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Rathnayake RAS, Wedage WMM, Muthukumarana LS, De Silva BGDNK. Genetic diversity, phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis of Anopheles culicifacies species complex using ITS2 and COI sequences. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0290178. [PMID: 37585421 PMCID: PMC10431676 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Anopheles culicifacies is the major vector of malaria in Sri Lanka and the Indian subcontinent which is characterized as a species complex with five sibling species provisionally designated as A, B, C, D and E. The current study was carried out to understand the phylogenetic and phylogeographic relationships between the sibling species of the species complex while observing their genetic diversity and genetic differentiation. Thirty-five ITS2 and seventy-seven COI sequences of An. culicifacies species complex reported from different geographical locations of Asia and China at the NCBI public database were used for the analysis. Bayesian likelihood trees were generated for the phylogenetic analysis. The divergence of the species complex was obtained from the Bayesian phylogeographic model in BEAST. There were two clades of the sibling species of An. culicifacies species complex as A, D and B, C and E in both phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis using ITS2 sequences. Based on the highly divergent COI sequences and the high mutation rate of the mitochondrial genome, there were four and three clades in both phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis using COI sequences. The diversification of An. culicifacies species complex was obtained as ranging from 20.25 to 24.12 Mya and 22.37 to 26.22 Mya based on ITS2 and COI phylogeographic analysis respectively. There was a recent diversification of the sibling species A and D than the sibling species B, C and E. Low haplotype diversity was observed in the sequences reported from Sri Lanka in both ITS2 and COI analysis that can be due to bottlenecks resulting from the intense malaria control efforts. A high genetic differentiation was achieved for some populations due to the large geographical distance. The high genetic diversity based on the five sibling species implies the possibility of maintaining a relatively high effective population size despite the vector control efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. A. S. Rathnayake
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| | - W. M. M. Wedage
- Center for Biotechnology, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| | - L. S. Muthukumarana
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| | - B. G. D. N. K. De Silva
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
- Center for Biotechnology, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
- Genetics and Molecular Biology Unit, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
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Freitas L, Nery MF. Positive selection in multiple salivary gland proteins of Anophelinae reveals potential targets for vector control. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2022; 100:105271. [PMID: 35339698 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2022.105271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Anopheles is a genus belonging to the Culicidae family, which has great medical importance due to its role as a vector of Plasmodium, the causative agent of malaria. Great focus has been given to the salivary gland proteins (SGPs) group from Anopheles' functional genomics. This class of proteins is essential to blood-feeding behavior as they have attributes such as vasodilators and anti-clotting properties. Recently, a comprehensive review on Anopheles SGPs was performed; however, the authors did not deeply explore the adaptive molecular evolution of these genes. In this context, this work aimed to perform a more detailed analysis of the adaptive molecular evolution of SGPs in Anopheles, carrying out positive selection and gene family evolution analysis on 824 SGPs. Our results show that most SGPs have positively selected codon sites that can be used as targets in developing new strategies for vector control and that younger SGPs evolve at a faster rate than older SGPs. Notably, we could not find any evidence of an accelerated shift in SGPs' rates of gene gain and loss compared with other proteins, as suggested in previous works.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Freitas
- Laboratório de Genômica Evolutiva, Departamento de Genética, Evolução, Microbiologia e Imunologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Mariana F Nery
- Laboratório de Genômica Evolutiva, Departamento de Genética, Evolução, Microbiologia e Imunologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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Jones CM, Ciubotariu II, Muleba M, Lupiya J, Mbewe D, Simubali L, Mudenda T, Gebhardt ME, Carpi G, Malcolm AN, Kosinski KJ, Romero-Weaver AL, Stevenson JC, Lee Y, Norris DE. Multiple Novel Clades of Anopheline Mosquitoes Caught Outdoors in Northern Zambia. FRONTIERS IN TROPICAL DISEASES 2021; 2. [PMID: 35983564 PMCID: PMC9384971 DOI: 10.3389/fitd.2021.780664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Residual vector populations that do not come in contact with the most frequently utilized indoor-directed interventions present major challenges to global malaria eradication. Many of these residual populations are mosquito species about which little is known. As part of a study to assess the threat of outdoor exposure to malaria mosquitoes within the Southern and Central Africa International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research, foraging female anophelines were collected outside households in Nchelenge District, northern Zambia. These anophelines proved to be more diverse than had previously been reported in the area. In order to further characterize the anopheline species, sequencing and phylogenetic approaches were utilized. Anopheline mosquitoes were collected from outdoor light traps, morphologically identified, and sent to Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health for sequencing. Sanger sequencing from 115 field-derived samples yielded mitochondrial COI sequences, which were aligned with a homologous 488 bp gene segment from known anophelines (n = 140) retrieved from NCBI. Nuclear ITS2 sequences (n = 57) for at least one individual from each unique COI clade were generated and compared against NCBI’s nucleotide BLAST database to provide additional evidence for taxonomical identity and structure. Molecular and morphological data were combined for assignment of species or higher taxonomy. Twelve phylogenetic groups were characterized from the COI and ITS2 sequence data, including the primary vector species Anopheles funestus s.s. and An. gambiae s.s. An unexpectedly large proportion of the field collections were identified as An. coustani and An. sp. 6. Six phylogenetic groups remain unidentified to species-level. Outdoor collections of anopheline mosquitoes in areas frequented by people in Nchelenge, northern Zambia, proved to be extremely diverse. Morphological misidentification and underrepresentation of some anopheline species in sequence databases confound efforts to confirm identity of potential malaria vector species. The large number of unidentified anophelines could compromise the malaria vector surveillance and malaria control efforts not only in northern Zambia but other places where surveillance and control are focused on indoor-foraging and resting anophelines. Therefore, it is critical to continue development of methodologies that allow better identification of these populations and revisiting and cleaning current genomic databases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M. Jones
- The W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Ilinca I. Ciubotariu
- The W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | | | - James Lupiya
- Tropical Diseases Research Centre, Ndola, Zambia
| | - David Mbewe
- Tropical Diseases Research Centre, Ndola, Zambia
| | | | | | - Mary E. Gebhardt
- The W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Giovanna Carpi
- The W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Ashley N. Malcolm
- Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, Department of Entomology and Nematology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Vero Beach, FL, United States
| | - Kyle J. Kosinski
- Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, Department of Entomology and Nematology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Vero Beach, FL, United States
| | - Ana L. Romero-Weaver
- Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, Department of Entomology and Nematology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Vero Beach, FL, United States
| | - Jennifer C. Stevenson
- The W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Yoosook Lee
- Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, Department of Entomology and Nematology, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Vero Beach, FL, United States
- Correspondence: Yoosook Lee, ; Douglas E. Norris,
