Thermoregulation and body fluid osmolality

Variation in human water turnover associated with environmental and lifestyle factors

Water is essential for survival, but one in three individuals worldwide (2.2 billion people) lacks access to safe drinking water. Water intake requirements largely reflect water turnover (WT), the water used by the body each day. We investigated the determinants of human WT in 5604 people from the ages of 8 days to 96 years from 23 countries using isotope-tracking (2H) methods. Age, body size, and composition were significantly associated with WT, as were physical activity, athletic status, pregnancy, socioeconomic status, and environmental characteristics (latitude, altitude, air temperature, and humidity). People who lived in countries with a low human development index (HDI) had higher WT than people in high-HDI countries. On the basis of this extensive dataset, we provide equations to predict human WT in relation to anthropometric, economic, and environmental factors.

Effects of obesity and mild hypohydration on local sweating and cutaneous vascular responses during passive heat stress in females

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of obesity and mild hypohydration on local sweating (LSR) and cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) responses during passive heat stress in females. Thirteen obese (age, 24 ± 4 years; 45.4% ± 5.2% body fat) and 12 nonobese (age, 22 ± 2 years; 25.1% ± 3.9% body fat) females were passively heated (1.0 °C rectal temperature increase) while either euhydrated (EUHY) or mildly hypohydrated (HYPO; via fluid restriction). Chest and forearm LSR (ventilated capsule) and CVC (Laser Doppler flowmetry) onset, sensitivity, and plateau/steady state were recorded as mean body temperature increased (ΔTb). Participants began trials EUHY (urine specific gravity, Usg = 1.009 ± 0.006) or HYPO (Usg = 1.025 ± 0.004; p < 0.05), and remained EUHY or HYPO. Independent of obesity, HYPO decreased sweat sensitivity at the chest (HYPO = 0.79 ± 0.35, EUHY = 0.95 ± 0.39 Δmg·min(-1)·cm(-2)/°C ΔTb) and forearm (HYPO = 0.82 ± 0.39, EUHY = 1.06 ± 0.34 Δmg·min(-1)·cm(-2)/°C ΔTb); forearm LSR plateau was also decreased (HYPO = 0.66 ± 0.19, EUHY = 0.78 ± 0.23 mg·min(-1)·cm(-2); all p < 0.05). Overall, obese females had lower chest-sweat sensitivity (0.72 ± 0.35 vs. 1.01 ± 0.33 Δmg·min(-1)·cm(-2)/°C ΔTb) and plateau (0.55 ± 0.27 vs. 0.80 ± 0.25 mg·min(-1)·cm(-2); p < 0.05). While hypohydrated, obese females had a lower chest LSR (p < 0.05) versus nonobese females midway (0.45 ± 0.26 vs. 0.73 ± 0.23 mg·min(-1)·cm(-2)) and at the end (0.53 ± 0.27 vs. 0.81 ± 0.24 mg·min(-1)·cm(-2)) of heating. Furthermore, HYPO (relative to the EUHY trials) led to a greater decrease in CVC sensitivity in obese (-28 ± 27 Δ% maximal CVC/°C ΔTb) versus nonobese females (+9.2 ± 33 Δ% maximal CVC/°C ΔTb; p < 0.05). In conclusion, mild hypohydration impairs females' sweating responses during passive heat stress, and this effect is exacerbated when obese.

Presence of oxytocin, vasopressin and atrial natriuretic peptide and their modification in rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus during resistance training

Many studies have demonstrated the physiological effects of oxytocin (OT), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and vasopressin (VP) in the homoeostasis of body fluids during physical exercise. However, a little information is available about the related immunohistochemical changes in hypothalamic magnocellular neurosecretory system during and after the training. The aim of the present work was to study the immunohistochemical changes in OT, ANP and VP levels in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus during and after resistance exercise protocol. Three groups of Wistar rats were trained by a rung ladder protocol for 15, 30 and 45 days, respectively; a fourth group was left to rest for 15 days after the training. Finally, four sedentary groups were used as controls. The results show that resistance training induces a significant reduction in the percentage of OT-positive neurons, compared with sedentary controls. In contrast, this protocol did not induce any change in VP levels, and ANP levels did not change significantly. However, VP increased after the resting period of 15 days. Our work shows that neurons of the paraventricular nucleus are involved in body fluid homoeostasis during and after resistance exercise. The functional significance of these changes in OT and VP levels, during and after the protocol, needs to be further investigated.

Non-thermal modification of heat-loss responses during exercise in humans

This review focuses on the characteristics of heat-loss responses during exercise with respect to non-thermal factors. In addition, the effects of physical training on non-thermal heat-loss responses are discussed. When a subject is already sweating the sweating rate increases at the onset of dynamic exercise without changes in core temperature, while cutaneous vascular conductance (skin blood flow) is temporarily decreased. Although exercise per se does not affect the threshold for the onset of sweating, it is possible that an increase in exercise intensity induces a higher sensitivity of the sweating response. Exercise increases the threshold for cutaneous vasodilation, and at higher exercise intensities, the sensitivity of the skin-blood-flow response decreases. Facilitation of the sweating response with increased exercise intensity may be due to central command, peripheral reflexes in the exercising muscle, and mental stimuli, whereas the attenuation of skin-blood-flow responses with decreased cutaneous vasodilation is related to many non-thermal factors. Most non-thermal factors have negative effects on magnitude of cutaneous vasodilation; however, several of these factors have positive effects on the sweating response. Moreover, thermal and non-thermal factors interact in controlling heat-loss responses, with non-thermal factors having a greater impact until core temperature elevations become significant, after which core temperature primarily would control heat loss. Finally, as with thermally induced sweating responses, physical training seems to also affect sweating responses governed by non-thermal factors.

