Endocrinological and pathological effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid in male rats

Effect of Testosterone on the Thyroarytenoid Muscle and Lamina Propria of Female Rat Vocal Folds

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the effects of androgen therapy on the thyroarytenoid (TA) muscle, expression of androgen receptors (ARs) and hyaluronic acid (HA) concentration in the vocal folds (VFs) of adult female rats.

METHODS

Twenty-one adult female Wistar rats were divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group received weekly intramuscular injections of nandrolone decanoate for 9 weeks. Following euthanasia and dissection of the VFs, histomorphometric analysis of the TA muscle, immunohistochemical evaluation of ARs, and measurement of HA concentration using the ELISA-like fluorimetric method were performed.

RESULTS

The experimental group exhibited a significantly larger mean fiber cross-sectional area in the TA muscle compared to the control group (434.3 ± 68.6 μm2 versus 305.7 ± 110.1 μm2; p = 0.029), indicating muscle hypertrophy. There was no significant difference in the number of muscle fibers. The experimental group showed higher expression of ARs in the lamina propria (62.0% ± 30.3% versus 22.0% ± 22.8%; p = 0.046) and in the TA muscle (45.0% ± 22.6% versus 18.3% ± 9.8%; p = 0.024). There was no significant difference in the concentration of HA.

CONCLUSION

Exposure of adult female rats to androgen therapy resulted in hypertrophy of the TA muscle and increased expression of ARs in the VFs. The TA muscle seems to be the primary target of testosterone action in the VF, and the up-regulation of ARs might contribute to the persistent deepening of the voice.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

NA Laryngoscope, 134:2316-2321, 2024.

Therapeutic effects of vitamin B17 against anabolic steroid Trenorol induced testicular toxicity, injury, DNA damage and apoptosis in male rats

Several anabolic androgenic steroids (ASSs) are a group of synthetic molecules derived from testosterone and developed mainly for veterinary use that classed as a Schedule III and sometimes utilized by athletes to enlarge their muscles. Abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids can result in severe organ damage that cannot be repaired. Therefore; the objective of the current investigation was to examine the therapeutic effects of vitamin B17 (VitB17) on the testicular toxicity caused by the anabolic steroid Trenorol in male rats. Rats were randomly assigned into control, VitB17 (50 mg/kg b.wt./day, orally), Trenorol (received 10 mg/kg b.wt./week, IM) and Trenorol + VitB17 treated groups. At the end of experiment, hormonal assay, semen evaluation, testicular enzymes, and DNA damage were assessed. Besides, the histopathological and immunohistochemical investigations of the P53 expression were performed. Current results revealed that; Trenorol induced significant depletion in relative weights of testis (RWT), total testosterone follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH), sperm count, morphology index, viability, progressive motility, and testicular injury and a significant increase sperm abnormalities, testicular DNA damage and P53 experssions. Treatment of rats with Trenorol + VitB17 decreased the testicular toxicity, sperm parameters, DNA damage and apoptosis. We can conclude that; Trenorol induced toxicity, DNA damage and apoptosis in rat testis and treatments with VitB1 improved these parameters.

Adolescence as a critical period for nandrolone-induced muscular strength in relation to abuse liability, alone and in conjunction with morphine, using accumbal dopamine efflux in freely moving rats

Nandrolone, an anabolic androgenic steroid, is included in the prohibited list of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Drugs of abuse activate brain dopamine neurons and nandrolone has been suspected of inducing dependence. Accordingly, possible critical periods for the effects of nandrolone on muscular strength and dopaminergic activity have been investigated, including the effects of chronically administered nandrolone alone and on morphine-induced increases in dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens. Six- or 10-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats were used. Treatment with nandrolone was initiated in adolescent (6-week-old) and young adult (10-week-old) rats. Nandrolone (5.0 mg/kg s.c.) or sesame oil vehicle was given once daily, on six consecutive days per week, for 3 weeks and then once per day for 4 consecutive days. Nandrolone enhanced the developmental increase in grip strength of 6- but not 10-week-old rats, without altering the developmental increase in body weight of either age group. Using in vivo microdialysis in freely moving 6-week-old rats given nandrolone for 4 weeks, basal accumbal dopamine efflux was unaltered, while the increase in dopamine efflux induced by acute administration of morphine (1.0 mg/kg s.c.) was reduced. The present study provides in vivo evidence that adolescence constitutes a critical period during which repeated administration of nandrolone enhances increases in muscular strength without influencing increases in body weight. Though repeated administration of nandrolone during this period of adolescence did not stimulate in vivo mesolimbic dopaminergic activity, it disrupted stimulation by an opioid, the drug class that is most commonly coabused with nandrolone.

Impact of anabolic androgenic steroids on male sexual and reproductive function: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are a complex cluster of synthetic derivatives of testosterone. AAS abuse is considered a major public health issue since it has increased among young/adolescent males. The use of steroids has a prevalence rate of 14% in young athletes and 30-75% in professional athletes or bodybuilders. AASs simulate the testosterone mechanism, binding the intracellular androgen receptor, and dysregulating the normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in the same way as exogenous testosterone. Abuse can produce several side effects on organs, such as the genital system. The physio-pathological mechanisms that cause AAS abuse-related, genital system disorders in humans are still not completely known.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

This study focuses on the effect of AASs on the male reproductive organs in humans and animals.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

A systematic review was performed using SCOPUS, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Sciences database up to 31 December 2021 using the keywords: "anabolic-androgenic steroids," "erectile dysfunction," "spermatogenesis" and "infertility;" (anabolic agents) "erectile dysfunction," "spermatogenesis" and "infertility." The review of the literature identified 66 articles published until 2021. Sixty-two articles were included. The use of AASs induces testicular atrophy and azoospermia known as "anabolic steroid-induced hypogonadism." Anabolic steroid induced infertility is characterized by oligo or azoospermia and abnormalities in sperm motility and morphology. Although sperm quality recovers in most cases within 4 months of stopping anabolic steroid abuse, the negative consequences on spermatogenesis can take up to 3 years to disappear. Human studies reported a positive correlation between AAS abuse in athletes and an increase in morphologically abnormal spermatozoa. Animal studies showed the destruction of Leydig cells and testicular atrophy in animals treated with cycles of AASs.

CONCLUSIONS

The present review of the literature highlights how little is known about the action of AASs on the male genital system. However, although their use is prohibited in many countries, the black market for these substances is still very frequent. The scientific landscape still has a lot to invest in the research of AAS on the male genital system to make young people even more aware of the negative aspects of these substances, contributing to the reduction of these products in an inappropriate way.