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Bamou R, Mayi MPA, Djiappi-Tchamen B, Nana-Ndjangwo SM, Nchoutpouen E, Cornel AJ, Awono-Ambene P, Parola P, Tchuinkam T, Antonio-Nkondjio C. An update on the mosquito fauna and mosquito-borne diseases distribution in Cameroon. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:527. [PMID: 34635176 PMCID: PMC8507310 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04950-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The expansion of mosquito-borne diseases such as dengue, yellow fever, and chikungunya in the past 15 years has ignited the need for active surveillance of common and neglected mosquito-borne infectious diseases. The surveillance should be designed to detect diseases and to provide relevant field-based data for developing and implementing effective control measures to prevent outbreaks before significant public health consequences can occur. Mosquitoes are important vectors of human and animal pathogens, and knowledge on their biodiversity and distribution in the Afrotropical region is needed for the development of evidence-based vector control strategies. Following a comprehensive literature search, an inventory of the diversity and distribution of mosquitoes as well as the different mosquito-borne diseases found in Cameroon was made. A total of 290 publications/reports and the mosquito catalogue website were consulted for the review. To date, about 307 species, four subspecies and one putative new species of Culicidae, comprising 60 species and one putative new species of Anopheles, 67 species and two subspecies of Culex, 77 species and one subspecies of Aedes, 31 species and one subspecies of Eretmapodites, two Mansonia, eight Coquillettidia, and 62 species with unknown medical and veterinary importance (Toxorhynchites, Uranotaenia, Mimomyia, Malaya, Hodgesia, Ficalbia, Orthopodomyia, Aedeomyia, and Culiseta and Lutzia) have been collected in Cameroon. Multiple mosquito species implicated in the transmission of pathogens within Anopheles, Culex, Aedes, Eretmapodites, Mansonia, and Coquillettidia have been reported in Cameroon. Furthermore, the presence of 26 human and zoonotic arboviral diseases, one helminthic disease, and two protozoal diseases has been reported. Information on the bionomics, taxonomy, and distribution of mosquito species will be useful for the development of integrated vector management programmes for the surveillance and elimination of mosquito-borne diseases in Cameroon. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Bamou
- Vector Borne Diseases Laboratory of the Biology and Applied Ecology Research Unit (VBID-URBEA), Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Science of the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon. .,Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte Contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale (OCEAC), Yaoundé, Cameroon. .,Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, SSA, AP-HM, UMR Vecteurs-Infections Tropicales et Méditerranéennes (VITROME), Marseille, France. .,IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France.
| | - Marie Paul Audrey Mayi
- Vector Borne Diseases Laboratory of the Biology and Applied Ecology Research Unit (VBID-URBEA), Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Science of the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon
| | - Borel Djiappi-Tchamen
- Vector Borne Diseases Laboratory of the Biology and Applied Ecology Research Unit (VBID-URBEA), Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Science of the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon.,Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte Contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale (OCEAC), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Stella Mariette Nana-Ndjangwo
- Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte Contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale (OCEAC), Yaoundé, Cameroon.,Laboratoire de Parasitologie et d'écologie, Université de Yaoundé 1, Yaoundé, Cameroun
| | - Elysée Nchoutpouen
- Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte Contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale (OCEAC), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Antony John Cornel
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, Mosquito Control Research Laboratory, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Parfait Awono-Ambene
- Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte Contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale (OCEAC), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Phillipe Parola
- Aix Marseille Univ, IRD, SSA, AP-HM, UMR Vecteurs-Infections Tropicales et Méditerranéennes (VITROME), Marseille, France.,IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
| | - Timoléon Tchuinkam
- Vector Borne Diseases Laboratory of the Biology and Applied Ecology Research Unit (VBID-URBEA), Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Science of the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon
| | - Christophe Antonio-Nkondjio
- Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte Contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale (OCEAC), Yaoundé, Cameroon.,Vector Biology Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
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Guo J, Yan ZT, Fu WB, Yuan H, Li XD, Chen B. Complete mitogenomes of Anopheles peditaeniatus and Anopheles nitidus and phylogenetic relationships within the genus Anopheles inferred from mitogenomes. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:452. [PMID: 34488869 PMCID: PMC8420037 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04963-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the medical importance of mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles in the transmission of malaria and other human diseases, its phylogenetic relationships are not settled, and the characteristics of mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) are not thoroughly understood. METHODS The present study sequenced and analyzed the complete mitogenomes of An. peditaeniatus and An. nitidus, investigated genome characteristics, and inferred the phylogenetic relationships of 76 Anopheles spp. RESULTS The complete mitogenomes of An. peditaeniatus and An. nitidus are 15,416 and 15,418 bp long, respectively, and both include 13 PCGs, 22 tRNAs, two tRNAs and one control region (CR). Mitogenomes of Anopheles spp. are similar to those of other insects in general characteristics; however, the trnR and trnA have been reversed to "trnR-trnA," as has been reported in other mosquito genera. Genome variations mainly occur in CR length (493-886 bp) with six repeat unit types identified for the first time that demonstrate an evolutionary signal. The subgenera Lophopodomyia, Stethomyia, Kerteszia, Nyssorhynchus, Anopheles and Cellia are inferred to be monophyletic, and the phylogenetic analyses support a new phylogenetic relationship among the six subgenera investigated, in that subgenus Lophopodomyia is the sister to all other five subgenera, and the remaining five subgenera are divided into two clades, one of which is a sister-taxon subgenera Stethomyia + Kerteszia, and the other consists of subgenus Nyssorhynchus as the sister to a sister-group subgenera Anopheles + Cellia. Four series (Neomyzomyia, Pyretophorus, Neocellia and Myzomyia) of the subgenus Cellia, and two series (Arribalzagia and Myzorhynchus) of the subgenus Anopheles were found to be monophyletic, whereas three sections (Myzorhynchella, Argyritarsis and Albimanus) and their subdivisions of the subgenus Nyssorhynchus were polyphyletic or paraphyletic. CONCLUSIONS The study comprehensively uncovered the characteristics of mitogenome and the phylogenetics based on mitogenomes in the genus Anopheles, and provided information for further study on the mitogenomes, phylogenetics and taxonomic revision of the genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Guo
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects, Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331 People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhen-Tian Yan
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects, Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331 People’s Republic of China
| | - Wen-Bo Fu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects, Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331 People’s Republic of China
| | - Huan Yuan
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects, Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xu-Dong Li
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects, Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331 People’s Republic of China
| | - Bin Chen
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects, Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331 People’s Republic of China
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Sialovirome of Brazilian tropical anophelines. Virus Res 2021; 302:198494. [PMID: 34174341 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.198494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Anophelinae is a widely dispersed Culicidae subfamily that may carry a unique virome. Here we herein report the set of viruses found in 323 salivary glands of 16 anopheline species sampled at Upper Pantanal, Chapada dos Guimarães National Park and Coxipó river basin, South Central Mato Grosso, Brazil, pooled (n = 11) and subjected to high throughput sequencing. Metagenomics revealed the presence of nine viral sequences belonging to novel viruses from seven viral families: Purunga is a putative novel orbivirus sharing 74% and 65% aa identity, respectively, with the VP1 and VP3 segments of Changuinola serogroup, Jaracatiá flavivirus shares 60% amino-acid (aa) identity with Aedes flavivirus. Coxipó dielmovirus and Chapada dielmovirus shared 51% and 39% aa identity with Merida virus. Coloiado-orthomyxo like virus is 57.1-64.8% identical at aa level to Aedes albonnulatus orthomyxo-like virus. Mujica picorna-like virus shares 49% aa identity with Flen picorna-like virus and Chiquitos virus is 50% similar to Ista virus, both from Picornavirales order. Cerrado partiti-like-virus shares 75-86% aa identity with Atrato partiti-like virus 2. We also found the S and L segments of Anopheles triannulatus orthophasmavirus (92% identity) in Anopheles lutzi from Chapada dos Guimarães. The identification of these putative novel viruses underscore the wide dispersion of viruses in culicid hosts contributing to extensions on mosquito virome descriptions.
