Potential therapeutic effects of Cordyceps cicadae and Paecilomyces cicadae on adenine-induced chronic renal failure in rats and their phytochemical analysis

Clerodendranthus spicatus-Cordyceps cicadae regulates mitophagy and protects renal tubular epithelial cells from hyperuricemic nephropathy

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Clerodendranthus spicatus (CS) and Cordyceps cicadae (CC) are both medicine and food. They have long been used to treat kidney disease, but their mechanisms for treating hyperuricemic nephropathy (HN) are not yet clear.

AIM

We investigated the effect and mechanism of Clerodendranthus spicatus-Cordyceps cicadae (CS-CC) in HN treatment.

METHODS

We detected the chemical profiling of CS-CC freeze-dried powder, drug-containing serum and drug-containing intracellular fluid by UHPLC-Q Exactive Orbitrap-HRMS. We explored the effective components as well as underlying mechanisms of CS-CC in HN treatment via network pharmacological analysis. We constructed HN rat models induced by gavaging potassium oxonate and uric acid (UA) for three weeks, and performed biochemical and pathological tests as well as histological observation. The expressions of fibrosis-associated proteins were quantitatively analyzed using immunohistochemistry staining and western blot analysis. For in vitro studies, we measured the metabolic fluxes in UA-treated HK-2 cells using Seahorse XFe24 analyzer and flow cytometric analysis. Mitophagy-associated proteins were evaluated using immunofluorescence co-localization analysis and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 14 simultaneous constituents of CS-CC in vivo and in vitro were identified. Network pharmacological analysis highlighted CS-CC regulated mitophagy in HN. CS-CC treatment effectively enhanced renal function and ameliorate renal fibrosis in HN rats. We found PINK1-mediated mitophagy was suppressed in HN, while CS-CC treatment could restore cellular metabolism, activate mitophagy and protect tubular epithelial cells in HN.

CONCLUSIONS

PINK1-mediated mitophagy was significantly inhibited in HN, whereas CS-CC treatment demonstrated remarkable efficacy in attenuating renal fibrosis and promoting mitophagy to protect tubular epithelial cells in HN.

Exploiting the roles of nitrogen sources for HEA increment in Cordyceps cicadae

Cordyceps cicadae, as a new food ingredient, is a valuable edible and medicinal fungi. However, its resources are severely depleted due to environmental limitations and excessive harvesting practices. N6-(2-hydroxyethyl) adenosine (HEA), as an important product of Cordyceps cicadae, has the potential to be used in medical industry due to its diverse disease curing potential. However, the disclosure of HEA synthesis still severely limited its application until now. In this study, the kinetic curves for adenosine and HEA under shaker fermentation were explored. The kinetics of HEA and adenosine production exhibited a competitive pattern, implicating a possibility of sharing a same step during their synthesis. Due to HEA as a derivative of nitrogen metabolism, the effect of different nitrogen sources (peptone, yeast extract, ammonium sulfate, diammonium oxalate monohydrate, ammonium citrate dibasic, and ammonium citrate tribasic) on HEA production in Cordyceps cicadae strain AH 10-4 had been explored under different incubation conditions (shaker fermentation, stationary fermentation, and submerged fermentation). Our results indicated that the complex organic nitrogen sources were found to improve the accumulation of HEA content under shaker fermentation. In contrast, the optimal nitrogen source for the accumulation of HEA under stationary fermentation and submerged fermentation was ammonium citrate tribasic. But submerged fermentation obviously shortened the incubation time and had a comparable capacity of HEA accumulation by 2.578 mg/g compared with stationary fermentation of 2.535 mg/g, implicating a possibility of scaled-up production of HEA in industry by submerged fermentation. Based on the dramatic HEA production by ammonium sulfate as nitrogen resources between stationary and shaker fermentations, alanine, aspartate and glutamate as well as arginine metabolic pathway were related to the production of HEA by comparative transcriptome. Further investigation indicated that glutamic acid, which is an analog of Asp, showed an optimum production of HEA in comparison with other amino acids.

Unique Bioactives from Zombie Fungus (Cordyceps) as Promising Multitargeted Neuroprotective Agents

Cordyceps, also known as "zombie fungus", is a non-poisonous mushroom that parasitizes insects for growth and development by manipulating the host system in a way that makes the victim behave like a "zombie". These species produce promising bioactive metabolites, like adenosine, β-glucans, cordycepin, and ergosterol. Cordyceps has been used in traditional medicine due to its immense health benefits, as it boosts stamina, appetite, immunity, longevity, libido, memory, and sleep. Neuronal loss is the typical feature of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) (Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)) and neurotrauma. Both these conditions share common pathophysiological features, like oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and glutamatergic excitotoxicity. Cordyceps bioactives (adenosine, N6-(2-hydroxyethyl)-adenosine, ergosta-7, 9 (11), 22-trien-3β-ol, active peptides, and polysaccharides) exert potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activities and display beneficial effects in the management and/or treatment of neurodegenerative disorders in vitro and in vivo. Although a considerable list of compounds is available from Cordyceps, only a few have been evaluated for their neuroprotective potential and still lack information for clinical trials. In this review, the neuroprotective mechanisms and safety profile of Cordyceps extracts/bioactives have been discussed, which might be helpful in the identification of novel potential therapeutic entities in the future.