Nandrolone supplementation does not improve functional recovery in an aged animal model of volumetric muscle loss injury

Aging hinders the effectiveness of regenerative medicine strategies targeting the repair of volumetric muscle loss (VML) injury. Anabolic steroids have been shown to improve several factors which contribute to the age-related decline in muscle's regenerative capacity. In this study, the impact of exogenous nandrolone decanoate (ND) administration on the effectiveness of a VML regenerative repair strategy was explored using an aged animal model. Unilateral tibialis anterior VML injuries were repaired in 18-month-aged animal models (male Fischer 344 rat) using decellularized human skeletal muscle scaffolds supplemented with autologous minced muscle. The contralateral limb was left untreated/uninjured. Following repair, ND(+) or a carrier control (ND-) was delivered via weekly injection for a period of 8 weeks. At 8 weeks, muscle isometric torque, gene expression, and tissue structure were assessed. ND(+) treatment did not improve contractile torque recovery following VML repair when compared to carrier only ND(-) injection controls. Peak isometric torque in the ND(+) VML repair group remained significantly below contralateral uninjured control values (4.69 ± 1.18vs. 7.46 ± 1.53 N mm/kg) and was statistically indistinguishable from carrier only ND(-) VML repair controls (4.47 ± 1.18 N mm/kg). Gene expression for key myogenic genes (Pax7, MyoD, MyoG, IGF-1) were not significantly elevated in response to ND injection, suggesting continued age related myogenic impairment even in the presence of ND(+) treatment. ND injection did reduce the histological appearance of fibrosis at the site of VML repair, and increased expression of the collagen III gene, suggesting some positive effects on repair site matrix regulation. Overall, the results presented in this study suggest that a decline in regenerative capacity with aging may present an obstacle to regenerative medicine strategies targeting VML injury and that the delivery of anabolic stimuli via ND administration was unable to overcome this decline.

Morphometric analysis and redox state of the testicles in nandrolone decanoate and swimming treated adult male rats

Background

During the last decades, the abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) has become popular among professional and recreational athletes. The abuse of AASs leads to decreased levels of sex hormones, but the available literature a gives very small pool of data regarding the effects of swimming alone or combined with AASs on testicle tissue. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of four-week administration of nandrolone decanoate and swimming training alone or in combination on morphometric parameters, androgen receptor (AR) and redox state in testicle tissue. The study included Wistar albino male rats, 10 weeks old, classified into 4 groups: control (T-N-), nandrolone (T-N+), swimming training (T+N-) and swimming training with nandrolone (T+N+). The rats from nandrolone (N+) groups received nandrolone decanoate 20 mg/kg b.w.once per week. The rats from training (T+) groups, swam 1 h/day 5 days/week. The isolated testicles were measured, left testicles were routinely processed for histological analysis, while right testicles were homogenized and prepared for the analysis of the following oxidative stress biomarkers: index of lipid peroxidation (TBARS), nitrites, catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and reduced glutathione (GSH).

Results

Diameter, as well as cross-section area of seminiferous tubules were decreased by 10 % and 21 % (respectively) in the T-N+ group and by 15% and 41 % (respectively) in the T+N+ group compared to control. Interstitium of the testicles was decreased in all experimental groups. Reduction of immunoreactivity of AR in T-N+ group was 22 %, in T+N+ group was 9 % compared to control. TBARS levels were increased in T+N- and T+N+ groups. Nitrites were decreased in T+N+ group. Catalase activity was increased in all experimental groups. Swimming alone or combined with nandrolone decreased the level of GSH compared to control. SOD activity was decreased in T-N+ and T+N+ groups compared to control.

Conclusions

Nandrolone alone or combined with swimming decreased morphometric parameters and amount of AR in testicle tissue. Changes in the redox state indicate reproductive dysfunction.

Effect of Nandrolone decanoate induced-oxidative stress on rat testes, prostate, and seminal vesicle: Biochemical, morphometric and histopathological studies

Nandrolone decanoate (Nd) is a highly abused androgenic-anabolic steroid among body builders. Even though it has weak androgenic effects, its prolonged use may have harmful impact on male reproductive system which needs to be evaluated. This study aimed to reinvestigate its possible oxidative stress induced alteration on male rat reproductive system. Twenty-eight male rats were divided into two groups. Nd treated group (n = 18) injected intramuscular with 10 mg/kg body weight once a week for four weeks. While, the control group (n = 10) was injected with physiologic saline by the same route for four weeks. Body weight was recorded for all rats and after animal dissection weight of testes, prostate and seminal vesicles were also recorded. The results showed that the average testicular weight was decreased in treated group compared to the control. The average weights of the prostate and seminal vesicles were increased compared to the control. Morphometric study revealed that in Nd treated group, there was a decrease in the width of seminiferous tubules and the height of spermatogenic cell layer compared to the control. Testicular degeneration was expressed by presence of spermatid giant cells, vacuolation, and degenerated spermatozoa. Tunnel technique showed scattered positive reaction among the spermatogenic cell layers and interstitial cells. Severe alterations of the prostate were expressed by benign prostate hyperplasia and retained secretions. Lipid peroxidation products (malonaldehyde concentration as ng/g of testicular tissue) were increased in treated group compared to the control and suggested the occurrence of oxidative damage. Nd induced severe alterations in the male genital organs were resulted from oxidative stress. It is concluded that the male genital organs are highly sensitive to the anabolic steroids and there is a high extent of reproductive risk associated with the use of AASs.

Immunohistomorphometric and Hormonal Analysis of the Pituitary Gonadotropic Cells After Application of the Nandrolone Decanoate and Swimming Training in Adult Male Rats

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of chronic nandrolone decanoate treatment and/or swimming training on immunohistomorphometric parameters on rat pituitary gonadotropic cells. Male Wistar albino rats, 10 weeks old, were classified into four groups: control (T−N−), nandrolone (T−N+), swimming training (T+N−), and swimming training with nandrolone (T+N+). The T+ groups swam for 4 weeks, 1 h/day, 5 days/week. The N+ groups received nandrolone decanoate (20 mg/kg) once per week for 4 weeks. Pituitary tissue sections were processed and stained for immunohistochemical analysis and immunofluorescence. The volume density of luteinizing hormone (LH) cells was decreased by 48% in T−N+ and for 35% in the T+N+ group. The volume density of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) cells was decreased by 39% in T−N+ and for 30% in T+N+ compared to the control. Nandrolone alone, or combined with swimming training, decreased the number of LH/FSH cells compared to the control. The levels of the immunofluorescent signal of LH/FSH cells were increased in all experimental groups. Nandrolone alone decreased the serum level of LH by 17%, whereas swimming training alone increased FSH levels by 11% compared to the control. Serum levels of testosterone were increased in all experimental groups. Nandrolone alone, or combined with swimming training, decreased immunohistomorphometric parameters of gonadotropic cells, whereas the levels of immunofluorescent signal were increased.