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Ghassemi-Khademi T, Oshaghi MA, Vatandoost H, Madjdzadeh SM, Gorouhi MA. Utility of Complete Mitochondrial Genomes in Phylogenetic Classification of the Species of Anopheles (Culicidae: Anophelinae). J Arthropod Borne Dis 2021; 15:1-20. [PMID: 34277853 PMCID: PMC8271240 DOI: 10.18502/jad.v15i1.6483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Among the blood-sucking insects, Anopheles mosquitoes have a very special position, because they transmit parasites of the genus Plasmodium, which cause malaria as one of the main vector-borne disease worldwide. The aim of this review study was to evaluate utility of complete mitochondrial genomes in phylogenetic classification of the species of Anopheles. Methods: The complete mitochondrial genome sequences belonging to 28 species of the genus Anopheles (n=32) were downloaded from NCBI. The phylogenetic trees were constructed using the ML, NJ, ME, and Bayesian inference methods. Results: In general, the results of the present survey revealed that the complete mitochondrial genomes act very accurately in recognition of the taxonomic and phylogenetic status of these species and provide a higher level of support than those based on individual or partial mitochondrial genes so that by using them, we can meticulously reconstruct and modify Anopheles classification. Conclusion: Understanding the taxonomic position of Anopheles, can be a very effective step in better planning for controlling these malaria vectors in the world and will improve our knowledge of their evolutionary biology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohammad Ali Oshaghi
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hassan Vatandoost
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Chemical Pollutants and Pesticides, Institute for Environmental Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mohammad Amin Gorouhi
- Department of Vector Biology and Control, School of Public Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.,Research Center of Tropical and Infectious Diseases Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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Culicidae evolutionary history focusing on the Culicinae subfamily based on mitochondrial phylogenomics. Sci Rep 2020; 10:18823. [PMID: 33139764 PMCID: PMC7606482 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-74883-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Mosquitoes are insects of medical importance due their role as vectors of different pathogens to humans. There is a lack of information about the evolutionary history and phylogenetic positioning of the majority of mosquito species. Here we characterized the mitogenomes of mosquito species through low-coverage whole genome sequencing and data mining. A total of 37 draft mitogenomes of different species were assembled from which 16 are newly-sequenced species. We datamined additional 49 mosquito mitogenomes, and together with our 37 mitogenomes, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of 86 species including representatives from 15 genera and 7 tribes. Our results showed that most of the species clustered in clades with other members of their own genus with exception of Aedes genus which was paraphyletic. We confirmed the monophyletic status of the Mansoniini tribe including both Coquillettidia and Mansonia genus. The Aedeomyiini and Uranotaeniini were consistently recovered as basal to other tribes in the subfamily Culicinae, although the exact relationships among these tribes differed between analyses. These results demonstrate that low-coverage sequencing is effective to recover mitogenomes, establish phylogenetic knowledge and hence generate basic fundamental information that will help in the understanding of the role of these species as pathogen vectors.
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Escobar D, Ascencio K, Ortiz A, Palma A, Fontecha G. Distribution and phylogenetic diversity of Anopheles species in malaria endemic areas of Honduras in an elimination setting. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:333. [PMID: 32611432 PMCID: PMC7329488 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04203-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anopheles mosquitoes are the vectors of malaria, one of the most important infectious diseases in the tropics. More than 500 Anopheles species have been described worldwide, and more than 30 are considered a public health problem. In Honduras, information on the distribution of Anopheles spp. and its genetic diversity is scarce. This study aimed to describe the distribution and genetic diversity of Anopheles mosquitoes in Honduras. Methods Mosquitoes were captured in 8 locations in 5 malaria endemic departments during 2019. Two collection methods were used. Adult anophelines were captured outdoors using CDC light traps and by aspiration of mosquitoes at rest. Morphological identification was performed using taxonomic keys. Genetic analyses included the sequencing of a partial region of the cytochrome c oxidase 1 gene (cox1) and the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2). Results A total of 1320 anophelines were collected and identified through morphological keys. Seven Anopheles species were identified. Anopheles albimanus was the most widespread and abundant species (74.02%). To confirm the morphological identification of the specimens, 175 and 122 sequences were obtained for cox1 and ITS2, respectively. Both markers confirmed the morphological identification. cox1 showed a greater nucleotide diversity than ITS2 in all species. High genetic diversity was observed within the populations of An. albimanus while An. darlingi proved to be a highly homogeneous population. Phylogenetic analyses revealed clustering patterns in An. darlingi and An. neivai in relation to specimens from South America. New sequences for An. crucians, An. vestitipennis and An. neivai are reported in this study. Conclusions Here we report the distribution and genetic diversity of Anopheles species in endemic areas of malaria transmission in Honduras. According to our results, both taxonomic and molecular approaches are useful tools in the identification of anopheline mosquitoes. However, both molecular markers differ in their ability to detect intraspecific genetic diversity. These results provide supporting data for a better understanding of the distribution of malaria vectors in Honduras.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Escobar
- Microbiology Research Institute, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
| | - Krisnaya Ascencio
- Microbiology Research Institute, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
| | - Andrés Ortiz
- Microbiology Research Institute, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
| | - Adalid Palma
- Microbiology Research Institute, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
| | - Gustavo Fontecha
- Microbiology Research Institute, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
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Phylogeny of Anopheles ( Kerteszia) (Diptera: Culicidae) Using Mitochondrial Genes. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11050324. [PMID: 32456322 PMCID: PMC7290731 DOI: 10.3390/insects11050324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Identification of mosquito species is necessary for determining the entomological components of malaria transmission, but it can be difficult in morphologically similar species. DNA sequences are largely used as an additional tool for species recognition, including those that belong to species complexes. Kerteszia mosquitoes are vectors of human and simian malaria in the Neotropical Region, but there are few DNA sequences of Kerteszia species in public databases. In order to provide relevant information about diversity and improve knowledge in taxonomy of Kerteszia species in Peru, we sequenced part of the mitochondrial genome, including the cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) barcode region. Phylogenetic analyses structured all species of mosquitoes collected in Peru into a single clade, separate from the Brazilian species. The Peruvian clade was composed of two lineages, encompassing sequences from Anopheles (Kerteszia) boliviensis and Anopheles (Kerteszia) pholidotus. An. pholidotus sequences were recorded for the first time in Peru, whereas An. boliviensis sequences were for the first time published in the GenBank database. Sequences generated from specimens morphologically identified as Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii clustered into three separate clades according to the collection localities of Serra do Mar, Serra da Mantiqueira, and Serra da Cantareira, confirming An. cruzii as a species complex, composed of at least three putative species.
