Polylactide-co-glycolide nanoparticles for controlled delivery of anticancer agents

Local delivery of ibrutinib by folate receptor-mediated targeting PLGA-PEG nanoparticles to glioblastoma multiform: in vitro and in vivo studies

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a widespread and life-threatening kind of brain cancer, which has a high mortality rate. Ibrutinib, a Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor, irreversibly adheres to a conserved cysteine residue of two enzymes BTK and BMX, inhibiting their kinase activities, which leads to suppression of the growth of glioma cells. This study synthesised PLGA-PEG-folate (PPF) polymer and subsequently encapsulated ibrutinib within PPF nanoparticles (IBT-PPF-NPs). H NMR spectra confirmed the synthesis of PPF polymer. The efficiency of IBT-PPF-NPs was 97 ± 2.26% with 8.8 ± 0.2% drug loading. The particle size was 208 ± 4.8 nm. The IC50 value of free ibrutinib, IB-PPF-NPs and ibrutinib encapsulated in PLGA NPs (IB-P-NPs) was 10.2, 7.6 and 10.13 µM in C6 cell lines, whereas in U-87 MG cells was 24.4, 16 and 25.2 µM, respectively. The cellular uptake of FITC-PPF-NPs increased from 47.6% to 90.3% in C6 cells and from 55% to 97.3% in U-87 MG cells compared to FITC-P-NPs. The in vivo results indicate a significant reduction in tumour size in treatment groups in comparison to control groups, while the group that received the intratumoural injection of IB-PPF-NPs exhibited a greater reduction. The folate-targeting agent enhances the nanoparticles' effectiveness by promoting their uptake through the endocytosis pathway.

In vivo and in vitro degradation and biological toxicity studies of polyesters with varying degradation rates

The fragmentation of biodegradable plastics into "degradable particles" is an essential step during their degradation process. Investigating their in vivo degradation behaviors and toxicity differing from microplastics holds significant implications. In this study, we selected biodegradable polyesters with distinct degradation rates-polyglycolic acid (PGA) and its copolymer poly(butylene succinate-co-glycolate) (PBSG)-alongside non-biodegradable polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as a control. Using combined in vitro simulations and animal experiments, we assessed their degradation in simulated body fluid (SBF), simulated gastric fluid (SGF), simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) and toxicity effects on rat body weight and multiple organs (heart, liver, spleen, stomach, lung, kidney, colon, brain). Results showed PET exhibited negligible degradation and the highest biotoxicity. After 18 weeks, PGA demonstrated degradation rates of 53.28 % (SBF), 96.35 % (SGF), and 76.14 % (SIF), while PBSG degraded at 7.98 %, 10.28 %, and 10.42 %, respectively. Biodegradable plastics caused no significant toxicity at low doses. However, high doses induced weight loss, tissue necrosis and inflammation in rats. Notably, PGA-with the fastest degradation-showed the weakest physiological toxicity. These findings highlight the important relationship between the degradation rate of biodegradable plastics and their biotoxicity, and can guide the development of new materials to balance environmental benefits and minimized health risks.

3D-printed polycaprolactone scaffolds functionalized with poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid microparticles enhance bone regeneration through tunable drug release

Numerous tissue engineering strategies aim to enable the in situ and controlled release of both cells and biologically relevant factors, mimicking physiological regenerative processes. A notable example is the release of rhBMP-2 for treating bone nonunion. By adopting a quasi-physiological approach, we can mitigate the side effects that have hindered its clinical application. Here, we present a customizable 3D-printed polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold functionalized with poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) microparticles through covalent binding, designed to mimic the periosteum structure. This scaffold was then functionalized with PLGA microparticles through covalent binding, enabling in situ delivery of rhBMP-2. This construct exhibits significant osteogenic and osteoinductive potential in vitro, promoting the differentiation of periosteum-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells into osteoblasts. Moreover, in vivo testing using a nonunion model (critical size defect) demonstrated therapeutic efficacy with a reduced net morphogen dose. Therefore, this customizable 3D scaffold represents a valuable approach for enhancing bone regeneration and holds significant potential for promoting healing in cases of nonunion fractures. This approach combines a customizable 3D scaffold with controlled rhBMP-2 release, offering a potentially more effective and safer solution for bone regeneration compared to current methods. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: As the incidence of bone fractures continues to rise, nonunion remains a significant challenge in orthopedics, becoming a major clinical and economic burden. We present a tissue engineering strategy employing a customizable 3D-printed polycaprolactone scaffold functionalized with covalently bound poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microparticles for the localized release of rhBMP-2. By mimicking key features of the periosteum, this scaffold promotes bone regeneration while minimizing the risk of ectopic bone formation. In vivo tests conducted in a critical-size defect model demonstrated effective bone bridging, highlighting the therapeutic potential of the scaffold. The simple manufacturing process, potential for scale-up production, long-term storage capability, and options for customization, including combinations of different molecules or adjuvants, demonstrate that this approach possesses significant translational potential.