The Impact of Hippocampal Sex Hormones Receptors in Modulation of Depressive-Like Behavior Following Chronic Anabolic Androgenic Steroids and Exercise Protocols in Rats

The aim of this study was to evaluate alterations in depressive-like behaviors in rats following chronic administration of a supraphysiological dose of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) as well as exposure to a prolonged exercise protocol. The role of hippocampal sex hormones receptors in the modulation of depressive-like behavior was also assessed. A total of 48 male Wistar albino rats were divided into six groups: control, exercise (1 h/day, five consecutive days), nandrolone-decanoate (ND, 20 mg/kg/week, in a single dose), exercise plus ND, testosterone-enanthate (TE, 20 mg/kg/week, in a single dose), and exercise plus TE. After the 6-week protocols were complete, the rats underwent behavioral testing in the tail suspension test (TST). Rats were sacrificed for the collection of blood samples, to determine sex hormones levels, and isolation of the hippocampus, to determine [androgen receptors (AR) and estrogen receptors α (ERα)] expression. ND and TE treatment induced significant depressive-like behavior, opposing the antidepressant effect of exercise. Chronic TE administration elevated testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) serum levels, and this was augmented by exercise. In contrast, ND and exercise alone did not alter T or DHT levels. There were no changes in serum estradiol levels in any of the groups. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that exercise reduced AR immunoreactivity in all hippocampal regions and increased the ERα expression in the CA1, dentate gyrus (DG), and total hippocampal sections, but not in the CA2/3 region. AASs administration increased AR expression in all hippocampal regions, although not the total hippocampal section in the TE group and did not significantly decrease ERα. The hippocampal AR/ERα expression index was lowered while parvalbumin (PV)-immunoreactivity was enhanced by exercise. AASs administration increased the AR/ERα index and reduced PV-immunoreactivity in the hippocampus. The number of PV-immunoreactive neurons negatively correlated with the antidepressant effects and the AR/ERα ratio. Our results suggest a potential role of the numerical relationship between two sex hormones receptors (stronger correlation than for each individual receptor) in the regulation of depressive-like behavior via the hippocampal GABAergic system in rats, which allow better understanding of the hippocampal sex hormones receptors role in modulation of depressive-like behavior.

Nandrolone administration abolishes hippocampal fEPSP-PS potentiation and passive avoidance learning of adolescent male rats

Despite the chronic effects of nandrolone decanoate (ND), the acute effects of ND on passive avoidance learning (PAL) and memory and its mechanism have not been investigated. This research examines the acute effect of ND on PAL, CA1 synaptic plasticity, testosterone and corticosterone serum levels, and the role of androgenic receptors (ARs). Adolescent male rats were treated with ND, 30 min before training and retention and after training test. AR antagonist was applied 15 min before ND. Hippocampal slices were perfused by ND. ND administration had an inverted U-shape effect on acquisition of PAL and on testosterone and corticosterone serum levels. The consolidation was only affected by high dose of ND. ND significantly decreased the retention of PAL across all doses. The magnitude of field excitatory postsynaptic potential long term potentiation was lower than that of control slices. In addition, an attenuation of field excitatory postsynaptic potential population spike coupling was also observed. Nilutamide could nullify the ND impairment effect. We concluded although a single dose of ND could affect all stages of PAL, its effects were more potent on retrieval, possibly arising from the acute effect of ND on the alterations of CA1 synaptic plasticity. In addition, ND may induce its effects directly through ARs and indirectly through plasma testosterone and corticosterone.

Nandrolone decanoate and physical activity affect quadriceps in peripubertal rats

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) are synthetic analogs of testosterone often used by athletes to increase the skeletal muscle mass. Our goal was to examine the effects of physical activity and physical activity combined with supraphysiological doses of nandrolone on functional morphology of the quadriceps muscle. The study included 32 peripubertal Wistar rats, divided into 4 groups: control (T-N-), nandrolone (T-N+), physical activity (T+N-) and physical activity plus nandrolone (T+N+) groups. The T+N- and T+N+ group swam for 4 weeks, 1 h/day, 5 days/week. The T-N+ and T+N+ groups received nandolone decanoate (20 mg/kg b.w.) once per week, subcutaneously. Subsequently, the rats were sacrificed and muscle specimens were prepared for the processing. Tissue sections were histochemically and immunohistochemically stained, while the image analysis was used for quantification. Longitudinal diameter of quadriceps muscle cells was increased for 21% in T-N+, for 57% in T+N- and for 64% in T+N+ group while cross section muscle cell area was increased in T-N+ for 19%, in T+N- for 47% and in T+N+ group for 59%, compared to the control. Collagen fibers covered area was increased in T-N+ group for 36%, in T+N- for 109% and in T+N+ group for 159%, compared to the control. Erythrocyte depots were decreased in T-N+ group and increased in T+N- and T+N+ group, in comparison with T-N-. VEGF depots were increased in all treated groups. Chronic administration of supraphysiological doses of AASs alone or in combination with physical activity induces hypertrophy and significant changes in the quadriceps muscle tissue structure.

Anabolic androgenic steroids and carcinogenicity focusing on Leydig cell: a literature review

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are some of the most common drugs used among athletes, frequently in combination with resistance training, to improve physical performance or for aesthetic purpose. A great number of scientific reports showed the detrimental effects of anabolic androgenic steroids on different organs and tissues. In this literature review, we analyzed the AAS-mediated carcinogenicity, focusing on Leydig cell tumor.

AAS-induced carcinogenicity can affect DNA transcription through two pathways. It can act directly via the androgen receptor, by means of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) produced by the action of 5-a-reductase. It can also work through the estrogen receptor, by means of estradiol produced by CYP19 aromatase. In addition, nandrolone and stanazolol can activate the PI3K/AKT and PLC/PKC pathways via IGF-1. This would result in cell proliferation in Leydig cell cancer, or magnify cyclin D1 concentration inducing breast cell proliferation.

AAS abuse is becoming a serious public health concern in view of the severe health consequences secondary to AAS abuse. The negative role of AAS in supraphysiological dosage impairs the expression of enzymes involved in testosterone biosynthesis. Abnormal synthesis of testosterone plays has a negative effect on the hormonal changes/regulation, and might be involved in certain carcinogenic mechanisms. At the light of this review, it could become very interesting to perform an information campaign more strengthened in gyms and schools in order to prevent male fertility impairment and other tissues damage.

Effects of nandrolone decanoate on expression of steroidogenic enzymes in the rat testis

Objective

Nandrolone decanoate (ND) is an anabolic-androgenic steroid frequently used for clinical treatment. However, the inappropriate use of ND results in the reduction of serum testosterone level and sperm production. The suppressive effect of ND on testosterone production has not been investigated in detail. The present study was designed to examine the effect of ND on the expression of steroidogenic enzymes in the rat testis.

Methods

Male Sprague Dawley rats at 50 days of age were subcutaneously administrated with either 2 or 10 mg of ND/kg body weight/week for 2 or 12 weeks. The changes of transcript and protein levels of steroidogenic enzymes in the testis were determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting analyses, respectively. Moreover, immunohistochemical analysis was employed to determine the changes of immunostaining intensity of these enzymes. The steroidogenic enzymes investigated were steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage enzyme, 17α-hydroxylase, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and cytochrome P450 aromatase.

Results

The treatment of ND resulted in depletion of Leydig cells and sloughing of germ cells in the testis. The ND treatment caused significant expressional decreases of steroidogenic enzymes at transcript and protein levels, and the destructive effects of ND on the testis were more apparent with a higher dose and a longer period of the treatment. Evident reduction of immunostaining intensity present in Leydig cells was clearly detected by the ND treatment.

Conclusion

The exposure to ND in young male results not only in histological changes of the testis but also in aberrant gene expression of testicular steroidogenic enzymes, consequently leading into the reduction of testosterone production in the testis and thus likely disruption of spermatogenesis.

