The Effect of Ferrous Nano-oxide Particles on Physiological Traits and Nutritional Compounds of Soybean ( Glycine max L.) Seed

Understanding the role of magnetic (Fe3O4) nanoparticle to mitigate cadmium stress in radish (Raphanus sativus L.)

Heavy metals stress particularly cadmium contamination is hotspot among researchers and considered highly destructive for both plants and human health. Iron is examined as most crucial element for plant development, but it is available in inadequate amount because they are present in insoluble Fe3+ form in soil. Fe3O4 have been recently found as growth promoting factor in plants. To understand, a sand pot experiment was conducted in completely randomized design (control, cadmium, 20 mg/L Fe3O4 nanoparticles,40 mg/L Fe3O4 nanoparticles, 20 mg/L Fe3O4 nanoparticles + cadmium, 40 mg/L Fe3O4 nanoparticles + cadmium) to study the mitigating role of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on cadmium stress in three Raphanus sativus cultivars namely i.e., MOL SANO, MOL HOL PARI, MOL DAQ WAL. The plant growth, physiological and biochemical parameters i.e.,shoot length, shoot fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root length, root fresh and dry weight, MDA content, soluble protein contents, APX, CAT, POD activities and ion concentrations, membrane permeability, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and anthocyanin content, respectively were studied. The results displayed that cadmium stress remarkably reduces all growth, physiological and biochemical parameters for allcultivars under investigation. However, Fe3O4 nanoparticles mitigated the adverse effect of cadmium by improving growth, biochemical and physiological attributes in all radish cultivars. While, 20 mg/L Fe3O4 nanoparticles have been proved to be more useful against cadmium stress. The outcome of present investigation displayed that Fe3O4 nanoparticles can be utilized for mitigating heavy metal stress.

Mitigating cadmium accumulation and toxicity in plants: The promising role of nanoparticles

Cadmium (Cd) is a highly toxic heavy metal that adversely affects humans, animals, and plants, even at low concentrations. It is widely distributed and has both natural and anthropogenic sources. Plants readily absorb and distribute Cd in different parts. It may subsequently enter the food chain posing a risk to human health as it is known to be carcinogenic. Cd has a long half-life, resulting in its persistence in plants and animals. Cd toxicity disrupts crucial physiological and biochemical processes in plants, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis, enzyme activities, photosynthesis, and nutrient uptake, leading to stunted growth and reduced biomass. Although plants have developed defense mechanisms to mitigate these damages, they are often inadequate to combat high Cd concentrations, resulting in yield losses. Nanoparticles (NPs), typically smaller than 100 nm, possess unique properties such as a large surface area and small size, making them highly reactive compared to their larger counterparts. NPs from diverse sources have shown potential for various agricultural applications, including their use as fertilizers, pesticides, and stress alleviators. Recently, NPs have emerged as a promising strategy to mitigate heavy metal stress, including Cd toxicity. They offer advantages, such as efficient absorption by crop plants, the reduction of Cd uptake, and the enhancement of mineral nutrition, antioxidant defenses, photosynthetic parameters, anatomical structure, and agronomic traits in Cd-stressed plants. The complex interaction of NPs with calcium ions (Ca2+), intracellular ROS, nitric oxide (NO), and phytohormones likely plays a significant role in alleviating Cd stress. This review aims to explore the positive impacts of diverse NPs in reducing Cd accumulation and toxicity while investigating their underlying mechanisms of action. Additionally, it discusses research gaps, recent advancements, and future prospects of utilizing NPs to alleviate Cd-induced stress, ultimately promoting improved plant growth and yield.