Characterization of Metabolite Landscape Distinguishes Medicinal Fungus Cordyceps sinensis and other Cordyceps by UHPLC-Q Exactive HF-X Untargeted Metabolomics

Cordyceps represent a valuable class of medicinal fungi with potential utilization. The overexploitation and resource scarcity of Cordyceps sinensis (CS) have led to the emergence of Cordyceps such as Cordyceps militaris (CM) and Cordyceps cicadae (CC) as substitutes. The medicinal value of CS is often considered superior to other Cordyceps, potentially owing to differences in active ingredients. This study aimed to evaluate the differences in the composition and abundance of the primary and secondary metabolites of CS and its substitutes by untargeted metabolomics. A total of 4671 metabolites from 18 superclasses were detected. CS and its substitutes were rich in amino acids, lipids, organic acids, and their derivatives. We statistically analyzed the metabolites and found a total of 285 differential metabolites (3'-Adenylic acid, O-Adipoylcarnitine, L-Dopachrome, etc.) between CS and CC, CS and CM, and CM and CC, which are potential biomarkers. L-glutamate and glycerophospholipids were differential metabolites. A KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that the tyrosine metabolic pathway and tryptophan metabolism pathway are the most differentially expressed pathways among the three Cordyceps. In contrast, CS was enriched in a higher abundance of most lipid metabolites when compared to CM and CC, which may be an indispensable foundation for the pharmacological functions of CS. In conclusion, systematic, untargeted metabolomics analyses for CS and other Cordyceps have delivered a precious resource for insights into metabolite landscapes and predicted potential components of disease therapeutics.

Preventative Effects of Cordyceps cicadae Mycelial Extracts on the Early-Stage Development of Cataracts in UVB-Induced Mice Cataract Model

Cataracts, a prevalent age-related eye condition, pose a significant global health concern, with rising rates due to an aging population and increased digital device usage. In Taiwan, cataract prevalence is particularly high, reaching up to 90% among individuals aged 70 and above. The lens of the eye absorbs short-wave light, which can lead to oxidative stress in lens epithelial cells and contribute to cataract formation. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light further exacerbates the risk of cataracts by generating reactive oxygen species. Heat-shock proteins (HSPs), involved in protein maintenance and repair, have been linked to cataract development. Cordyceps cicadae (C. cicadae), a traditional Chinese medicine, has a long history of use and is known for its pharmacological effects. N6-(2-hydroxyethyl) adenosine (HEA), a bioactive compound found in C. cicadae, exhibits anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and neuroprotective properties. Previous studies have shown that C. cicadae mycelial extracts improve dry eye disease and reduce intraocular pressure in animal models. Additionally, C. cicadae possesses antioxidant properties, which are beneficial for combating cataract formation. In this study, we aim to evaluate the preventive efficacy of C. cicadae mycelial extracts in UV-induced cataract development. By investigating the ameliorative effects of C. cicadae on eye diseases and its potential role in ocular health improvement, we hope to uncover new options for cataract prevention and provide insights into the mechanisms of action. The findings of this research could provide a novel approach for nutritional supplements targeting cataract prevention, offering potential benefits in the field of ocular health.

Aqueous extract of Cordyceps cicadae (Miq.) promotes hyaluronan synthesis in human skin fibroblasts: A potential moisturizing and anti-aging ingredient

Cordyceps cicadae (Miq.) is an edible fungus with unique and valuable medicinal properties that is commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine, but its anti-aging effects on the skin fibroblast are not well studied. The aim of the present study was to analyze the active components of aqueous C. cicadae extract (CCE), determine the effects of CCE on hyaluronan synthesis in human skin fibroblasts, and explore the underlying mechanisms. The results of this study indicate that CCE was rich in polysaccharides, five alditols (mainly mannitol), eight nucleosides, protein, and polyphenols, which were present at concentrations of 62.7, 110, 8.26, 35.7, and 3.8 mg/g, respectively. The concentration of extract required to inhibit 50% of 2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazo-line-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazil (DPPH) radical scavenging capacities were 0.36 ± 0.03 and 4.54 ± 0.10 mg/mL, respectively, indicating that CCE exhibits excellent antioxidant activities. CCE showed no cytotoxicity to skin fibroblasts at concentrations ≤ 100 μg/mL, and promoted HA synthesis in fibroblasts. Treatment of fibroblast cells with 100 μg/mL CCE enhances the HA content to 1293 ± 142 ng/mL, which is significantly more than that in the non-treatment (NT) group (p = 0.0067). Further, RNA sequencing detected 1,192 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in CCE-treated fibroblasts, among which 417 were upregulated and 775 were downregulated. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes (KEGG) and Genomes pathway (GO) analysis based on RNA sequencing revealed that CCE mainly affected cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction regulated by HA synthesis-related genes. CCE upregulated HA synthase 2 (HAS2), epidermal growth factor (EGF)-related genes, heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor, C-C motif chemokine ligand 2, interleukin 1 receptor-associated kinase 2, and other genes related to fibroblast differentiation and proliferation. CCE downregulated the gene of matrix metallopeptidase 12 (MMP12), which leads to cell matrix loss. RT-qPCR further verified CCE significantly upregulated HAS2 expression and significantly downregulated MMP12 expression, thus promoting hyaluronan synthesis. CCE shows potential as a moisturizer and anti-aging agent in functional foods and cosmetics.