The opposite effects of nandrolone decanoate and exercise on anxiety levels in rats may involve alterations in hippocampal parvalbumin-positive interneurons

The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavioral effects of chronic (six weeks) nandrolone decanoate (ND, 20 mg/kg, s.c., weekly in single dose) administration (in order to mimic heavy human abuse), and exercise (swimming protocol of 60 minutes a day, five days in a row/two days break), applied alone and simultaneously with ND, in male rats (n = 40). Also, we evaluated the effects of those protocols on hippocampal parvalbumin (PV) content and the possible connection between the alterations in certain parts of hippocampal GABAergic system and behavioral patterns. Both ND and exercise protocols induced increase in testosterone, dihydrotestosterone and estradiol blood levels. Our results confirmed anxiogenic effects of ND observed in open field (OF) test (decrease in the locomotor activity, as well as in frequency and cumulative duration in the centre zone) and in elevated plus maze (EPM) test (decrease in frequency and cumulative duration in open arms, and total exploratory activity), that were accompanied with a mild decrease in the number of PV interneurons in hippocampus. Chronic exercise protocol induced significant increase in hippocampal PV neurons (dentate gyrus and CA1 region), followed by anxiolytic-like behavioral changes, observed in both OF and EPM (increase in all estimated parameters), and in evoked beam-walking test (increase in time to cross the beam), compared to ND treated animals. The applied dose of ND was sufficient to attenuate beneficial effects of exercise in rats by means of decreased exercise-induced anxiolytic effect, as well as to reverse exercise-induced augmentation in number of PV immunoreactive neurons in hippocampus. Our results implicate the possibility that alterations in hippocampal PV interneurons (i.e. GABAergic system) may be involved in modulation of anxiety level induced by ND abuse and/or extended exercise protocols.

The prevalence of anabolic androgenic steroid use amongst athletes in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia)

Objective

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use among athletes and examine the extent of their knowledge on the effects of AAS in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted at gyms in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, during 2015. In total 600 athletes from three gyms participated in the study. The study included Saudi and non-Saudi athletes chosen by the simple random sampling method. A self-reported questionnaire was used for data collection. The questionnaire was designed to study the prevalence and assess the knowledge of athletes regarding AAS use. Frequency and percentage distributions were used to describe the data. Comparison between the subgroups was made with a chi-square test.

Results

The percentage of AAS users was 30.5%. The age of AAS users ranged from 15 to 49 years with the majority (52.5%) belonging to age group of 25–29 years. Approximately 20% of the users admitted using AAS due to body dysmorphia as their best motivational factor; in addition, they also believed that there are no side effects of the use. Among the nonusers, 40% had appropriate knowledge, while all the AAS-users had inadequate knowledge about the adverse effects of AAS. Moreover, 77% of the users would recommend AAS to their friends but none from the nonusers. A significant difference in age distribution (df = 5, p<0.001) and knowledge (df = 4, p< 0.001) between users and nonusers was observed.

Conclusion

Most athletes were ignorant of the harmful side effects of the drug but still continued to use and promote it to other athletes. These athletes should intensify their knowledge and awareness regarding the use of AAS and its effects on the body.

The Effects of High Doses of Nandrolone Decanoate on Cardiac Muscle Tissue

In recent decades, steroid abuse has become very popular and widespread among professional and recreational athletes. The aim of this study was to examine the chronic effects of training combined with high doses of nandrolone decanoate on cardiac muscle tissue. The study included 32 Wistar albino rats divided into 4 groups: control (T-N-), steroid (T-N+), exercisetraining (T+N-) and exercise plus steroid (T+N+) groups. The T+N- and T+N+ group swam for 4 weeks, 1 hour per day, 5 days per week. The N+ (nandrolone positive groups) received nandrolone decanoate (20 mg/kg) once per week, subcutaneously. After 4 weeks of training, the rats were sacrificed. Heart biopsy specimens were routinely fixed and embedded in paraffin. Fivemicrometre thick sections were stained with haematoxylin and eosin (H/E) and Masson-Trichrome dyes. Captured microscopic images were processed by special software for image analysis to quantify results. Our results showed that the combination of nandrolone and training causes left ventricular wall thickening of 30%. Average cardiac muscle cell longitudinal diameter was increased by 6% in the T-N+ group, by 16% in the T+N- group and by 25% in the T+N+ group. The cross sectional muscle cell area was increased in the T+N+ group by 33%. Heart collagen content was increased in the nandrolone group compared to the control group by 261%. Collagen content was decreased in the T+N+ group by 34%. High doses of AAS induced left ventricle hypertrophy and excessive heart collagen deposition.

Impacts of dose and time of boldenone and stanazolol exposure in inflammatory markers, oxidative and nitrosative stress and histopathological changes in the rat testes

The present study was conducted to analyze the adverse effects of the anabolic steroids boldenone (BOL) and stanazolol (ST) in the reproductive function of male rats. These molecules were administered using three different protocols. In Protocol I, BOL and ST were administered in a higher dose than what is recommended but for a short period. In Protocol II, a moderate dose of these compounds was applied for an intermediate period, whereas in Protocol III a reduced dose was administered but for an extended period. Notably, Protocol I and III resulted in increased levels of reactive oxygen specimens (ROS [I, p < 0.01] [III, p < 0.001)]) and nitrite plus nitrate (NOx [I, p < 0.01] [II, p < 0.01] [III,p < 0.05]), respectively, whereas non-protein thiols (NPSH) levels were decreased only after Protocol III (p < 0.01). Myeloperoxidase activity was significantly increased after treatment with BOL in protocol II (p < 0.01) and III (p < 0.05) than with ST in protocol III (p < 0.05). Boldenone and ST also caused a significant up-regulation in the levels of serum testosterone when protocols I (p < 0.01) and II (p < 0.05) were performed. There were also visible histopathological alterations in the testes induced by treatment with BOL, namely degenerative changes primarily characterized by a decrease in the germinal epithelium. Together, these results suggest that the administration of BOL or ST exerts a significantly harmful effect in the testes of male rats. Moreover, all the treatment protocols used in this study induced deleterious effects on the testes, as indicated by the different biochemical parameters investigated. However, only the protocols of longer exposure time (II and III) induced morphological changes compatible with infertility.

Effect of different doses of nandrolone decanoate on lipid peroxidation, DNA fragmentation, sperm abnormality and histopathology of testes of male Wister rats

The present study aims of to investigate the effects of low and high doses of nandrolone decanoate (ND) on histopathology and apoptosis of the spermatogenic cells as well as lipid peroxidation, antioxidant enzyme activities, sperm abnormality and DNA fragmentation. Eighteen animals were divided into three groups each group contain six animals. The rats were divided into three groups as following: Group 1 was administered saline (control). Group 2, received nandrolone decanoate (3 mg/kg/weekly) (low dose) with intramuscular injection. Group 3, received intramuscular injection dose of nandrolone decanoate (10 mg/kg/weekly) (high dose). After 8 weeks, caspase-3 assay was used to determine the apoptotic cells. The sperm parameters, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant enzyme activities and testosterone concentration were also investigated in the experimental groups of both low and high dose compared to the control groups. Treated group with high dose showed degenerated germinal epithelial cells sloughed in the lumina of seminiferous tubules, where almost seminiferous tubules were devoid of spermatids and spermatozoa compared to control and group treated with low dose. Also, a significant increase of lipid peroxidation levels and heat shock proteins was observed in two groups administrated with two different doses of ND while, antioxidant enzyme activities, and testosterone concentration was significantly decreased in two treated group when compared with control. Administration of ND at high and low doses leads to deteriorated sperm parameters, DNA fragmentation and testicular apoptosis. In conclusion, the administration ND at high doses more effective on lipid peroxidation, antioxidant enzyme activities, sperm abnormality, histopathology, apoptotic and DNA changes compared to low dose group and to control group.