Effect of iron nanoparticles and conventional sources of Fe on growth, physiology and nutrient accumulation in wheat plants grown on normal and salt-affected soils

Salt stress is becoming a serious problem for the global environment and agricultural sector. Different sources of iron (Fe) can provide an eco-friendly solution to remediate salt-affected soils. The Fe nanoparticles (FeNPs) and conventional sources of Fe (iron-ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid; Fe-EDTA; and iron sulfate; FeSO₄) were used to evaluate their effects on wheat crop grown in normal and salt-affected soils. Application of FeNPs (25 mg/kg) on normal soil increased the dry weights of wheat roots, shoots, and grains by 46%, 59%, and 77%, respectively. In salt-affected soil, FeNPs increased the dry weights of wheat roots, shoots, and grains by 65%, 78%, and 61%, respectively. The application of FeSO₄ and Fe-EDTA increased the growth parameters of wheat in both normal and salt-affected soils compared to the respective controls. The photosynthetic parameters, including chlorophyll a (50%), chlorophyll b (67%), carotenoids (62%), and total chlorophyll contents (50%), were increased with the application of FeNPs under salt stress. The FeNPs increased plant-essential nutrients like iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, and potassium in both normal and salt-affected soils. The experiment revealed that the application of Fe plays a significant role in enhancing the growth of wheat on alkaline normal and salt-affected soils. Maximum growth response was recorded with FeNPs than other Fe sources. The future must be focused on long term field experiments to economize the application of FeNPs on a large scale for commercialization.

Impact of Foliar Application of ZnO and Fe3O4 Nanoparticles on Seed Yield and Physio-Biochemical Parameters of Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) Seed under Open Field and Protected Environment vis a vis during Seed Germination

Nutritionally rich cucumber seeds remain in demand in the agricultural, health and cosmetic sectors as they are essential for a successful crop stand establishment and seed-based products. However, the production of cucumber seeds is impeded by source limitation and nutrient deficiency. The foliar application of micronutrients can supplement this deficiency and overcome the physiological setback. An experiment was undertaken to compare the impacts of the foliar application of Fe and Zn, as nanoparticles and fertilizers, on the yield and seed quality of cucumber under open and protected environments. A foliar spray of nano-ZnO (ZnNPs) and nano-Fe3O4 (FeNPs) at 100, 200 and 300 mg L-1, as well as ZnSO4 and FeSO4 as fertilizer (0.5%), was conducted at the vegetative stage and pre- and post-flowering stages. The NPs had a greater efficacy in an open field than in the protected (naturally ventilated poly house) environment. The application of both NPs increased seed yield (51.7-52.2%), total chlorophyll content (15.9-17.3%) and concentration of Zn and Fe in the fruit and the seed, by 2.0-58.5% and 5.0-30.5%, respectively. A significant increase in starch, soluble proteins, soluble sugars and oil content was observed in the seeds from the NP treated plants. NP treatment also enhanced the germination-related parameters, such as percent germination (16.8-17.0%), rate of germination (18.0-22.2%) and seedling vigor (59.8-72.6%). The biochemical characterization showed a significant improvement in the seed water uptake and the activity of hydrolytic enzymes (amylase and protease) in the germinating seed. The involvement of reactive oxygen species (superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide) and antioxidant enzymes (Superoxide dismutase, Catalase and Peroxidase) in the germination process was indicated by an increase in their activities in the seeds from NP treated plants. Hence, the study proposes the potential benefit of the foliar application of 300 mg L-1 ZnNPs and 200 mg L-1 FeNPs at crucial stages of plant growth to improve the yield and seed quality in cucumbers.

Synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles and their effects on growth and physiological parameters of Calotropis procera seedlings

The present study was carried out to elucidate effects of synthesized magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) on morphological and physiological parameters and main essential oil components of Calotropis procera seedlings. For this purpose, 21-day-old seedlings grown under hydroponic conditions were treated by the different MNP concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg L^-1). The results showed that the growth parameters, chlorophyll pigments, soluble sugars, and total proteins significantly increased in leaf under MNP treatment, except for the root length. As compared to the control, MNPs induced a substantial change in the activities of antioxidant enzymes, H₂O₂, and malondialdehyde contents. Ascorbate peroxidase activity showed a meaningful increase in leaf treated with 200 mg L^-1 MNPs, while superoxide dismutase activity and concentration of H₂O₂ conspicuously decreased relative to the control. Moreover, MNPs enhanced geranial, 1,8-cineol, a-phellandrene, citronellal, camphor, and terpinen-4-ol contents as major components. These results suggest that MNPs could be a promising method of iron application in agricultural systems. Regarding the effects of MNPs, 200-mg L^-1 MNPs were most effective on the production of main essential oils and plant growth that could serve as a favorable elicitor for plant improvement.