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Montiel J, Carbal LF, Tobón-Castaño A, Vásquez GM, Fisher ML, Londono-Rentería B. IgG antibody response against Anopheles salivary gland proteins in asymptomatic Plasmodium infections in Narino, Colombia. Malar J 2020; 19:42. [PMID: 31973737 PMCID: PMC6979332 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-020-3128-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The humoral immune response against Anopheles salivary glands proteins in the vertebrate host can reflect the intensity of exposure to Anopheles bites and the risk of Plasmodium infection. In Colombia, the identification of exposure biomarkers is necessary due to the several Anopheles species circulating. The purpose of this study was to evaluate risk of malaria infection by measuring antibody responses against salivary glands extracts from Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus and Anopheles (Nys.) darlingi and also against the gSG6-P1 peptide of Anopheles gambiae in people residing in a malaria endemic area in the Colombian Pacific coast. Methods Dried blood spots samples were eluted to measure the IgG antibodies against salivary gland extracts of An. albimanus strains STECLA (STE) and Cartagena (CTG) and An. darlingi and the gSG6-P1 peptide by ELISA in uninfected people and microscopic and submicroscopic Plasmodium carriers from the Colombia Pacific Coast. A multiple linear mixed regression model, Spearman correlation, and Mann–Whitney U-test were used to analyse IgG data. Results Significant differences in specific IgG levels were detected between infected and uninfected groups for salivary glands extracts from An. albimanus and for gSG6-P1, also IgG response to CTG and gSG6-P1 peptide were positively associated with the IgG response to Plasmodium falciparum in the mixed model. Conclusion The CTG and STE An. albimanus salivary glands extracts are a potential source of new Anopheles salivary biomarkers to identify exposure to the main malaria vector and to calculate risk of disease in the Colombian Pacific coast. Also, the gSG6-P1 peptide has the potential to quantify human exposure to the subgenus Anopheles vectors in the same area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jehidys Montiel
- Grupo Malaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia.,Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Luisa F Carbal
- Grupo Malaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Alberto Tobón-Castaño
- Grupo Malaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia.,Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Medicas, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
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12
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K-mer-Based Motif Analysis in Insect Species across Anopheles, Drosophila, and Glossina Genera and Its Application to Species Classification. COMPUTATIONAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN MEDICINE 2019; 2019:4259479. [PMID: 31827584 PMCID: PMC6881769 DOI: 10.1155/2019/4259479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Short k-mer sequences from DNA are both conserved and diverged across species owing to their functional significance in speciation, which enables their use in many species classification algorithms. In the present study, we developed a methodology to analyze the DNA k-mers of whole genome, 5' UTR, intron, and 3' UTR regions from 58 insect species belonging to three genera of Diptera that include Anopheles, Drosophila, and Glossina. We developed an improved algorithm to predict and score k-mers based on a scheme that normalizes k-mer scores in different genomic subregions. This algorithm takes advantage of the information content of the whole genome as opposed to other algorithms or studies that analyze only a small group of genes. Our algorithm uses k-mers of lengths 7-9 bp for the whole genome, 5' and 3' UTR regions as well as the intronic regions. Taxonomical relationships based on the whole-genome k-mer signatures showed that species of the three genera clustered together quite visibly. We also improved the scoring and filtering of these k-mers for accurate species identification. The whole-genome k-mer content correlation algorithm showed that species within a single genus correlated tightly with each other as compared to other genera. The genomes of two Aedes and one Culex species were also analyzed to demonstrate how newly sequenced species can be classified using the algorithm. Furthermore, working with several dozen species has enabled us to assign a whole-genome k-mer signature for each of the 58 Dipteran species by making all-to-all pairwise comparison of the k-mer content. These signatures were used to compare the similarity between species and to identify clusters of species displaying similar signatures.