The impact of exogenic testosterone and nortestosterone-decanoate toxicological evaluation using a rat model

The impact of exogenic testosterone (T): 1.5 and 3.0 mg/kg.bw) and 19-nortestosterone 17-decanoate (ND): 1.5 and 7.5 mg/kg.bw) in castrated male rats was evaluated based on: (a) weight increase of the androgen target tissues, respecting the Hershberger methodology; (b) the 17α and β-testosterone, 17 α and β-estradiol and 17 α and β-nortestosterone levels using the GC-MS/MS technique; and (c) observation of the serum free thyroxine levels (T4). Results revealed that T and ND significantly increased the weight of androgen target tissues as follows: ND was more influential on seminal vesicles, levator ani-bulbocavernosus muscle (LABC) and Cowper's glands and T (at a dose of 3.0 mg/kg.bw) influenced the weight of the ventral prostate and glans penis. Serum samples analyzed for steroid hormone levels showed the presence of 17β-testosterone, 17β-estradiol and 17β-nor-testosterone, in castrated male rats injected with testosterone and nortestosterone, but no significant differences were found between thyroid responses and thyroid hormone levels. The results of this research proved the disrupting activity of T and ND when administered in high doses and the useful application of the Hershberger bioassay in the case of ND.

Nandrolone decanoate inhibits gluconeogenesis and decreases fasting glucose in Wistar male rats

The use of anabolic-androgenic steroids to improve physical performance or appearance has increased notably. The doses used are 10- to 100- fold higher than the therapeutic dose (TD), and this abuse can cause several side effects. Glucose metabolism is significantly affected by anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse, but studies about glycemic regulation during fasting are scarce. There are some evidences showing that testosterone can antagonize glucocorticoids action, which are crucial to glucose production during fasting. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the impact of supraphysiological doses (SDs) of nandrolone decanoate (DECA) on rat glucose metabolism during fasting. Male Wistar rats were treated with i.m. injections of vehicle, a low TD (0.016 mg/100 g b.w.-TD group) or a high SD (1 mg/100 g b.w.-SD group) of DECA, once a week for 8 weeks. After 12 h fasting, we evaluated glucose and pyruvate tolerance tests, liver glycogen content, serum levels of gluconeogenic substrates, insulin and corticosterone, glucose uptake and hexokinase (HK) activity in skeletal muscle, and the adrenal catecholamine content. SD group had increased serum insulin levels and a blunted response to insulin regarding glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. Fasting serum glucose decreased significantly in SD group, as well as the pyruvate tolerance test and liver glycogen content. Moreover, serum levels of glycerol were increased in SD group. Our data indicate that SDs of DECA exert effects on different regulatory points of glucose metabolism, resulting in defective gluconeogenesis and decreased skeletal muscle glucose uptake in response to insulin.

Physiological and biochemical changes after boldenone injection in adult rabbits

Boldenone (BOL) is an androgenic steroid that improves the growth and food conversion in food-producing animals. In most countries worldwide, this anabolic steroid is forbidden for human uses and meat production as it was developed for veterinary use. Recently, BOL is used by bodybuilders in both off season and pre-contest, where it is well known for increasing vascularity while preparing for a bodybuilding contest. The present study was designed to investigate the physiological and biochemical changes in rabbits after injection with the growth promoter BOL. A total of 32 adult New Zealand rabbits were divided into four groups, where the control group includes animals that were injected intramuscularly with olive oil and dissected after 3 weeks. The remaining three experimental groups included animals that received one, two and three intramuscular injections of 5 mg/kg body weight BOL, respectively, and were dissected after 3, 6 and 9 weeks, respectively. The animals from practice appeared healthy and did not show clinical signs of disease and none of the rabbits died during the experimental period. Serum total protein, globulin, alanine aminotransferase, asparate aminotransferase, urea, creatinine, testosterone, luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone levels were significantly increased while serum direct bilirubin, albumin and albumin/globulin ratio were significantly decreased (p < 0.05) after one, two and three intramuscular injections of BOL as compared to their relative values in the control group. These findings explain the common phenomena in athletes and bodybuilders who suffer from infertility, renal and hepatic alterations following injection with some drugs as steroids (BOL) to build muscles.

On the association between nandrolone-mediated testosterone reduction during alcohol intoxication and attenuated voluntary alcohol intake in rats

Human studies have indicated that the use of anabolic androgenic steroids may be associated with the abuse of alcohol and other drugs. Also, experimental animal research has indicated that chronic nandrolone administration subsequently increases voluntary alcohol drinking. The aim of our study was to test our hypothesis that alcohol-induced testosterone elevation, especially associated with stress conditions derived by nandrolone treatment, could be the underlying factor in causing increased alcohol drinking. Male alcohol-preferring AA and low drinking Wistar rats were randomly divided into control and nandrolone decanoate treated (15 mg/kg for 14 days) groups. Basal serum testosterone and corticosterone were determined before the first nandrolone treatment, after 7 days of treatment, and after an additional (7-day) washout period, during which also the acute effect of alcohol (1.5 g/kg) on steroid hormones was determined. Hereafter followed a (5-week) voluntary alcohol consumption period, during the last 2 weeks of which the rats were treated again with nandrolone. Both normal and reversed dark- vs. light-cycle experimental designs were used. Contrary to our hypothesis, nandrolone treatment decreased voluntary alcohol consumption in both AA and Wistar rats. Also, instead of stress causation, elevated basal testosterone and lowered basal corticosterone levels were observed after nandrolone treatment in both AA rats and Wistars. During acute alcohol intoxication the frequency of testosterone decreases was higher in the nandrolone-treated groups compared with control AA and Wistar rats. Present data support the hypothesis that nandrolone-treatment mediated attenuation of alcohol intake in both AA and Wistar rats may be the result of negative reinforcement caused by alcohol-mediated testosterone reduction.

Effect of exercise training and anabolic androgenic steroids on hemodynamics, glycogen content, angiogenesis and apoptosis of cardiac muscle in adult male rats

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effects of exercise training and anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) on hemodynamics, glycogen content, angiogenesis, apoptosis and histology of cardiac muscle.

METHODS

Forty rats were divided into 4 groups; control, steroid, exercise-trained and exercise-trained plus steroid groups. The exercise-trained and trained plus steroid groups, after one week of water adaptation, were exercised by jumping into water for 5 weeks. The steroid and trained plus steroid groups received nandrolone decanoate, for 5 weeks. Systolic blood pressure and heart rate (HR) were monitored weekly. Heart weight/body weight ratio (HW/BW ratio) were determined. Serum testosterone, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), cardiac caspase-3 activity and glycogen content were measured.