Nano-iron oxide accelerates growth, yield, and quality of Glycine max seed in water deficits

Drought is one of the most destructive abiotic stresses that impact the growth, physiology, yield, and nutritional quality of seeds of crop plants. In modern agriculture, the use of nanoparticles can be beneficial due to their large surface area and higher potentiality to enter into the plant leaf during foliar application. This study aims to evaluate the effects of foliar spray containing varying doses (0, 100, and 200 ppm) of the nano-iron (Fe₃O₄) on the growth, physiology, yield, and seed nutritional quality of soybean under drought (40% of field capacity, FC) and well-watered (80% of FC) conditions. Leaf water status, chlorophyll content of leaves, the height of the plant, fresh leaf weight, fresh stem weight, fresh petiole weight, total dry weight, seed yield, and protein and oil content in soybean seeds were found to be suppressed by the applied drought stress. Under both drought (40% of FC) and controlled well-watered (80% of FC) conditions, the foliar application of nano-iron substantially improved the growth, physiology, yield, and quality of soybean seeds. The nanoparticles at 200 ppm increased soybean seed yield by 40.12 and 32.60% in drought and well-watered conditions, respectively, compared to the untreated plants. Furthermore, nano-iron increased the oil content of soybean seeds by 10.14 and 7.87% under drought and well-watered conditions, respectively, compared to the untreated control. Our results indicate that the application of nano-iron improved drought tolerance, yield, and seed quality of soybean, so exogenous foliar sprays of 200 ppm Fe₃O₄ were more effective than the other treatments in enhancing drought tolerance and can be utilized to reduce losses caused by drought stress in soybean-growing areas.

Silicon assisted ameliorative effects of iron nanoparticles against cadmium stress: Attaining new equilibrium among physiochemical parameters, antioxidative machinery, and osmoregulators of Phaseolus lunatus

Currently, producing safe agricultural commodities from the crop plants cultivated in the soil with increasing heavy metal toxicity is a gigantic challenge in front of researchers. Heavy metals are absorbed and translocated in the crop plants and then transferred to every downstream consumer of the food chain, including humans, causing serious disorders and ailments. The current research presents a combined schematic application of iron nanoparticles (Fe-NPs) and/or silicon (Si), to mitigate cadmium (Cd) stress in Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus). It was noted that Cd-induced toxicity curtailed growth, antioxidative machinery, glyoxalase system and nutrient uptake of the plants. Furthermore, the physiochemical features of Cd stressed plants, including carotenoids, chlorophyll, photochemical quenching, photosynthetic efficiency, and leaf relative water contents, were improved by the combined application of Si and Fe-NPs. Moreover, higher levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), methylglyoxal (MG), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and electrolyte leakage (EL) were observed in Cd stressed plants. Nevertheless, the independent treatment or combined application of Si and/or Fe-NPs attenuated the adversative effects of Cd on the aforementioned growth attributes. Furthermore, Si and Fe-NPs defended plants from the injurious effects of MG by improving the activities of the glyoxalase enzyme. The Si and Fe-NPs reduced Cd contents but at the same time improved uptake and accumulation of nutrients in treated plants exposed to the Cd regime. This study highlights that Si and Fe-NPs have enormous potential to mitigate Cd-induced phytotoxicity by declining Cd uptake and improving the growth attributes of plants if applied in combination.