Role of the blue light receptor gene Icwc-1 in mycelium growth and fruiting body formation of Isaria cicadae

The Isaria cicadae, is well known highly prized medicinal mushroom with great demand in food and pharmaceutical industry. Due to its economic value and therapeutic uses, natural sources of wild I. cicadae are over-exploited and reducing continuously. Therefore, commercial cultivation in controlled environment is an utmost requirement to fulfill the consumer's demand. Due to the lack of knowledge on fruiting body (synnemata) development and regulation, commercial cultivation is currently in a difficult situation. In the growth cycle of macrofungi, such as mushrooms, light is the main factor affecting growth and development, but so far, specific effects of light on the growth and development of I. cicadae is unknown. In this study, we identified a blue light receptor white-collar-1 (Icwc-1) gene homologue with well-defined functions in morphological development in I. cicadae based on gene knockout technology and transcriptomic analysis. It was found that the Icwc-1 gene significantly affected hyphal growth and fruiting body development. This study confirms that Icwc-1 acts as an upstream regulatory gene that regulates genes associated with fruiting body formation, pigment-forming genes, and related genes for enzyme synthesis. Transcriptome data analysis also found that Icwc-1 affects many important metabolic pathways of I. cicadae, i.e., amino acid metabolism and fatty acid metabolism. The above findings will not only provide a comprehensive understanding about the molecular mechanism of light regulation in I. cicadae, but also provide new insights for future breeding program and improving this functional food production.

Amelioration of Cyclosporine A-Induced Acute Nephrotoxicity by Cordyceps cicadae Mycelia via Mg+2 Reabsorption and the Inhibition of GRP78-IRE1-CHOP Pathway: In Vivo and In Vitro

Fruiting bodies of Cordyceps cicadae (CC) have been reported to have a therapeutic effect in chronic kidney disease. Due to the rare and expensive resources from natural habitats, artificially cultivated mycelia using submerged liquid cultivation of CC (CCM) have been recently developed as an alternative to scarce sources of CC. However, little is known regarding potential protective effects of CCM against cyclosporine A (CsA)-induced acute nephrotoxicity in vivo and in vitro. In this study, male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into six groups: control, CCM (40 mg and 400 mg/kg, orally), CsA (10 mg/kg, oral gavage), and CsA + CCM (40 mg and 400 mg/kg, orally). At the end of the study on day 8, all rats were sacrificed, and the blood and kidneys retrieved. CsA-induced acute nephrotoxicity was evident by increased levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN). Levels of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resident chaperone glucose regulated protein 78 (GRP 78) were increased significantly in rats with acute nephrotoxicity. BUN and GRP 78 were significantly ameliorated in synchronous oral groups of CCM (40 or 400 mg/kg) plus CsA. Examination of hematoxylin and eosin stained kidney tissues revealed that the combined treatment of CCM slightly improved vacuolization in renal tubules upon CsA-induced damage. CsA-induced down-regulation of protein expression of magnesium ion channel proteins and transient receptor potential melastatin 6 and 7 were abolished by the combined treatment of CCM. CCM has the potential to protect the kidney against CsA-induced nephrotoxicity by reducing magnesium ion wasting, tubular cell damage, and ER stress demonstrated further by human renal proximal tubular epithelial cell line HK-2. Our results contribute to the in-depth understanding of the role of polysaccharides and nucleobases as the main secondary metabolites of CCM in the defense system of renal functions in CsA-induced acute nephrotoxicity.

The modulation of sirtuins by natural compounds in the management of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity

Cisplatin is a highly effective antitumor agent. However, its use is limited due to severe adverse effects, particularly nephrotoxicity, which occurs in approximately 30% of patients. There is a need for novel renoprotective compounds. Sirtuins play a vital role in various physiological and pathological processes such as oxidative stress, apoptosis, inflammation, and mitochondrial bioenergetics. It has been shown that sirtuins can exert a protective effect on cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury by targeting multiple signaling pathways. Besides, sirtuins not only did not reduce the anticancer effect of cisplatin but also increased it. Several natural compounds have been reported to inhibit cisplatin-mediated nephrotoxicity through sirtuin stimulation. These compounds exert their therapeutic effects on cisplatin-induced renal injury by targeting various signaling pathways including Sirt1/p53, Sirt1/NF-κb/p56, AMPK/Sirt1, Sirt1/PGC-1α, and/or by enhancing mitochondrial function.

Panax notoginseng saponins alleviate damage to the intestinal barrier and regulate levels of intestinal microbes in a rat model of chronic kidney disease

OBJECTIVES

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a long-term condition characterized by poor prognosis and a high mortality rate. Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) are the main active ingredient of the traditional Chinese herb Panaxnotoginseng(Burk.)F.H.Chen, which has been widely reported to have various pharmacological effects. Here, we examined the effect of PNS on renal function and the modulation of intestinal flora and intestinal barrier in a rat model of adenine-induced CKD.