RESULTS

Compared with control, the steroid group had significantly higher blood pressure, HR, sympathetic nerve activity, testosterone level, HW/BW and cardiac caspase-3 activity. Histological examination revealed apoptotic changes and hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes. In exercise-trained group, cardiac glycogen, VEGF and testosterone levels were significantly higher while HR was significantly lower than control. HW/BW was more than control confirmed by hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes with angiogenesis on histological examination. Trained plus steroid group, had no change in HR, with higher blood pressure and HW/BW than control, cardiac glycogen and serum VEGF were higher than control but lower than exercise-trained group. Histological examination showed hypertrophy of cardiomyoctes with mild angiogenesis rather than apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

When exercise is augmented with AAS, exercise-associated cardiac benefits may not be fully gained with potential cardiac risk from AAS if used alone or combined with exercise.

Brain nerve growth factor unbalance induced by anabolic androgenic steroids in rats

PURPOSE

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are synthetic androgen-like compounds that are abused in sport communities despite their adverse effects. Nerve growth factor (NGF) influences neuronal differentiation and survival, and it also mediates higher brain functions such as learning and memory. Changes in NGF expression have been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer disease. Hence, we decided to study the effect of chronic AAS exposure on brain NGF profile, NGF-dependent cholinergic function, and related behavioral performance.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats were injected for 4 wk with either nandrolone or stanozolol at daily doses (5.0 mg·kg(-1), s.c.) that are considered equivalent to those abused by humans. NGF levels and NGF receptor (TrkA and p75NTR) expression were measured in the hippocampus and in the basal forebrain. Choline acetyltransferase expression was evaluated in basal forebrain. Spatial learning and memory were assessed using the Morris water maze.

RESULTS

AAS treatment caused region-specific changes in the expression of NGF and its receptors. Both nandrolone and stanozolol increased NGF levels in the hippocampus and reduced NGF levels in the basal forebrain, reduced p75NTR expression in the hippocampus, and failed to affect TrkA expression in the basal forebrain. Finally, AAS treatment reduced the expression of choline acetyltransferase in the basal forebrain and impaired the behavioral performance in the Morris water maze.

CONCLUSION

The evidence that supraphysiological doses of AAS cause neurotrophic unbalance and related behavioral disturbances raises the concern that AAS abuse in humans may affect mechanisms that lie at the core of neuronal plasticity.

Nandrolone decanoate determines cardiac remodelling and injury by an imbalance in cardiac inflammatory cytokines and ACE activity, blunting of the Bezold-Jarisch reflex, resulting in the development of hypertension

The aims of this study were to evaluate the effects of nandrolone (ND) on cardiac inflammatory cytokines, ACE activity, troponin I, and the sensitivity of the Bezold-Jarisch reflex (BJR). Male Wistar rats were administered either ND (20 mg/kg; DECA) or vehicle (control animals; CONT) for 4 weeks. BJR was analyzed by measuring the bradycardia and hypotension responses elicited by serotonin administration (2-32 μg/kg). Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was assessed and myocyte hypertrophy was determined by the heart weight/body weight ratio and by morphometric analysis. Matrix collagen deposition was assessed by histological analysis of the picrosirius red-stained samples. Mesenteric vascular reactivity was performed and central venous pressure (CVP) evaluated. Cardiac inflammatory cytokine levels and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity were studied as well the biomarker of cardiac lesion, troponin I. DECA group showed enhancement of matrix type I collagen deposition (p < 0.01) and cardiac ACE activity (p < 0.01) compared with the CONT. Interleukin (IL)-10 was reduced (p < 0.01) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6; p < 0.01) were increased in the DECA group compared with CONT. Cardiac injury was observed in the DECA group shown by the reduction in cardiac troponin I (p < 0.01) compared with the CONT group. Animals in the DECA group also developed myocyte hypertrophy and reduction of BJR sensitivity. The MAP of animals treated with ND reached hypertensive levels (p < 0.01; compared with CONT). No changes in CVP and vascular reactivity were observed in both experimental groups. We conclude that high doses of ND elicit cardiotoxic effects with cardiac remodelling and injury. Cardiac changes reduce the BJR sensitivity. Together, these abnormalities contributed to the development of hypertension in animals in the DECA group.

Histopathological and immunohistochemical changes in the testes of rabbits after injection with the growth promoter boldenone

Recently, boldenone (androgenic steroid) is used in improvement of the growth and food conversion in food-producing animals. In addition, it is used by bodybuilders during both off-season and precontest, where it is well known for increasing vascularity while preparing for a bodybuilding contest. The present study was designed to investigate the possible effect of growth promoter boldenone undecylenate on the structure and functions of rabbit testes. A total of 32 adult New Zealand rabbits were divided into 4 groups. The first group in the control group includes animals that were intramuscularly injected with olive oil and dissected after 3 weeks. Three experimental groups include animals that receive 1, 2, and 3 intramuscular injections of 5 mg/kg body weight boldenone, and dissected after 3, 6, and 9 weeks, respectively. Treating rabbits with boldenone increased the testosterone levels compared to the control group. Seminiferous tubules of the rabbit testis treated with boldenone showed reduced development and degeneration of the germinal epithelium, leading to debris and syncytial cell formation in the lumina of seminiferous tubules. Our immunohistochemical results indicated severe reduction in proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive spermatogonia in boldenone-treated animals as compared to the control group. These findings explain the common phenomena among athletics and bodybuilders who suffer from infertility as they were injected with some drugs such as steroids (boldenone) to build muscles.

Male reprotoxicity and endocrine disruption

Mammalian reproductive tract development is a tightly regulated process that can be disrupted following exposure to drugs, toxicants, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), or other compounds via alterations to gene and protein expression or epigenetic regulation. Indeed, the impacts of developmental exposure to certain toxicants may not be fully realized until puberty or adulthood when the reproductive tract becomes sexually mature and altered functionality is manifested. Exposures that occur later in life, once development is complete, can also disrupt the intricate hormonal and paracrine interactions responsible for adult functions, such as spermatogenesis. In this chapter, the biology and toxicology of the male reproductive tract is explored, proceeding through the various life stages including in utero development, puberty, adulthood, and senescence. Special attention is given to the discussion of EDCs, chemical mixtures, low-dose effects, transgenerational effects, and potential exposure-related causes of male reproductive tract cancers.

Role of the renin–angiotensin system in the nandrolone-decanoate-induced attenuation of the Bezold–Jarisch reflex

The androgen nandrolone decanoate (ND) is known to cause cardiovascular abnormalities, such as attenuation of the Bezold–Jarisch Reflex (BJR), cardiac hypertrophy, and elevation of mean arterial pressure (MAP). Futhermore, a relationship between androgens and the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) has been reported. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of RAS on the BJR, cardiac and prostatic hypertrophy, and MAP evoked by ND. For this, male Wistar rats were treated with ND (10 mg·(kg body mass)–1 for 8 weeks; DECA), or vehicle (control animals; CON), or enalapril (10 mg·(kg body mass)–1, daily; CONE), or ND and enalapril (10 mg ND + 10 mg enalapril per kilogram of body mass; DECAE). After 8 weeks of treatment, the BJR was evaluated by bradycardia and hypotensive responses that were elicited by serotonin administration (2–32 µg·(kg body mass)–1). MAP was assessed; cardiac and prostate hypertrophy were determined by the ratio of the tissue mass:body mass, and by histological analysis of the heart. Animals from the DECA group showed prostatic and cardiac hypertrophy, elevation in mean arterial pressure, and an impairment of BJR. Co-treatment with enalapril inhibited these changes. The data from the present study suggest that RAS has an impact on BJR attenuation, cardiac and prostatic hypertrophy, and the elevation in MAP evoked by ND.