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13
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Martinez-Villegas L, Assis-Geraldo J, Koerich LB, Collier TC, Lee Y, Main BJ, Rodrigues NB, Orfano AS, Pires ACAM, Campolina TB, Nacif-Pimenta R, Baia-da-Silva DC, Duarte APM, Bahia AC, Rios-Velásquez CM, Lacerda MVG, Monteiro WM, Lanzaro GC, Secundino NFC, Pimenta PFP. Characterization of the complete mitogenome of Anopheles aquasalis, and phylogenetic divergences among Anopheles from diverse geographic zones. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219523. [PMID: 31479460 PMCID: PMC6720026 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Whole mitogenome sequences (mtDNA) have been exploited for insect ecology studies, using them as molecular markers to reconstruct phylogenies, or to infer phylogeographic relationships and gene flow. Recent Anopheles phylogenomic studies have provided information regarding the time of deep lineage divergences within the genus. Here we report the complete 15,393 bp mtDNA sequences of Anopheles aquasalis, a Neotropical human malaria vector. When comparing its structure and base composition with other relevant and available anopheline mitogenomes, high similarity and conserved genomic features were observed. Furthermore, 22 mtDNA sequences comprising anopheline and Dipteran sibling species were analyzed to reconstruct phylogenies and estimate dates of divergence between taxa. Phylogenetic analysis using complete mtDNA sequences suggests that A. aquasalis diverged from the Anopheles albitarsis complex ~28 million years ago (MYA), and ~38 MYA from Anopheles darlingi. Bayesian analysis suggests that the most recent ancestor of Nyssorhynchus and Anopheles + Cellia was extant ~83 MYA, corroborating current estimates of ~79–100 MYA. Additional sampling and publication of African, Asian, and North American anopheline mitogenomes would improve the resolution of the Anopheles phylogeny and clarify early continental dispersal routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Martinez-Villegas
- Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Institute René Rachou, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Minas Gerais, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Juliana Assis-Geraldo
- Biosystems Informatics and Genomics Group, Institute René Rachou, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Minas Gerais, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Leonardo B Koerich
- Laboratory of Physiology of Haematophagous Insects, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Travis C Collier
- Daniel K. Inouye US Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Center (PBARC), United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Hilo, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Yoosook Lee
- Vector Genetics Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Bradley J Main
- Davis Arbovirus Research and Training, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Nilton B Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Institute René Rachou, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Minas Gerais, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Alessandra S Orfano
- Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Institute René Rachou, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Minas Gerais, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ana C A M Pires
- Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Institute René Rachou, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Minas Gerais, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Thais B Campolina
- Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Institute René Rachou, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Minas Gerais, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Rafael Nacif-Pimenta
- Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Institute René Rachou, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Minas Gerais, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Djane C Baia-da-Silva
- Institute of Clinical Research Borborema, Tropical Medicine Foundation Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Graduation Program in Tropical Medicine, Amazonas State University, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Foundation of Tropical Medicine Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
| | - Ana P M Duarte
- Institute of Clinical Research Borborema, Tropical Medicine Foundation Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Graduation Program in Tropical Medicine, Amazonas State University, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Foundation of Tropical Medicine Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
| | - Ana C Bahia
- Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Marcus V G Lacerda
- Institute of Clinical Research Borborema, Tropical Medicine Foundation Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Graduation Program in Tropical Medicine, Amazonas State University, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Foundation of Tropical Medicine Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Institute Leonidas and Maria Deane, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, FIOCRUZ, Manaus, AM, Brazil
| | - Wuelton M Monteiro
- Institute of Clinical Research Borborema, Tropical Medicine Foundation Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Graduation Program in Tropical Medicine, Amazonas State University, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Foundation of Tropical Medicine Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
| | - Gregory C Lanzaro
- Vector Genetics Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Nagila F C Secundino
- Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Institute René Rachou, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Minas Gerais, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Graduation Program in Tropical Medicine, Amazonas State University, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Foundation of Tropical Medicine Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
| | - Paulo F P Pimenta
- Laboratory of Medical Entomology, Institute René Rachou, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Minas Gerais, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Institute of Clinical Research Borborema, Tropical Medicine Foundation Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Graduation Program in Tropical Medicine, Amazonas State University, Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Foundation of Tropical Medicine Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM, Brazil
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14
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Helleu Q, Levine MT. Recurrent Amplification of the Heterochromatin Protein 1 (HP1) Gene Family across Diptera. Mol Biol Evol 2019; 35:2375-2389. [PMID: 29924345 PMCID: PMC6188558 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The heterochromatic genome compartment mediates strictly conserved cellular processes such as chromosome segregation, telomere integrity, and genome stability. Paradoxically, heterochromatic DNA sequence is wildly unconserved. Recent reports that many hybrid incompatibility genes encode heterochromatin proteins, together with the observation that interspecies hybrids suffer aberrant heterochromatin-dependent processes, suggest that heterochromatic DNA packaging requires species-specific innovations. Testing this model of coevolution between fast-evolving heterochromatic DNA and its packaging proteins begins with defining the latter. Here we describe many such candidates encoded by the Heterochromatin Protein 1 (HP1) gene family across Diptera, an insect Order that encompasses dramatic episodes of heterochromatic sequence turnover. Using BLAST, synteny analysis, and phylogenetic tree building across 64 Diptera genomes, we discovered a staggering 121 HP1 duplication events. In contrast, we observed virtually no gene duplication in gene families that share a common “chromodomain” with HP1s, including Polycomb and Su(var)3-9. The remarkably high number of Dipteran HP1 paralogs arises from distant clades undergoing convergent HP1 family amplifications. These independently derived, young HP1s span diverse ages, domain structures, and rates of molecular evolution, including episodes of positive selection. Moreover, independently derived HP1s exhibit convergent expression evolution. While ancient HP1 parent genes are transcribed ubiquitously, young HP1 paralogs are transcribed primarily in male germline tissue, a pattern typical of young genes. Pervasive gene youth, rapid evolution, and germline specialization implicate heterochromatin-encoded selfish elements driving recurrent HP1 gene family expansions. The 121 young genes offer valuable experimental traction for elucidating the germline processes shaped by Diptera’s many dramatic episodes of heterochromatin turnover.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Helleu
- Department of Biology, Epigenetics Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Mia T Levine
- Department of Biology, Epigenetics Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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15
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Evolution of sexually-transferred steroids and mating-induced phenotypes in Anopheles mosquitoes. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4669. [PMID: 30874601 PMCID: PMC6420574 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-41094-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Human malaria, which remains a major public health problem, is transmitted by a subset of Anopheles mosquitoes belonging to only three out of eight subgenera: Anopheles, Cellia and Nyssorhynchus. Unlike almost every other insect species, males of some Anopheles species produce steroid hormones which are transferred to females during copulation to influence their reproduction. Steroids are consequently a potential target for malaria vector control. Here, we analysed the evolution of sexually-transferred steroids and their effects on female reproductive traits across Anopheles by using a set of 16 mosquito species (five Anopheles, eight Cellia, and three Nyssorhynchus), including malaria vector and non-vector species. We show that male steroid production and transfer are specific to the Cellia and therefore represent a synapomorphy of this subgenus. Furthermore, we show that mating-induced effects in females are variable across species and differences are not correlated with sexually-transferred steroids or with Anopheles ability to transmit human malaria. Overall, our findings highlight that Anopheles mosquitoes have evolved different reproductive strategies, independently of being a malaria vector or not.