METHODS

Adenine was used to establish a rat model of CKD, biochemical testing, histopathologic examination, ELISA, immunohistochemical assay, western blot assay, and fecal microbiota 16s rRNA analysis was used to test the effect of PNS on CKD rats.

RESULTS

Adenine induced a significant decrease in glomerular filtration rate, an increase in urinary protein excretion rate, and pathological damage to renal tissue in CKD rats. TNF-α, MCP-1, IL-1β, IL-18, TMAO, and endotoxin levels were increased in the blood of the model rats. Application of PNS countered the effects of adenine, restoring the above parameters to the level observed in healthy rats. In addition, activation of the inflammatory proteins NF-κB (p65) and NLRP3 and the fibrosis-associated proteins α-SMA and smad3 were inhibited in the kidneys of CKD rats. Furthermore, PNS promoted the expression of the tight junction proteins Occludin and ZO-1, increased SIgA levels, strengthened intestinal immunity, reduced mechanical damage to the intestine, was reduced levels of DAO and D-LA. Our data suggest PNS may delay CKD by restoring gut microbiota, and through the subsequent generation of a microbial barrier and modulation of microbiota metabolites.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, PNS may inhibit the development of inflammation and fibrosis in the kidney tissue through regulation of intestinal microorganisms and inhibition of the activation of pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic proteins in the kidney.

Potential Therapeutic Strategies for Renal Fibrosis: Cordyceps and Related Products

At present, there is no effective drug for the treatment of renal fibrosis; in particular, a safe and effective treatment for renal fibrosis should be established. Cordyceps has several medical effects, including immunoregulatory, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects, and may prevent kidney, liver, and heart diseases. Cordyceps has also been reported to be effective in the treatment of renal fibrosis. In this paper, we review the potential mechanisms of Cordyceps against renal fibrosis, focusing on the effects of Cordyceps on inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, regulation of autophagy, reduction of extracellular matrix deposition, and fibroblast activation. We also discuss relevant published clinical trials and meta-analyses. Available clinical studies support the possibility that Cordyceps and related products provide benefits to patients with chronic kidney diseases as adjuvants to conventional drugs. However, the existing clinical studies are limited by low quality and significant heterogeneity. The use of Cordyceps and related products may be a potential strategy for the treatment of renal fibrosis. Randomized controlled trial studies with good methodological quality, favorable experimental design, and large sample size are needed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Cordyceps.

Cordyceps cicadae Ameliorates Renal Hypertensive Injury and Fibrosis Through the Regulation of SIRT1-Mediated Autophagy

Hypertensive renal injury is a complication of hypertension. Cordyceps cicadae (C. cicadae) is a traditional Chinese medicine used to treat chronic kidney diseases especially renal fibrosis. Autophagy is described as a cell self-renewal process that requires lysosomal degradation and is utilized for the maintenance of cellular energy homeostasis. The present study explores the mechanism underlying C. cicadae’s renoprotection on hypertensive nephropathy (HN). First, HN rat models were established on spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). The expression of fibrosis-related protein and autophagy-associated protein was detected in vivo. NRK-52E cells exposed to AngII were chosen to observe the potential health benefits of C. cicadae on renal damage. The level of extracellular matrix accumulation was detected using capillary electrophoresis immunoquantification and immunohistochemistry. After treatment with lysosomal inhibitors (chloroquine) or an autophagy activator (rapamycin), the expression of Beclin-1, LC3II, and SQSTM1/p62 was further investigated. The study also investigated the change in sirtuin1 (SIRT1), fork head box O3a (FOXO3a), and peroxidation (superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA)) expression when intervened by resveratrol. The changes in SIRT1 and FOXO3a were measured in patients and the SHRs. Here, we observed that C. cicadae significantly decreased damage to renal tubular epithelial cells and TGFβ1, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), collagen I (Col-1), and fibronectin expression. Meanwhile, autophagy defects were observed both in vivo and in vitro. C. cicadae intervention significantly downregulated Beclin-1 and LC3II and decreased SQSTM1/p62, showing an inhibition of autophagic vesicles and the alleviation of autophagy stress. These functions were suppressed by rapamycin, and the results were just as effective as the resveratrol treatment. HN patients and the SHRs exhibited decreased levels of SIRT1 and FOXO3a. We also observed a positive correlation between SIRT1/FOXO3a and antifibrotic effects. Similar to the resveratrol group, the expression of SIRT1/FOXO3a and oxidative stress were elevated by C. cicadae in vivo. Taken together, our findings show that C. cicadae ameliorates tubulointerstitial fibrosis and delays HN progression. Renoprotection was likely attributable to the regulation of autophagic stress mediated by the SIRT1 pathway and achieved by regulating FOXO3a and oxidative stress.