Nanotechnology: an efficient approach for rejuvenation of aged seeds

Modern agricultural efforts are now in search of an efficient, eco-friendly and sustainable approach for enhanced crop production. Nearly 50-60% of seeds lost occurs due to improper technical handling. Seed deterioration manifests itself as reduction in the rate of germination and growth with increased susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses. Furthermore, seed ageing is another economic and scientific issue that is associated with an array of internal (structural, physiological and genetic) and external (storage temperature and relative humidity) factors. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are believed to be a key player in ageing phenomenon. However, hydrated storage, or ROS blockers are a few of the conventionally used methods to minimize the ageing process. Recently, exogenous applications of different inorganic nanoparticles (metal and metal oxide) are suggested to revitalize and revive aged seeds. Owing to their special properties of nano-size with high surface area they easily penetrate the seed coat. Exposure of nanoparticles has been suggested to neutralize the excess of ROS to a level that initiates hormonal signaling to support early emergence of radicles from the seeds. Nanotechnology has been well explored to enhance the crops nutritional quality, livestock productivity, plant protection from various stressors and in enhancement of seed quality via nanopesticides and nanofertilizers. Aiming at sustainable agriculture practices with fewer inputs, maximum benefits, ecologically safe and compatible technique the nanotechnology is an efficient approach to counteract problems of seed ageing incurring during storage, which is relatively less explored and unresolved conventionally, in general.

The role of Fe-nano particles in scarlet sage responses to heavy metals stress

Despite the stabilized ornamental markets for scarlet sage (Salvia splendens), little is known about the stress resistance of heavy metals (HMs). Therefore, a hydroponic study was conducted to determine whether the addition of Fe nanoparticles (Fe NPs) at 0, 5, 10, 20 and 30 µM in Hoagland's nutrient solution reduce the toxicity caused by 100 μM of HMs (Cd, Cu, Ni, Cr and Pb). Exposure to HMs significantly reduced relative growth rate (RGR), chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), total antioxidant activity (TAA), total phenol content (TPC) and antioxidant power assay (FRAP), while the malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation, H₂O₂ generation and electrolyte leakage (EL) significantly increased. Fe NPs improved HMs toxicity by significant reduction in MDA content, H₂O₂ generation and EL while increase in the PGR, chlorophyll content, Fv/Fm, the TAA, TPC and FRAP. Exposure to HMs caused Fe deficiency-induced chlorosis while Fe NPs reduced the negative effects of HM by preventing further reduction of leaf Fe. The results highlighted that although using Fe NPs significantly improved plant growth and motivated the plant defense mechanisms in response to HMs toxicity, it had a negative effect on the phytoremediation properties of salvia splendens by reducing the accumulation of HMs in plant organs.

Template-free microwave-assisted hydrothermal synthesis of manganese zinc ferrite as a nanofertilizer for squash plant (Cucurbita pepo L)

Manganese, zinc, and iron are the most essential micronutrients required for plant growth and applied as foliar fertilizers. Herein, a simple template-free microwave-assisted hydrothermal green synthesis technique was adapted to produce manganese zinc ferrite nanoparticles (Mn0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 NPs) at different temperatures (100, 120, 140, 160 and 180 °C). The prepared nanomaterials were employed at different concentrations (0, 10, 20, and 30 ppm) as foliar nanofertilizers during the squash (Cucurbita pepo L) planting process. X-ray diffraction patterns of the prepared nanomaterials confirmed successful production of the nanoferrite material. The prepared nanofertilizers showed type IV adsorption isotherm characteristic for mesoporous materials. FE-SEM and HR-TEM imaging showed that the nanoparticles were cubic shaped and increased in particle size with the increase in microwave temperature during production. The impact of application of the synthesized ferrite nanoparticles on vegetative growth, proximate analysis, minerals content and the yield of squash plant was investigated for two consecutive successful planting seasons. The nanoferrite synthesized at 160 °C and applied to the growing plants at a concentration of 10 ppm gave the highest increase in % yield (49.3 and 52.9%) compared to the untreated squash for the two consecutive seasons, whereas the maximum organic matter content (73.0 and 72.5%) and total energy (260 and 258.3 kcal/g) in squash leaves were obtained in plants treated with 30 ppm ferrite nanoparticles synthesized at 180 °C. On the other hand, the maximum organic matter content (76.6 and 76.3%) and total energy (253.6 and 250.3 kcal/g) in squash fruits were attained with plants supplied by 20 ppm ferrite nanoparticles synthesized at 160 °C. These results indicate that the simple template-free microwave-assisted hydrothermal green synthesis technique for the production of manganese zinc ferrite nanoparticles yields nanoparticles appropriate for use as fertilizer for Cucurbita pepo L.