Structural changes and immunohistochemical localisation of epidermal growth factor receptor in the true vocal fold of female albino rats administered anabolic, androgenic steroids, and effects of anti-androgen therapy

Background:

Anabolic steroid abuse by women is associated with a number of adverse effects, including laryngeal changes. The epidermal growth factor receptor is related to regulation of the cell life cycle. This study aimed to investigate the structural changes and immunohistochemical localisation of epidermal growth factor receptor in rat vocal folds following anabolic steroid administration, and also to assess the effect of anti-androgens.

Material and methods:

Thirty-two adult female albino rats were divided into: group I (controls), group II (receiving anabolic steroids for two months) or group III (receiving anabolic steroids plus anti-androgen for two months).

Results:

Group II rat true vocal folds showed thicker epithelial layers with many mitotic figures, thicker lamina propria and thicker muscle fibres; epithelial cells were also immunohistochemically positive for epidermal growth factor receptor. Group III rats showed similar changes, but thin muscle fibres and extravasated red blood cells within the lamina propria.

Conclusion:

Anabolic steroids caused structural and immunohistochemical changes within the female rat true vocal fold. Co-administration of anti-androgens did not prevent these changes, suggesting that anti-androgens have a limited role in the management of such changes in humans.

Anabolic and androgenic activity of 19-norandrostenedione after oral and subcutaneous administration--analysis of side effects and metabolism

One of the most frequently misused steroid precursors (prohormones) is 19-norandrostenedione (estr-4-ene-3,17-dione, NOR). Recently we have show that NOR stimulates skeletal muscle growth after s.c. administration in a highly selective manner but exhibits only weak androgenic activity in rats. Because most abusers take NOR orally, the aim of this study was to compare the anabolic and androgenic potency of NOR between s.c. and oral application. Orchiectomised rats were treated with NOR either s.c. (1 mg/kg BW/day) or orally (0.1, 1 and 10 mg/kg BW/day). The tissue weights of the levator ani, the seminal vesicle and the prostate were analysed to determine the anabolic and androgenic activity. Heart and liver wet weights were examined to identify side effects. Serum concentrations of NOR and its metabolite nandrolone (NT) were determined. GCMC analysis revealed that free and glucuronidated NOR and NT were detectable in the serum after oral and s.c. administration and that NOR was converted to NT in comparable amounts independent of the route of administration. In agreement to our previous study s.c. application of NOR stimulates skeletal muscle growth but has only weak androgenic effects. In contrast, after oral administration of NOR neither stimulation of the prostate nor the levator ani could be observed in the doses administered in this study. Interestingly, and in contrast to s.c. treatment, oral administration of NOR resulted in a dose-dependent decrease of body weight. In summary, oral administration of NOR, at least in the rat, seems to be a very ineffective strategy for stimulating skeletal muscle mass increases but may be associated with side effects.

Impact of dihydrotestosterone on L-type calcium channels in human ventricular cardiomyocytes

OBJECTIVES

Reports of testosterone effects on cardiovascular morbidity remain contradictory. Besides modulating cardiovascular risk factors recent evidence indicates direct actions of testosterone on cardiac tissue. However, the impact on human cardiac L-type calcium channels that play a central role in electro-mechanical coupling is unknown.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Human ventricular myocytes were isolated from patients undergoing heart transplantation. Patch-clamp experiments in whole-cell configuration were performed to evaluate the effect of dihydrotestosterone on cardiac L-type calcium current I(Ca,L). Treatment of cultured cardiomyocytes with dihydrotestosterone 100 nmol/L for 24-30 h increased the whole-cell I(Ca,L) current density from 2.32 +/- 0.17 pA/pF (n = 11) to 3.21 +/- 0.17 pA/pF (n = 14) at +10 mV (p = 0.01) without shifting the current-voltage relation. This effect was associated with a 1.35-fold higher expression of the pore-forming Ca(V)1.2 (alpha1c) subunit of L-type calcium channels in dihydrotestosterone-treated myocytes compared with controls (p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

Dihydrotestosterone treatment increased L-type calcium current density by the upregulation of Ca(V)1.2 in human ventricular myocytes. These data provide a possible explanation for dihydrotestosterone effects on the cardiovascular system in androgenic steroid abuse.

Diversity-oriented synthesis of enantiomerically pure steroidal tetracycles employing Stille/Diels-Alder reaction sequences

Various steroid analogues were synthesized by Stille coupling of bicyclo[4.3.0]nonenylstannanes cis-/trans-8 and 14 with cyclohexenol triflates 17 and 18 and subsequent Diels-Alder reactions of the resulting dienes. The enantiomerically pure bicyclo[4.3.0]nonenylstannanes cis- and trans-8 were prepared in good yields via the enol triflates cis- and trans-7, obtained from the bicyclo[4.3.0]non-2-en-3-one 5. The alkenylstannane 14 was obtained from the [2+2] cycloadduct 10 a produced from addition of dichloroketene to the enantiomerically pure and protected bishydroxycyclohexadiene 9 a (65 %). Treatment of 10 a with diazomethane, reduction of the dichloromethylene group, and trapping with tributyltin chloride after lithium-for-bromine exchange, yielded the bicyclo[4.3.0]nonenylstannane 14 (23 % over four steps). Stille couplings provided the tricyclic dienes cis-/trans-19 in good yields (73-77 %), whereas the tricyclic diene 20 was obtained in only 34 % yield at best. Diels-Alder reactions of trans-19 with various reactive dienophiles yielded the novel steroidal compounds trans-21 to trans-26 with complete diastereoselectivity. Heating the dienes cis-19 or 20 with maleic acid derivatives provided the corresponding tetracycles cis-23alpha,beta and 27alpha,beta with a cis-C,D ring junction, each as mixtures of two diastereomers. Less reactive dienophiles required higher temperatures to promote the relevant cycloaddition with trans-19 to furnish several stereoisomeric forms of trans-28 and trans-29 in significantly lower yields (31-45 %). The selected steroid analogues trans-22 and trans-23 were deprotected in two steps by using acid catalysis to provide trans-31 and trans-33 (91 and 80 % over two steps). Cyclopropanation of trans-30 yielded the cyclopropasteroid analogue 34 (74 %), treatment of which with trifluoroacetic acid furnished the cyclopropasteroid 35 and the 2-methyl-substituted steroid analogue 36 in 40 and 12 % yield, respectively. Aromatic B-ring steroids 38 (69 %) and 39 (5 %) were accessed by dehydrogenation of trans-24 with 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone.

Androgenic-anabolic steroids associated with mechanical loading inhibit matrix metallopeptidase activity and affect the remodeling of the achilles tendon in rats

BACKGROUND

The indiscriminate use of anabolic-androgenic steroids has been shown to induce pathologic changes in the Achilles tendon in several situations.