Lowering the Intraocular Pressure in Rats and Rabbits by Cordyceps cicadae Extract and Its Active Compounds

Cordyceps cicadae (CC), an entomogenous fungus that has been reported to have therapeutic glaucoma, is a major cause of blindness worldwide and is characterized by progressive retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death, mostly due to elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). Here, an ethanolic extract of C. cicadae mycelium (CCME), a traditional medicinal mushroom, was studied for its potential in lowering IOP in rat and rabbit models. Data showed that CCME could significantly (60.5%) reduce the IOP induced by microbead occlusion after 56 days of oral administration. The apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in rats decreased by 77.2%. CCME was also shown to lower the IOP of normal and dextrose-infusion-induced rabbits within 60 min after oral feeding. There were dose effects, and the effect was repeatable. The active ingredient, N6-(2-hydroxyethyl)-adenosine (HEA), was also shown to alleviate 29.6% IOP at 0.2 mg/kg body weight in this rabbit model. CCME was confirmed with only minor inhibition in the phosphorylated myosin light chain 2 (pMLC2) pathway.

Distinctive quality control method for solid-state fermented Isaria cicadae from strain Ic-17-7 and application in a rat model of type 2 diabetes

This work was aimed to establish a quality control method for evaluating the effects on glucose and lipids of the fruiting body of Isaria cicadae Miquel from strain Ic-17-7 (Ic-17-7fb) using a rat model of type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Random amplified polymorphic DNA, sequence-characterized amplified region, and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were used for the quality control of Ic-17-7fb. The pharmacological effects on streptozocin (STZ)-induced high fat diet (HFD)-fed Albino Wistar rats were evaluated. The rats underwent the following treatments: control, metformin, Ic-17-7fb (0.166 and 0.5 g·kg^-1) or without treatment. The fasting blood glucose (FBG), blood glucose, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), high-density lipoprotein (HDL-c), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL-c) were measured. Ic-17-7fb amplified a single specific band by S11-2-F3 and S11-2-R3 primers. An HPLC-based quality and quantity method was established for industrial application. The contents of adenosine and N⁶-(2-hydroxyethyl) adenosine (HEA) of the cultivated Ic-17-7fb were analyzed. All of the validation lots of cultured Ic-17-7fb passed the quantity control of the training set (0.90 mg·g^-1 of adenosine and 0.89 mg·g^-1 of HEA). After two weeks of administration, the average FBG was 4.89 ± 0.42 (control), 26.10 ± 5.77 (model), 23.63 ± 6.15 (metformin), 17.96 ± 9.36 (Ic-17-7fb for 0.166 g·kg^-1), and 19.69 ± 8.71 mmol·L^-1 (Ic-17-7fb for 0.5 g·kg^-1). The FBG of Ic-17-7fb (0.166 g·kg^-1) treatment significantly reduced by 31.19%, compared with the model after two weeks of administration (P < 0.01). Metformin, Ic-17-7fb (0.166 g·kg ^-1), and Ic-17-7fb (0.5 g·kg^-1) reduced TC, TG, HDL-c, and LDL-c compared with the T2DM model treatment at the 6th week of treatment (P < 0.05). This study established the first quality standard for Ic-17-7fb, which can be effectively applied in the treatment of T2DM. The reliable quality control method and pharmacological effect will broaden its application space.

Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis polysaccharides alleviate chronic kidney disease through MAPK/NF-κB pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis (O. lanpingensis) is a traditional ethno-medicine distributed in Eastern Himalayas, which has been used by local minorities to prevent and treat urinary diseases for hundreds of years. However, the corresponding active components and related pharmacological mechanism of such medication are not clear yet.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

This study was performed to investigate the effects and potential mechanisms of O. lanpingensis polysaccharides (OLP) in the treatment of chronic kidney disease (CKD) based on our previous research results.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Methylation analysis was used to investigate the monosaccharide composition and glycosidic linkages in OLP. The animals were divided into the control group, CKD model group, losartan group and three different doses of OLP groups. The CKD mouse model was established by the adenine gavage. The histological changes of renal tissue were observed by Hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining. Biochemical indicators, including blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine (Scr), serum phosphorus (P), plasma calcium (Ca), reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured to evaluate the alleviation of CKD by OLP. Moreover, the expression levels of a series of cytokines related to the inflammation, apoptosis and fibrosis were analyzed to explore the possible mechanisms of OLP to treat CKD.

RESULTS

OLP is composed of three kinds of monosaccharides. There are eight kinds of glycosidic linkages in OLP, among which →4)-Glcp-(1→ is the main linkage. OLP could significantly attenuate CKD in mice and the tubulointerstitial damage was recovered to almost normal after the treatment of OLP. Compared with the CKD model group, the levels of Scr, BUN, MDA, P in OLP treatment groups were significantly decreased; and the levels of SOD and Ca were increased after OLP treatment. Furthermore, OLP could reduce the oxidative stress of the renal tissues, decrease the expression levels of pro-inflammatory factors through TLR4-mediated MAPK and NF-κB pathway, inhibit the apoptosis of renal cells by MAPK pathway, and relieve the renal fibrosis by down-regulating the expression of TGF-β1.

CONCLUSIONS

OLP is composed of three kinds of monosaccharides and →4)-Glcp-(1→ is the main glycosidic linkage in the polysaccharide. OLP could ameliorate CKD in mice by declining the oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis and fibrosis in the kidneys. The study provided some evidences for the potential application of OLP in alleviating CKD.