Proteomic Analysis of Irradiation with Millimeter Waves on Soybean Growth under Flooding Conditions

Improving soybean growth and tolerance under environmental stress is crucial for sustainable development. Millimeter waves are a radio-frequency band with a wavelength range of 1-10 mm that has dynamic effects on organisms. To investigate the potential effects of millimeter-waves irradiation on soybean seedlings, morphological and proteomic analyses were performed. Millimeter-waves irradiation improved the growth of roots/hypocotyl and the tolerance of soybean to flooding stress. Proteomic analysis indicated that the irradiated soybean seedlings recovered under oxidative stress during growth, whereas proteins related to glycolysis and ascorbate/glutathione metabolism were not affected. Immunoblot analysis confirmed the promotive effect of millimeter waves to glycolysis- and redox-related pathways under flooding conditions. Sugar metabolism was suppressed under flooding in unirradiated soybean seedlings, whereas it was activated in the irradiated ones, especially trehalose synthesis. These results suggest that millimeter-waves irradiation on soybean seeds promotes the recovery of soybean seedlings under oxidative stress, which positively regulates soybean growth through the regulation of glycolysis and redox related pathways.

Biocompatibility assessment of Fe3O4 nanoparticles using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model organism

Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as an experimental model, the potential toxicological effects of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄-NPs) were investigated following exposure to 0-600 mg/L for 24 h. Results revealed that cell proliferation was significantly inhibited by Fe₃O₄-NPs with an IC₅₀ value of 326.66 mg/L. Mortality showed a concentration-dependent increase, and the highest concentration in this study (600 mg/L) resulted in 22.30% mortality. In addition, Effects on proliferation and mortality were accounted for Fe₃O₄-NPs rather than iron ion released from Fe₃O₄-NPs. Scanning and transmission electron microscope observation showed that Fe₃O₄-NPs extensively attached on the cell surfaces, causing cells to deform and shrink. Moreover, Fe₃O₄-NPs could be internalized in S. cerevisiae cells via endocytosis and then be distributed in cytoplasm and vesicles. The data of uptake kinetics demonstrated that the maximal accumulation (4.898 mg/g) was reached at 15 h. Besides, percentage of late apoptosis/necrosis was observably increased (p < 0.01) at 600 mg/L (15.80%), and the expression levels of apoptosis-related genes (SOD, Yca1 and Nuc1) were dramatically increased following exposure to Fe₃O₄-NPs for 24 h. As expected, mitochondrial transmembrane potential was significantly decreased (p < 0.01) at 50-600 mg/L, and biomarkers of oxidative stress (ROS, CAT and SOD) were also markedly changed following exposure. Altogether, the combined results so far indicated Fe₃O₄-NPs could induce S. cerevisiae cell apoptosis that mediated by mitochondrial impairment and oxidative stress.

Soybean Interaction with Engineered Nanomaterials: A Literature Review of Recent Data

With a continuous increase in the production and use in everyday life applications of engineered nanomaterials, concerns have appeared in the past decades related to their possible environmental toxicity and impact on edible plants (and therefore, upon human health). Soybean is one of the most commercially-important crop plants, and a perfect model for nanomaterials accumulation studies, due to its high biomass production and ease of cultivation. In this review, we aim to summarize the most recent research data concerning the impact of engineered nanomaterials on the soya bean, covering both inorganic (metal and metal-oxide nanoparticles) and organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials. The interactions between soybean plants and engineered nanomaterials are discussed in terms of positive and negative impacts on growth and production, metabolism and influences on the root-associated microbiota. Current data clearly suggests that under specific conditions, nanomaterials can negatively influence the development and metabolism of soybean plants. Moreover, in some cases, a possible risk of trophic transfer and transgenerational impact of engineered nanomaterials are suggested. Therefore, comprehensive risk-assessment studies should be carried out prior to any mass productions of potentially hazardous materials.