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16
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Harbach RE. An Anopheles by Any Other Name …? JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 55:1069-1070. [PMID: 30020514 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjy108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The physical characteristics of a nematoceran fly that evokes the image of a mosquito of the genus Anopheles Meigen (Diptera: Culicidae) has existed since the genus was defined in the early part of the twentieth century. Is that image likely to change with the recent proposal to elevate four Neotropical subgenera to generic status based on relationships generated by phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial protein-coding genes? Reasons for retaining the traditional concept of Anopheles, with its traditionally recognized subgenera, are presented. However, as the ranking of taxa as genera or subgenera is subjective, the choice of rank of a genus-group name may be considered a subjective decision and a matter of user preference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph E Harbach
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK
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17
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Öncü C, Brinkmann A, Günay F, Kar S, Öter K, Sarıkaya Y, Nitsche A, Linton YM, Alten B, Ergünay K. West Nile virus, Anopheles flavivirus, a novel flavivirus as well as Merida-like rhabdovirus Turkey in field-collected mosquitoes from Thrace and Anatolia. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2017; 57:36-45. [PMID: 29128516 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Revised: 11/04/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mosquitoes are involved in the transmission and maintenance of several viral diseases with significant health impact. Biosurveillance efforts have also revealed insect-specific viruses, observed to cocirculate with pathogenic strains. This report describes the findings of flavivirus and rhabdovirus screening, performed in eastern Thrace and Aegean region of Anatolia during 2016, including and expanding on locations with previously-documented virus activity. A mosquito cohort of 1545 individuals comprising 14 species were collected and screened in 108 pools via generic and specific amplification and direct metagenomics by next generation sequencing. Seven mosquito pools (6.4%) were positive in the flavivirus screening. West Nile virus lineage 1 clade 1a sequences were characterized in a pool Culex pipiens sensu lato specimens, providing the initial virus detection in Aegean region following 2010 outbreak. In an Anopheles maculipennis sensu lato pool, sequences closely-related to Anopheles flaviviruses were obtained, with similarities to several African and Australian strains of this new insect-specific flavivirus clade. In pools comprising Uranotaenia unguiculata (n=3), Cx. pipiens s.l. (n=1) and Aedes caspius (n=1) mosquitoes, sequences of a novel flavivirus, distantly-related to Flavivirus AV2011, identified previously in Spain and Turkey, were characterized. Moreover, DNA forms of the novel flavivirus were detected in two Ur. unguiculata pools. These sequences were highly-similar to the sequences amplified from viral RNA, with undisrupted reading frames, suggest the occurrence of viral DNA forms in natural conditions within mosquito hosts. Rhabdovirus screening revealed sequences of a recently-described novel virus, named the Merida-like virus Turkey (MERDLVT) in 5 Cx. pipiens s.l. pools (4.6%). Partial L and N gene sequences of MERDLVT were well-conserved among strains, with evidence for geographical clustering in phylogenetic analyses. Metagenomics provided the near-full genomic sequence in a specimen, revealing an identical genome organization and limited divergence from the prototype MERDLVT isolate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ceren Öncü
- Hacettepe University, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, Division of Ecology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Annika Brinkmann
- Robert Koch Institute, Center for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 (ZBS-1), Berlin, Germany
| | - Filiz Günay
- Hacettepe University, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, Division of Ecology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Sırrı Kar
- Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Biology, Tekirdağ, Turkey
| | - Kerem Öter
- Istanbul University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Turkey
| | - Yasemen Sarıkaya
- Hacettepe University, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, Division of Ecology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Robert Koch Institute, Center for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 (ZBS-1), Berlin, Germany
| | - Yvonne-Marie Linton
- Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit, Museum Support Center MRC-534, Smithsonian Institution, MD, USA; Department of Entomology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, USA; Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Bülent Alten
- Hacettepe University, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, Division of Ecology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Koray Ergünay
- Robert Koch Institute, Center for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 (ZBS-1), Berlin, Germany; Hacettepe University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology, Virology Unit, Ankara, Turkey.
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18
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Foster PG, de Oliveira TMP, Bergo ES, Conn JE, Sant'Ana DC, Nagaki SS, Nihei S, Lamas CE, González C, Moreira CC, Sallum MAM. Phylogeny of Anophelinae using mitochondrial protein coding genes. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:170758. [PMID: 29291068 DOI: 10.5061/dryad.1d8th] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is a vector-borne disease that is a great burden on the poorest and most marginalized communities of the tropical and subtropical world. Approximately 41 species of Anopheline mosquitoes can effectively spread species of Plasmodium parasites that cause human malaria. Proposing a natural classification for the subfamily Anophelinae has been a continuous effort, addressed using both morphology and DNA sequence data. The monophyly of the genus Anopheles, and phylogenetic placement of the genus Bironella, subgenera Kerteszia, Lophopodomyia and Stethomyia within the subfamily Anophelinae, remain in question. To understand the classification of Anophelinae, we inferred the phylogeny of all three genera (Anopheles, Bironella, Chagasia) and major subgenera by analysing the amino acid sequences of the 13 protein coding genes of 150 newly sequenced mitochondrial genomes of Anophelinae and 18 newly sequenced Culex species as outgroup taxa, supplemented with 23 mitogenomes from GenBank. Our analyses generally place genus Bironella within the genus Anopheles, which implies that the latter as it is currently defined is not monophyletic. With some inconsistencies, Bironella was placed within the major clade that includes Anopheles, Cellia, Kerteszia, Lophopodomyia, Nyssorhynchus and Stethomyia, which were found to be monophyletic groups within Anophelinae. Our findings provided robust evidence for elevating the monophyletic groupings Kerteszia, Lophopodomyia, Nyssorhynchus and Stethomyia to genus level; genus Anopheles to include subgenera Anopheles, Baimaia, Cellia and Christya; Anopheles parvus to be placed into a new genus; Nyssorhynchus to be elevated to genus level; the genus Nyssorhynchus to include subgenera Myzorhynchella and Nyssorhynchus; Anopheles atacamensis and Anopheles pictipennis to be transferred from subgenus Nyssorhynchus to subgenus Myzorhynchella; and subgenus Nyssorhynchus to encompass the remaining species of Argyritarsis and Albimanus Sections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G Foster
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | | | - Eduardo S Bergo
- Superintendencia de Controle de Endemias, Secretaria de Estado da Saude de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Jan E Conn
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York-Albany, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Denise Cristina Sant'Ana
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saude Publica, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 01246-904 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Sandra Sayuri Nagaki
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saude Publica, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 01246-904 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Silvio Nihei
- Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 05508-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Christian González
- Instituto de Entomología, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación, Santiago, Chile
| | - Caio Cesar Moreira
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saude Publica, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 01246-904 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria Anice Mureb Sallum
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saude Publica, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 01246-904 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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19
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Foster PG, de Oliveira TMP, Bergo ES, Conn JE, Sant’Ana DC, Nagaki SS, Nihei S, Lamas CE, González C, Moreira CC, Sallum MAM. Phylogeny of Anophelinae using mitochondrial protein coding genes. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:170758. [PMID: 29291068 PMCID: PMC5717642 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is a vector-borne disease that is a great burden on the poorest and most marginalized communities of the tropical and subtropical world. Approximately 41 species of Anopheline mosquitoes can effectively spread species of Plasmodium parasites that cause human malaria. Proposing a natural classification for the subfamily Anophelinae has been a continuous effort, addressed using both morphology and DNA sequence data. The monophyly of the genus Anopheles, and phylogenetic placement of the genus Bironella, subgenera Kerteszia, Lophopodomyia and Stethomyia within the subfamily Anophelinae, remain in question. To understand the classification of Anophelinae, we inferred the phylogeny of all three genera (Anopheles, Bironella, Chagasia) and major subgenera by analysing the amino acid sequences of the 13 protein coding genes of 150 newly sequenced mitochondrial genomes of Anophelinae and 18 newly sequenced Culex species as outgroup taxa, supplemented with 23 mitogenomes from GenBank. Our analyses generally place genus Bironella within the genus Anopheles, which implies that the latter as it is currently defined is not monophyletic. With some inconsistencies, Bironella was placed within the major clade that includes Anopheles, Cellia, Kerteszia, Lophopodomyia, Nyssorhynchus and Stethomyia, which were found to be monophyletic groups within Anophelinae. Our findings provided robust evidence for elevating the monophyletic groupings Kerteszia, Lophopodomyia, Nyssorhynchus and Stethomyia to genus level; genus Anopheles to include subgenera Anopheles, Baimaia, Cellia and Christya; Anopheles parvus to be placed into a new genus; Nyssorhynchus to be elevated to genus level; the genus Nyssorhynchus to include subgenera Myzorhynchella and Nyssorhynchus; Anopheles atacamensis and Anopheles pictipennis to be transferred from subgenus Nyssorhynchus to subgenus Myzorhynchella; and subgenus Nyssorhynchus to encompass the remaining species of Argyritarsis and Albimanus Sections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G. Foster
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | | | - Eduardo S. Bergo
- Superintendencia de Controle de Endemias, Secretaria de Estado da Saude de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Jan E. Conn
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York-Albany, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Denise Cristina Sant’Ana
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saude Publica, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 01246-904 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Sandra Sayuri Nagaki
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saude Publica, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 01246-904 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Silvio Nihei
- Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 05508-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Christian González
- Instituto de Entomología, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación, Santiago, Chile
| | - Caio Cesar Moreira
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saude Publica, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 01246-904 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria Anice Mureb Sallum
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saude Publica, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 01246-904 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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20
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Hao YJ, Zou YL, Ding YR, Xu WY, Yan ZT, Li XD, Fu WB, Li TJ, Chen B. Complete mitochondrial genomes of Anopheles stephensi and An. dirus and comparative evolutionary mitochondriomics of 50 mosquitoes. Sci Rep 2017; 7:7666. [PMID: 28794438 PMCID: PMC5550476 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07977-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
To better understand the phylogeny and evolution of mosquitoes, the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of Anopheles stephensi and An. dirus were sequenced and annotated, and a total of 50 mosquito mitogenomes were comparatively analyzed. The complete mitogenome of An. stephensi and An. dirus is 1,5371 bp and 1,5406 bp long, respectively. The main features of the 50 mosquito mitogenomes are conservative: 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), two ribosomal RNA genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, positive AT-skew and negative GC-skew. The gene order trnA-trnR in ancestral insects is rearranged. All tRNA genes have the typical clover leaf secondary structure but tRNA Ser . The control regions are highly variable in size. PCGs show signals of purifying selection, but evidence for positive selection in ND2, ND4 and ND6 is found. Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic analyses based on all PCG nucleotides produce an identical tree topology and strongly support the monophyly of subgenera Cellia, Anopheles, Keterszia and Nyssorhynchus, the sister relationship of the subgenera Nyssorhynchus and Keterszia, and Cellia and Anopheles. The most recent ancestor of the genus Anopheles and Culicini + Aedini exited ~145 Mya ago. This is the first comprehensive study of mosquito mitogenomes, which are effective for mosquito phylogeny at various taxonomic levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- You-Jin Hao
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects; Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Yi-Lin Zou
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects; Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Yi-Ran Ding
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects; Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Wen-Yue Xu
- The Department of Pathogenic Biology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Zhen-Tian Yan
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects; Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Xu-Dong Li
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects; Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Wen-Bo Fu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects; Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Ting-Jing Li
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects; Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Bin Chen
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insects; Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China.
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21
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[Phylogenetic signal at the Cytb-SertRNA-IG1-ND1 mitochondrial region in Anopheles (Kerteszia) neivai Howard, Dyar & Knab, 1913]. BIOMEDICA 2017; 37:143-154. [PMID: 29161486 DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.v37i0.3452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Mitochondrial DNA has proven its utility for the study of insect evolution. Genes such as cytochrome b (Cytb) and the transfer gene for serine (SertRNA) can be used to compare closely related organisms. OBJECTIVE The phylogenetic utility of Cytb-SertRNA-IG1-ND1 was tested for polymorphisms, and secondary structure modeling in SertRNA was done to detect possible cryptic species in Anopheles neivai. MATERIALS AND METHODS Specimens from Colombia, Guatemala, and the type locality in Panamá were collected and sequenced for specimen comparison based on DNA polymorphisms, and secondary structure modeling for the SertRNA gene. RESULTS Thirty-six sequences for A. neivai and A. pholidotus were obtained. CONCLUSIONS Polymorphic variants were detected in A. neivai for Cytb-SertRNA-IG1- ND1. Despite this variation in A. neivai, cryptic species could not be detected.