Molecular record for the first authentication of Isaria cicadae from Vietnam

The entomopathogenic fungus T011, parasitizing on nymph of Cicada, collected in the coffee garden in Dak Lak Province, Vietnam, was preliminarily morphologically identified as Isaria cicadae, belonged to order Hypocreales and family Clavicipitaceae. To ensure the authenticity of T011, phylogenetic analysis of the concatenated set of multiple genes including ITS, nrLSU, nrSSU, Rpb1, and Tef1 was applied to support the identification. Genomic DNA was isolated from dried sample T011. The PCR assay sequencing was applied to amplify ITS, nrLSU, nrSSU, Rpb1, and Tef1 gene. For phylogenetic analysis, the concatenated data of both target gens were constructed with MEGAX with a 1,000 replicate bootstrap based on the neighbor-joining, maximum likelihood, maximum parsimony method. As the result, the concatenated data containing 62 sequences belonged to order Hypocreales, families Clavicipitaceae, and 2 outgroup sequences belonged to order Hypocreales, genus Verticillium. The phylogenetic analysis results indicated that T011 was accepted at subclade Cordyceps and significantly formed the monophyletic group with referent Cordyceps cicadae (Telemorph of Isaria cicadae) with high bootstrap value. The phylogenetically analyzed result was strongly supported by our morphological analysis described as the Isaria cicadae. In summary, phylogenetic analyses based on the concatenated dataset were successfully applied to strengthen the identification of T011 as Isaria cicadae.

A neutral polysaccharide from Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis restrains cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity

Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis is an edible mushroom distributed over the south-eastern part of the Tibet Plateau, which is also recognized as an effective ethnomedicine to alleviate diseases. This study explored the effects of a kind of Ophiocordyceps lanpingensis neutral polysaccharide (ONP) on RAW264.7 macrophages and cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity. The results showed that ONP relieved the inflammatory response of RAW264.7 macrophages by increasing the expression level of anti-inflammatory factor IL-10. Furthermore, ONP treatment significantly prolonged the survival of the mice treated by cisplatin through decelerating pathological progress and alleviating damaged functions of the kidneys. Compared with the cisplatin group, ONP reduced the oxidative stress of the renal cells and the expression levels of pro-inflammatory factors. Apoptosis of renal cells was also weakened in the ONP treatment group. These findings indicated that ONP alleviated cisplatin nephrotoxicity mainly by inhibiting oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the kidneys, underscoring the potential of ONP supplementation to alleviate the side effects of cisplatin chemotherapy.

Different Cultivation Environments Affect the Yield, Bacterial Community and Metabolites of Cordyceps cicadae

Cordyceps cicadae is an entomogenous fungus with important uses in traditional Chinese medicine. However, its wild resources have not met consumers' demand due to excessive harvesting practices. Artificial cultivation is therefore an important alternative, but research on cultivating C. cicadae in natural habitats has not been reported. In this study, we aimed to explore the viability of cultivating C. cicadae in a natural habitat, in the soil of Pinus massoniana forest. We assessed and compared the yield, metabolite contents and bacterial community composition of C. cicadae grown in the Antheraea pernyi pupae at different growth stages, and under different cultivation conditions, in the soil of a natural habitat and in sterile glass bottles. Our results showed that cultivating C. cicadae in a natural habitat is feasible, with up to 95% of pupae producing C. cicadae fruiting bodies. The content of nitrogen compounds (amino acids) in C. cicadae cultivated in a natural habitat was significantly higher than in glass bottles, while the yield and carbon compound (mannitol and polysaccharide) and nucleoside (cordycepin and adenosine) contents were lower. Different bacterial genera were enriched in C. cicadae at different growth stages and cultivation environments, and these bacterial genera were closely related to metabolites contents during growth. This study demonstrated the viability of a novel cultivation method of C. cicadae, which could be used as an alternative to wild stocks of this fungus. These findings provided new insights into the growth mechanism of C. cicadae and its interaction with soil microorganisms.

Potential Protection Effect of ER Homeostasis of N6-(2-Hydroxyethyl)adenosine Isolated from Cordyceps cicadae in Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug-Stimulated Human Proximal Tubular Cells

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) belong to a class of universally and commonly used anti-inflammatory analgesics worldwide. A diversity of drawbacks of NSAIDs have been reported including cellular oxidative stress, which in turn triggers the accumulation of unfolded proteins, enhancing endoplasmic reticulum stress, and finally resulting in renal cell damage. Cordyceps cicadae (CC) has been used as a traditional medicine for improving renal function via its anti-inflammatory effects. N⁶-(2-hydroxyethyl)adenosine (HEA), a physiologically active compound, has been reported from CC mycelia (CCM) with anti-inflammatory effects. We hypothesize that HEA could protect human proximal tubular cells (HK–2) from NSAID-mediated effects on differential gene expression at the mRNA and protein levels. To verify this, we first isolated HEA from CCM using Sephadex^® LH–20 column chromatography. The MTT assay revealed HEA to be nontoxic up to 100 µM toward HK–2 cells. The HK–2 cells were pretreated with HEA (10–20 µM) and then insulted with the NSAIDs diclofenac (DCF, 200 µM) and meloxicam (MXC, 400 µM) for 24 h. HEA (20 µM) effectively prevented ER stress by attenuating ROS production (p < 0.001) and gene expression of ATF–6, PERK, IRE1α, CDCFHOP, IL1β, and NFκB within 24 h. Moreover, HEA reversed the increase of GRP78 and CHOP protein expression levels induced by DCF and MXC, and restored the ER homeostasis. These results demonstrated that HEA treatments effectively protect against DCF- and MXC-induced ER stress damage in human proximal tubular cells through regulation of the GRP78/ATF6/PERK/IRE1α/CHOP pathway.