PURPOSE

To study tendon remodeling in rats treated with anabolic-androgenic steroids combined with an exercise program.

STUDY DESIGN

Controlled laboratory study.

METHODS

Wistar rats were grouped as follows: sedentary (group I), injected with anabolic-androgenic steroids only (group II), trained only (group III), and trained and injected with anabolic-androgenic steroids (group IV). The trained groups performed jumps in water: 4 series of 10 jumps each, with an overload of 50% to 70% of the animal's body weight and a 30-second rest interval between series, for 6 weeks. Anabolic-androgenic steroids (5 mg/kg) were injected subcutaneously. Activity of matrix metallopeptidases, a marker for tendon remodeling, was analyzed in tissue extracts by zymography on gelatin-sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

RESULTS

Morphological analyses of tendons showed that in group II, the most external layer that covers the tendon was thicker with aggregation of the collagen fibers, suggesting an increase in collagen synthesis. In group IV, an inflammatory infiltrate and fibrosis in tendons as well as a pronounced increase of the serum corticosterone level were observed. This training protocol upregulated matrix metallopeptidase activity, whereas anabolic-androgenic steroid treatment strongly inhibited this activity. The appearance of lytic bands with molecular masses of approximately 62 and 58 kDa suggests the activation of matrix metallopeptidase-2.

CONCLUSION

Anabolic-androgenic steroid treatment can impair tissue remodeling in the tendons of animals undergoing physical exercise by down-regulating matrix metallopeptidase activity, thus increasing the potential for tendon injury.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Since the AAS abuse is so widespread, a better comprehension of the pathological effects induced by these drugs may be helpful for the development of new forms of therapy of AAS-induced lesions.

Chronic administration of anabolic androgenic steroid alters murine thyroid function

PURPOSE

The administration of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) to improve athletic performance has increased notably during the past three decades, even among nonathletes. Thyroid function is affected by AAS use in humans, although the mechanisms of the effects of AAS are unclear. We evaluated the effects on thyroid function of supraphysiologic doses of nandrolone decanoate (DECA), which is one of the most anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) used.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats were treated with vehicle or 1 mg.100 g(-1) body weight (b.w.) of DECA, once a week for 8 wk, intramuscularly. We analyzed thyroperoxidase (TPO) activity, type 1 iodothyronine deiodinase (D1) activities in liver, kidney, pituitary, and thyroid, and serum levels of total T3, total T4, free T4, and TSH. Parametric and nonparametric t-tests were employed for statistical analyses.

RESULTS

Treated animals showed a significant increase in the weight of kidneys and heart, and a decrease in the relative testis weight. Retroperitoneal adipose tissue was only slightly decreased. DECA treatment induced a significant increase in the absolute and relative thyroid gland weight. The concentrations of total serum T3, free T4, and TSH decreased significantly with treatment, but total serum T4 levels were unchanged. Thyroperoxidase activity was unaltered, whereas liver and kidney D1 activities were significantly increased, but pituitary and thyroid D1 did not change.

CONCLUSION

Our data indicate that DECA exerts direct actions on the thyroid gland and in the peripheral metabolism of thyroid hormones and might lead to thyroid dysfunction.

Tetrahydrogestrinone is a potent but unselective binding steroid and affects glucocorticoid signalling in the liver

Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) is a steroid recently identified to be misused as doping agent. However, the knowledge on functions of this substance in humans or animal models is rather limited. Therefore, it was our aim to further characterize the pharmacological profile of THG and identify potential adverse side effects. THG was synthesized, the purity was confirmed and its biological activity was tested. The potency of THG to transactivate AR dependent reporter gene expression was two orders of magnitude lower compared to dihydrotestosterone. THG binds with high affinity but unselective to the androgen (AR), progesterone (PR), glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid (MR) receptor. Treatment of orchiectomised rats with THG resulted in a stimulation of prostate, seminal vesicle and levator ani muscle, indicating androgenic and anabolic properties. In the liver THG, in contrast to testosteronepropionate (TP), down regulates the expression of the GR dependent tyrosine aminotransferase gene (TAT). In summary, our results demonstrate that THG is not a specific AR agonist. THG exhibits a high binding affinity to all tested steroid hormone receptors and binds with highest affinity to the GR. Our in vivo data are indicative of an anabolic and androgenic potency of THG, but the repression of TAT demonstrates that THG also interferes with the glucocorticoid hormone system. Therefore, it is conceivable that an intake will result in adverse side effects.

17beta-hydroxy-5alpha-androst-1-en-3-one (1-testosterone) is a potent androgen with anabolic properties

Since the begining of the year 2005, the use of steroid precursors (prohormones) is illegal in the United States; nevertheless, there is still an enormous abuse of such substances. One of the most frequently misused steroids, often declared to be a prohormone, is 1-testosterone (17beta-hydroxy-5alpha-androst-1-en-3-one, 1-Testo). In this study, we have characterised molecular mechanisms of its action, determined its tissue specific androgenic and anabolic potency and investigated potential adverse effects. 1-Testo binds highly selective to the androgen receptor (AR) and has a high potency to stimulate AR dependent transactivation. In vivo an equimolar dose of 1-Testo has the same potency to stimulate the growth of the prostate, the seminal vesicles and the androgen sensitive levator ani muscle as the reference compound testosterone propionate (TP). Administration of 1-Testo, in contrast to TP, results in a significant increase of liver weight. Our results demonstrate that 1-Testo, even without being metabolised, is a very potent androgen. It binds selectively to the AR and transactivates AR dependent reporter genes. In vivo it has a high androgenic and anabolic potency and increases liver weight. In summary 1-Testo can be characterised as a typical anabolic steroid. It has to be assumed that consumption of this substance is associated with adverse side effects typical for this class of compounds. Therefore, a strict control of its ban is essential.

Cardiac autonomic dysfunction in rats chronically treated with anabolic steroid

To date no published data exist regarding the effects of chronic high-dose anabolic-androgenic steroid administration on tonic cardiac autonomic control. The aim of this study was to evaluate, by power spectral analysis of heart rate variability (HRV), the effects of chronic treatment with supraphysiological doses of nandrolone decanoate (DECA) on tonic cardiac autonomic regulation in sedentary rats. Male Wistar rats were treated weekly with 10 mg kg(-1) of DECA (n=7) or vehicle (CONTROL, n=7) for 10 weeks. At the 8th week of treatment, electrocardiogram was recorded in the conscious state, for time- and frequency-domain HRV analysis. Parasympathetic indexes were reduced in DECA group: high-frequency power (CONTROL=11.1+/-3.0 ms2 vs. DECA=3.8+/-0.6 ms2, P<0.05), RMSSD (CONTROL=5.9+/-0.9 ms vs. DECA 3.5+/-0.3 ms; P<0.05) and pNN5 (CONTROL=31.5+/-7.5 ms vs. DECA=13.2+/-2.6 ms; P<0.05). The sympathetic index LF/HF tended to be higher in DECA group (CONTROL=0.65+/-0.15 vs. DECA=1.17+/-0.26, P=0.0546). In conclusion, chronic treatment with DECA, in rats, impairs tonic cardiac autonomic regulation, which may provide a key mechanism for anabolic steroid-induced arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death.