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Mint Mohamed Lemine A, Ould Lemrabott MA, Hasni Ebou M, Mint Lekweiry K, Ould Ahmedou Salem MS, Ould Brahim K, Ouldabdallahi Moukah M, Ould Bouraya IN, Brengues C, Trape JF, Basco L, Bogreau H, Simard F, Faye O, Ould Mohamed Salem Boukhary A. Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in Mauritania: a review of their biodiversity, distribution and medical importance. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:35. [PMID: 28103955 PMCID: PMC5248481 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-1978-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Although mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are important disease vectors, information on their biodiversity in Mauritania is scarce and very dispersed in the literature. Data from the scientific literature gathered in the country from 1948 to 2016 were collected and analyzed. Overall 51 culicid species comprising 17 Anopheles spp., 14 Aedes spp., 18 Culex spp. and two Mansonia spp. have been described in Mauritania among which Anopheles arabiensis, Aedes vexans, Culex poicilipes and Culex antennatus are of epidemiological significance. Anopheles arabiensis is widely distributed throughout the country and its geographic distribution has increased northwards in recent years, shifting its northern limit form 17°32′N in the 1960s to 18°47′N today. Its presence in the central region of Tagant highlights the great ecological plasticity of the species. Conversely, the distribution of Anopheles gambiae (s.s.) and Anopheles melas has shrunk compared to that of the 1960s. Anopheles rhodesiensis and An. d’thali are mainly confined in the mountainous areas (alt. 200–700 m), whereas Anopheles pharoensis is widely distributed in the Senegal River basin. Culex poicilipes and Cx. antenattus were naturally found infected with Rift valley fever virus in central and northern Mauritania following the Rift valley outbreaks of 1998 and 2012. Recently, Ae. aegypti emerged in Nouakchott and is probably responsible for dengue fever episodes of 2015. This paper provides a concise and up-to-date overview of the existing literature on mosquito species known to occur in Mauritania and highlights areas where future studies should fill a gap in knowledge about vector biodiversity. It aims to help ongoing and future research on mosquitoes particularly in the field of medical entomology to inform evidence-based decision-making for vector control and management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aichetou Mint Mohamed Lemine
- Unité de recherche Génomes et Milieux, Jeune Equipe Associée à l'IRD (RI3M), Université de Nouakchott Al-Aasriya, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Nouveau Campus Universitaire, Nouakchott, BP 5026, Mauritania.,Laboratoire d'Ecologie Vectorielle et Parasitaire, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Mohamed Aly Ould Lemrabott
- Unité de recherche Génomes et Milieux, Jeune Equipe Associée à l'IRD (RI3M), Université de Nouakchott Al-Aasriya, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Nouveau Campus Universitaire, Nouakchott, BP 5026, Mauritania
| | - Moina Hasni Ebou
- Unité de recherche Génomes et Milieux, Jeune Equipe Associée à l'IRD (RI3M), Université de Nouakchott Al-Aasriya, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Nouveau Campus Universitaire, Nouakchott, BP 5026, Mauritania
| | - Khadijetou Mint Lekweiry
- Unité de recherche Génomes et Milieux, Jeune Equipe Associée à l'IRD (RI3M), Université de Nouakchott Al-Aasriya, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Nouveau Campus Universitaire, Nouakchott, BP 5026, Mauritania
| | - Mohamed Salem Ould Ahmedou Salem
- Unité de recherche Génomes et Milieux, Jeune Equipe Associée à l'IRD (RI3M), Université de Nouakchott Al-Aasriya, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Nouveau Campus Universitaire, Nouakchott, BP 5026, Mauritania
| | - Khyarhoum Ould Brahim
- Unité de recherche Génomes et Milieux, Jeune Equipe Associée à l'IRD (RI3M), Université de Nouakchott Al-Aasriya, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Nouveau Campus Universitaire, Nouakchott, BP 5026, Mauritania
| | - Mohamed Ouldabdallahi Moukah
- Unité de recherche Génomes et Milieux, Jeune Equipe Associée à l'IRD (RI3M), Université de Nouakchott Al-Aasriya, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Nouveau Campus Universitaire, Nouakchott, BP 5026, Mauritania
| | | | - Cecile Brengues
- Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle (MIVEGEC), Unité Mixte de Recherche IRD224-CNRS5290-Université de Montpellier, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-François Trape
- Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle (MIVEGEC), Unité Mixte de Recherche IRD224-CNRS5290-Université de Montpellier, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Montpellier, France
| | - Leonardo Basco
- Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes (URMITE), UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, Inserm 1095, Faculté de Médecine La Timone, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, 13385, France
| | - Hervé Bogreau
- Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes (URMITE), UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, Inserm 1095, Faculté de Médecine La Timone, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, 13385, France.,Unité Parasitologie et Entomologie, Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Marseille, France
| | - Frédéric Simard
- Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle (MIVEGEC), Unité Mixte de Recherche IRD224-CNRS5290-Université de Montpellier, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Montpellier, France
| | - Ousmane Faye
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie Vectorielle et Parasitaire, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Ali Ould Mohamed Salem Boukhary
- Unité de recherche Génomes et Milieux, Jeune Equipe Associée à l'IRD (RI3M), Université de Nouakchott Al-Aasriya, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Nouveau Campus Universitaire, Nouakchott, BP 5026, Mauritania.
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23
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Hua YQ, Ding YR, Yan ZT, Si FL, Luo QC, Chen B. The complete mitochondrial genome of Anopheles minimus (Diptera: Culicidae) and the phylogenetics of known Anopheles mitogenomes. INSECT SCIENCE 2016; 23:353-365. [PMID: 26852698 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Anopheles minimus is an important vector of human malaria in southern China and Southeast Asia. The phylogenetics of mosquitoes has not been well resolved, and the mitochondrial genome (mtgenome) has proven to be an important marker in the study of evolutionary biology. In this study, the complete mtgenome of An. minimus was sequenced for the first time. It is 15 395 bp long and encodes 37 genes, including 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNAs (tRNAs), two ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and a non-coding region. The gene organization is consistent with those of known Anopheles mtgenomes. The mtgenome performs a clear bias in nucleotide composition with a positive AT-skew and a negative GC-skew. All 13 PCGs prefer to use the codon UUA (Leu), ATN as initiation codon but cytochrome-oxidase subunit 1 (COI) and ND5, with TCG and GTG, and TAA as termination codon, but COI, COII, COIII and ND4, all with the incomplete T. tRNAs have the typical clover-leaf structure, but tRNA(Ser(AGN)) is consistent with known Anopheles mtgenomes. The control region includes a conserved T-stretch and a (TA)n stretch, and has the highest A+T content at 93.1%. The phylogenetics of An. minimus with 18 other Anopheles species was constructed by maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference, based on concatenated PCG sequences. The subgenera, Cellia and Anopheles, and Nyssorhynchus and Kerteszia have mutually close relationships, respectively. The Punctulatus group and Leucosphyrus group of Neomyzomyia Series, and the Albitarsis group of Albitarsis Series were suggested to be monophyletic. The monophyletic status of the subgenera, Cellia, Anopheles, Nyssorhynchus and Kerteszia need to be further elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Qiong Hua
- Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yi-Ran Ding
- Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhen-Tian Yan
- Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
| | - Feng-Ling Si
- Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qian-Chun Luo
- Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
| | - Bin Chen
- Institute of Entomology and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
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