Toll-like receptor 4: An attractive therapeutic target for acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a progressive renal complication which significantly affects the patient's life with huge economic burden. Untreated acute kidney injury eventually progresses to a chronic form and end-stage renal disease. Although significant breakthroughs have been made in recent years, there are still no effective pharmacological therapies for the treatment of acute kidney injury. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a well-characterized pattern recognition receptor, and increasing evidence has shown that TLR4 mediated inflammatory response plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of acute kidney injury. The expression of TLR4 has been seen in resident renal cells, including podocytes, mesangial cells, tubular epithelial cells and endothelial cells. Activation of TLR4 signaling regulates the transcription of numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, resulting in renal inflammation. Therefore, targeting TLR4 and its downstream effectors could serve as an effective therapeutic intervention to prevent renal inflammation and subsequent kidney damage. For the first time, this review summarizes the literature on acute kidney injury from the perspective of TLR4 from year 2010 to 2020. In the current review, the role of TLR4 signaling pathway in AKI with preclinical evidence is discussed. Furthermore, we have highlighted several compounds of natural and synthetic origin, which have the potential to avert the renal TLR4 signaling in preclinical AKI models and have shown protection against AKI. This scientific review provides new ideas for targeting TLR4 in the treatment of AKI and provides strategies for the drug development against AKI.

Enhanced targeted delivery of adenine to hepatocellular carcinoma using glycyrrhetinic acid-functionalized nanoparticles in vivo and in vitro

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a common malignancy in China and globally, is primarily treated through surgical resection and liver transplantation, with chemotherapy as a significant synergistic option. Adenine (Ade), a nucleobase, exhibits antitumor effects by blocking human hepatic carcinoma cells in S phase and inhibiting tumor cell proliferation. However, its use is limited owing to its low solubility, poor targeting ability, and nephrotoxicity. Therefore, liver-targeting drug delivery systems have attracted considerable attention for the treatment of HCC. In this study, we explored the liver-targeting efficacy and antitumor effect of adenine-loaded glycyrrhetinic acid-modified hyaluronic acid (Ade/GA-HA) nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo. The GA-HA nanoparticles possessed obvious targeting specificity toward liver cancer cells, which was mainly achieved by the specific binding of the GA ligand to the GA receptor that was highly expressed on the liver cell membrane. In vitro and in vivo results showed that Ade/GA-HA nanoparticles could inhibit liver cancer cell proliferation and migration, promote apoptosis, and significantly inhibit the growth of tumor tissues. Altogether, this study is the first to successfully demonstrate that the targeting activity and antitumor effect of Ade against HCC are enhanced by using GA-HA nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo.

Can Cordyceps cicadae be used as an alternative to Cordyceps militaris and Cordyceps sinensis? - A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cordyceps cicadae (Mig.) Massee is one of the oldest and well-known traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), with its uses recorded as far back as the 5th century A.D. For centuries, C. cicadae has been used as food, tonic and folk medicine to treat malaria, palpitations, cancer, fever, diabetes, eye diseases, dizziness, and chronic kidney diseases. Although C. cicadae has been used as TCM for over 1600 years, it is not the most popular amongst the Cordyceps family. Cordyceps Sinensis (C. sinensis) and Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) are the most studied and widely used, with a number of commercially available products derived from these two Cordyceps species.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review seeks to look at the research that has been conducted on C. cicadae over the past 30 years, reporting on the biological activities, development and utilization. This information was compared to that focused on C. sinensis and C. militaris.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature search was conducted on different scientific search engines including, but not limited to "Web of Science", "ScienceDirect" and "Google Scholar" to identify published data on C. cicadae, I. cicadae, P. cicadae, C. sinensis and C. militaris.

RESULTS

Research conducted on C. cicadae over the past two decades have shown that it poses similar biological properties and chemical composition as C. sinensis and C. militaris. C. cicadae has been reported to grow in many geographic locations, as compared to C. sinensis, and can be artificially cultivated via different methods.

CONCLUSION

There exists sufficient evidence that C. cicadae has medicinal benefits and contain bioactive compounds similar to those found on C. sinensis and C. militaris. However, more research and standardization methods are still needed to directly compare C. cicadae with C. sinensis and C. militaris, in order to ascertain the suitability of C. cicadae as an alternative source of Cordyceps products.