Plasma hyperosmolality elevates the internal temperature threshold for active thermoregulatory vasodilation during heat stress in humans

Plasma hyperosmolality delays the response in skin blood flow to heat stress by elevating the internal temperature threshold for cutaneous vasodilation. This elevation could be because of a delayed onset of cutaneous active vasodilation and/or to persistent cutaneous active vasoconstriction. Seven healthy men were infused with either hypertonic (3% NaCl) or isotonic (0.9% NaCl) saline and passively heated by immersing their lower legs in 42 degrees C water for 60 min (room temperature, 28 degrees C; relative humidity, 40%). Skin blood flow was monitored via laser-Doppler flowmetry at sites pretreated with bretylium tosylate (BT) to block sympathetic vasoconstriction selectively and at adjacent control sites. Plasma osmolality was increased by approximately 13 mosmol/kgH(2)O following hypertonic saline infusion and was unchanged following isotonic saline infusion. The esophageal temperature (T(es)) threshold for cutaneous vasodilation at untreated sites was significantly elevated in the hyperosmotic state (37.73 +/- 0.11 degrees C) relative to the isosmotic state (36.63 +/- 0.12 degrees C, P < 0.001). A similar elevation of the T(es) threshold for cutaneous vasodilation was observed between osmotic conditions at the BT-treated sites (37.74 +/- 0.18 vs. 36.67 +/- 0.07 degrees C, P < 0.001) as well as sweating. These results suggest that the hyperosmotically induced elevation of the internal temperature threshold for cutaneous vasodilation is due primarily to an elevation in the internal temperature threshold for the onset of active vasodilation, and not to an enhancement of vasoconstrictor activity.

Activation of brain areas in rat following warm and cold ambient exposure

Environmental thermal stimuli result in specific and coordinated thermoregulatory response in homeothermic animals. Warm exposure activates numerous brain areas within the cortex, hypothalamus, pons and medulla oblongata. We identified these thermosensitive cell groups in the medulla and pons that were suggested but not outlined by previous physiological studies. Using Fos immunohistochemistry, we localized all the nuclei and cell groups in the rat brain that were activated by warm and cold ambient exposure. These neurons located in the hypothalamus and the brainstem, are part of a network responsible for the thermospecific response elicited by thermal stress. Comparison of the distribution of Fos-immunoreactive cells throughout the rat brain revealed topographical differences between the patterns of activated cells following warm and cold environmental exposure. Among several brain regions, warm exposure elicited c-fos expression specifically in the ventrolateral part of the medial preoptic area, the central subdivision of the lateral parabrachial nucleus and the caudal part of the peritrigeminal nucleus, whereas cold stress resulted in c-fos expression in the ventromedial part of the medial preoptic area, the external subdivision of the lateral parabrachial nucleus and the rostral part of the peritrigeminal nucleus. These neurons are part of a network coordinating specific response to warm or cold exposure. The topographical differences suggest that well-defined cell groups and subdivisions of nuclei are responsible for the specific physiological (endocrine, autonomic and behavioral) changes observed in different thermal environment.

Differential regulation of adrenal corticosteroids after restriction-induced drinking in rats

Water-restricted rats exhibit a rapid decrease in plasma corticosterone after drinking. The present study examined the effect of restriction-induced drinking on plasma aldosterone and plasma clearance of corticosterone. Rats were water restricted for 6-7 days and then killed before or 15 min after water administration; plasma and adrenal hormones were assayed. Plasma and adrenal corticosterone decreased after drinking without a change in plasma corticosteroid-binding globulin; plasma ACTH decreased or did not change. In contrast, plasma aldosterone did not change or increased after drinking; plasma renin activity was elevated by water restriction and increased further after drinking. In another experiment, rats were adrenalectomized, and corticosterone and aldosterone were replaced with pellets and osmotic minipumps, respectively. Rats were water restricted and killed. There was a small decrease in plasma corticosterone but no change in aldosterone after drinking in adrenalectomized animals. These data suggest that changes in plasma steroids after restriction-induced drinking result from zone-specific responses of the adrenal to known secretagogues, with minimal contribution from increased plasma clearance.

Circadian rhythmicity and homeostatic stability in thermoregulation

Stability and circadian variation in core body temperature (Tc) were believed to be homeostatic responses until well into the 20th century. Defense of a narrow thermoneutral range was well documented, whereas circadian oscillations were attributed to episodic biochemical and environmental stimuli or chronological stressors in life routines. Research in thermal physiology has illuminated several of the "black boxes" in the understanding of temperature regulation, and advances in chronobiology have shattered old paradigms. While these discoveries are still evolving, existing information provides valuable clues about physiological responses to heat loss or over-heating that could improve clinical assessment and intervention. Discoveries that circadian rhythm of Tc is regulated by an endogenous "clock" and is remarkably stable have helped to make it the most widely used circadian indicator. More recently, Tc was found to exert its own cyclic rhythm under free-running conditions. While some investigators claim that circadian and homeostatic processes are independent, there are conditions in which clinical distinctions are less clear. This overview reviews contemporary scientific findings about circadian and homeostatic processes in thermoregulation. Examples are drawn from human and animal research. Physiological responses and mechanisms are explained in relation to their relevance to clinical treatment or health care. Gaps in existing research and application are discussed.