of nandrolone decanoate (ND) on cardiodynamics and coronary flow in isolated rat heart. The hearts of male Wistar albino rats (n = 48, 12 per group, age 8 weeks, body mass 180-200 g) were excised and perfused according to the Langendorff technique at gradually increased coronary perfusion pressures (40-120 cmH₂O). After the control sets of experiments, the hearts in different groups were perfused with different doses of ND (1, 10, or 100 μmol/L separately). Using a sensor placed in the left ventricle, we registered maximum and minimum rate of pressure development in the left ventricle (dP/dt_max and dP/dt_min), systolic and diastolic left ventricular pressure (SLVP and DLVP), and heart rate (HR). Coronary flow (CF) was measured flowmetrically. The results clearly show the depression in cardiac function caused by higher doses of ND. The highest concentration of ND (100 μmol/L) induced the most deleterious impact on the myocardial function and perfusion of the heart (coronary circulation), which could be of clinical significance.

Anabolic androgenic steroid-induced hepatotoxicity

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) have been abused for decades by both professional and amateur athletes in order to improve physical performance or muscle mass. AAS abuse can cause adverse effects, among which are hepatotoxic effects. These effects include cholestatic icterus and possibly peliosis hepatis and hepatocellular carcinoma or adenoma. In particular, 17α-alkylated AAS appear to be hepatotoxic, whereas nonalkylated AAS appear not to be. The 17α-alkyl substitution retards hepatic metabolism of the AAS rendering it orally bioavailable. The mechanism responsible for the hepatotoxicity induced by 17α-alkylated AAS remains poorly understood. However, oxidative stress has been repeatedly shown to be associated with it. In this manuscript we present a hypothesis which describes a potential mechanism responsible for AAS-induced hepatotoxicity, based on several observations from the literature which suggest oxidative stress being a causal factor.

Lipid peroxidation and apoptotic response in rat brain areas induced by long-term administration of nandrolone: the mutual crosstalk between ROS and NF-kB

The aim of this study was to evaluate the played by oxidative stress in the apoptotic response in different brain areas of rats chronically treated with supra-physiological doses of nandrolone decanoate (ND). Immunohistochemical study and Western blot analysis were performed to evaluate cells' apoptosis and to measure the effects of expression of specific mediators, such as NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells), Bcl-2 (B-cell lymphoma 2), SMAC/DIABLO (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases/direct IAP-binding protein with low PI) and VMAT2 (vesicular monoamine transporter 2) on apoptosis. The results of the present study indicate that a long-term administration of ND promotes oxidative injury in rat brain specific areas. A link between oxidative stress and NF-κB signalling pathways is supported by our results. In addition to high levels of oxidative stress, we consistently observed a strong immunopositivity to NF-κB. It has been argued that one of the pathways leading to the activation of NF-κB could be under reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated control. In fact, growing evidence suggests that although in limited doses, endogenous ROS may play an activating role in NF-κB signalling, while above a certain threshold, they may negatively impact upon this signalling. However, a mutual crosstalk between ROS and NF-κB exists and recent studies have shown that ROS activity is subject to negative feedback regulation by NF-κB, and that this negative regulation of ROS is the means through which NF-κB counters programmed cells.

Trenbolone Improves Cardiometabolic Risk Factors and Myocardial Tolerance to Ischemia-Reperfusion in Male Rats With Testosterone-Deficient Metabolic Syndrome

The increasing prevalence of obesity adds another dimension to the pathophysiology of testosterone (TEST) deficiency (TD) and potentially impairs the therapeutic efficacy of classical TEST replacement therapy. We investigated the therapeutic effects of selective androgen receptor modulation with trenbolone (TREN) in a model of TD with the metabolic syndrome (MetS). Male Wistar rats (n=50) were fed either a control standard rat chow (CTRL) or a high-fat/high-sucrose (HF/HS) diet. After 8 weeks of feeding, rats underwent sham surgery or an orchiectomy (ORX). Alzet miniosmotic pumps containing either vehicle, 2-mg/kg·d TEST or 2-mg/kg·d TREN were implanted in HF/HS+ORX rats. Body composition, fat distribution, lipid profile, and insulin sensitivity were assessed. Infarct size was quantified to assess myocardial damage after in vivo ischaemia reperfusion, before cardiac and prostate histology was performed. The HF/HS+ORX animals had increased sc and visceral adiposity; circulating triglycerides, cholesterol, and insulin; and myocardial damage, with low circulating TEST compared with CTRLs. Both TEST and TREN protected HF/HS+ORX animals against sc fat accumulation, hypercholesterolaemia, and myocardial damage. However, only TREN protected against visceral fat accumulation, hypertriglyceridaemia, and hyperinsulinaemia and reduced myocardial damage relative to CTRLs. TEST caused widespread cardiac fibrosis and prostate hyperplasia, which were less pronounced with TREN. We propose that TEST replacement therapy may have contraindications for males with TD and obesity-related MetS. TREN treatment may be more effective in restoring androgen status and reducing cardiovascular risk in males with TD and MetS.