Cordyceps cicadae Mycelia Ameliorate Cisplatin-Induced Acute Kidney Injury by Suppressing the TLR4/NF-κB/MAPK and Activating the HO-1/Nrf2 and Sirt-1/AMPK Pathways in Mice

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common clinical problem, characterized by a sudden loss of renal function, a high risk of death, and the eventual development of renal fibrosis and renal failure. Cordyceps cicadae is a traditional Chinese medicine with the potential function of kidney protection. We analyze two sputum extracts, a water extract (WCC), and an ethanol extract (ECC), to assess the potential of treating AKI in an animal model of kidney injury induced by cisplatin. A nephrotoxic mouse model was first established by intraperitoneal injection of cisplatin. Subsequently, WCC and ECC were orally administered in these mice. The results show that WCC and ECC significantly alleviated cisplatin-induced AKI renal histological changes, serum creatinine (CRE) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) production, and the levels of NO, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. The levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) were suppressed by administration of WCC and ECC. However, WCC treatment prevented these changes significantly better than ECC treatment. In addition, Western blot data showed that WCC attenuated the cisplatin-induced protein expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible NO synthase (iNOS), as well as inhibiting nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation in the kidney tissues. Furthermore, WCC greatly inhibited the expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and cisplatin-induced NF-κB activation, as well as dramatically increasing the production of antioxidative enzymes (i.e., superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1)), silent information regulator T1 (Sirt1), and p-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in the kidney tissues. In addition, we found that WCC increased the expression levels of the autophagy-related proteins LC3B and Beclin-1; proapoptotic proteins, including cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) 1; and organic anion transporters 1 (OAT1) and 3 (OAT3) in the kidney tissues. Finally, WCC, ECC, and two bioactive compounds-adenosine and N6-(2-hydroxyethyl) adenosine (HEA)-inhibited the production of nitrite oxide (NO) and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) triggered by lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages in vitro. Collectively, WCC could provide a potential therapeutic candidate for the prevention of cisplatin-induced kidney injury through the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammation.

Cordyceps cicadae Prevents Renal Tubular Epithelial Cell Apoptosis by Regulating the SIRT1/p53 Pathway in Hypertensive Renal Injury

Hypertensive renal injury is a primary etiology of end-stage renal disease, and satisfactory therapeutic strategies are urgently required. Cordyceps cicadae, a traditional Chinese herb, has potential renoprotective benefits and is widely used in the treatment of many kidney diseases. To investigate the mechanisms underlying the renoprotective effect of C. cicadae on hypertensive renal injury, we studied the effect of C. cicadae on tubular epithelial cells (TECs) in a spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) model and angiotensin II- (AngII-) cultured primary TECs. Our study showed that C. cicadae treatment could decrease 24-hour urine albumin, albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR), β2-MG level, and kidney injury molecule-1 (kim-1) level in SHR urine, alleviate interstitial fibrosis, and reduce α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression in SHR kidney. In primary TECs, medicated serum containing C. cicadae (CSM) might significantly reduce the AngII-induced production of kim-1 and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL). Furthermore, C. cicadae treatment could decrease TEC apoptosis in SHRs as assessed by the terminal transferase-mediated biotin dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay. CSM could inhibit caspase-3 activity and enhance cellular viability as measured by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium in AngII-cultured TECs, suggesting that CSM might reduce the apoptosis level in TECs induced by AngII. We found that the SIRT1 expression level was markedly lowered, while the protein level of acetylated-p53 was elevated in the TECs of patients with hypertensive renal injury and SHRs. C. cicadae presented the effect of regulating the SIRT1/p53 pathway. Further SIRT1 inhibition with EX527 reversed the effect of C. cicadae on AngII-induced apoptosis. Taken together, our results indicate that C. cicadae offers a protective effect on TECs under hypertensive conditions, which may be related to its antiapoptotic effect through regulation of the SIRT1/p53 pathway.

Prospects for Discovering the Secondary Metabolites of Cordyceps Sensu Lato by the Integrated Strategy

BACKGROUND

Some species of Cordyceps sensu lato are famous Chinese herbs with significant biological activities, often used as edible food and traditional medicine in China. Cordyceps represents the largest entomopathogenic group of fungi, including 40 genera and 1339 species in three families and incertae sedis of Hypocreales.

OBJECTIVE

Most of the Cordyceps-derivatives have been approved clinically for the treatment of various diseases such as diabetes, cancers, inflammation, cardiovascular, renal and neurological disorders and are used worldwide as supplements and herbal drugs, but there is still need for highly efficient Cordyceps-derived drugs for fatal diseases with approval of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

METHODS

Computer-aided drug design concepts could improve the discovery of putative Cordyceps- derived medicine within less time and low budget. The integration of computer-aided drug design methods with experimental validation has contributed to the successful discovery of novel drugs.

RESULTS

This review focused on modern taxonomy, active metabolites, and modern drug design techniques that could accelerate conventional drug design and discovery of Cordyceps s. l. Successful application of computer-aided drug design methods in Cordyceps research has been discussed.

CONCLUSION

It has been concluded that computer-aided drug design techniques could influence the multiple target-focused drug design, because each metabolite of Cordyceps has shown significant activities for the various diseases with very few or no side effects.