Engineered Cell Membrane Coating Technologies for Biomedical Applications: From Nanoscale to Macroscale

Cell membrane coating has emerged as a promising strategy for the surface modification of biomaterials with biological membranes, serving as a cloak that can carry more functions. The cloaked biomaterials inherit diverse intrinsic biofunctions derived from different cell sources, including enhanced biocompatibility, immunity evasion, specific targeting capacity, and immune regulation of the regenerative microenvironment. The intrinsic characteristics of biomimicry and biointerfacing have demonstrated the versatility of cell membrane coating technology on a variety of biomaterials, thus, furthering the research into a wide range of biomedical applications and clinical translation. Here, the preparation of cell membrane coatings is emphasized, and different sizes of coated biomaterials from nanoscale to macroscale as well as the engineering strategies to introduce additional biofunctions are summarized. Subsequently, the utilization of biomimetic membrane-cloaked biomaterials in biomedical applications is discussed, including drug delivery, imaging and phototherapy, cancer immunotherapy, anti-infection and detoxification, and implant modification. In conclusion, the latest advancements in clinical and preclinical studies, along with the multiple benefits of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (NPs) in biomimetic systems, are elucidated.

Functionalized Nanomaterials in Cancer Treatment: A Review

Cancer is one of the main causes of death worldwide. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery are currently the treatments of choice for cancer. However, conventional therapies have their limitations, such as non-specificity, tumor recurrence and toxicity to the target cells. Recently, nanomaterials have been considered as therapeutic agents against cancer. This is mainly due to their unique optical properties, biocompatibility, large surface area and nanoscale size. These properties are crucial as they can affect biocompatibility and uptake by the cell, reducing efficacy. However, because nanoparticles can be functionalized with biomolecules, they become more biocompatible, which improves uptake, and they can be specifically targeted against cancer cells, which improves their anticancer activity. In this review, we summarize some of the recent studies in which nanomaterials have been functionalized with the aim of increasing therapeutic efficacy in cancer treatment.

High throughput microparticle production using microfabricated nozzle array

Polymeric microparticles have triggered critical advancements in drug delivery systems, offering significant improvements in therapeutic efficacy by controlling the delivery while minimizing adverse side effects of the pharmaceuticals. However, conventional microparticle fabrication techniques face several limitations, such as particle size variability, early drug degradation, and production inefficiencies. In this study, we developed a microparticle production system (MPS) in which a precision spraying technology was integrated with a microfabricated nozzle array-based piezoelectric transducer. High-throughput microparticle production was achieved using Poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) dissolved in dichloromethane (DCM) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC). The resulting PLGA microparticles exhibited remarkable consistency in size uniformity with an average diameter of 8.9 ± 1.7 μm. Detailed characterization through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and focused ion beam (FIB) analyses revealed distinct surface and internal structures and demonstrated the effect of solvent volatility on microparticle morphology. Chloramphenicol (CHL) was used as a model drug, and an encapsulation efficiency of 38.7% and a loading efficiency of 16.2% were achieved. The PLGA microparticles showed sustained CHL release and demonstrated effective antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli (E. coli), highlighting their potential for controlled therapeutic applications. This developed MPS system offers a scalable and efficient approach for producing PLGA-based microparticles with controlled drug release profiles, making it valuable in the industrial-scale production of advanced drug delivery technologies.

Enhanced anticancer efficacy of TRAIL-conjugated and odanacatib-loaded PLGA nanoparticles in TRAIL resistant cancer

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) demonstrates unique characteristics in anticancer therapies as it selectively induces apoptosis in cancer cells. However, most cancer cells are TRAIL-resistant. Odanacatib (ODN), a cathepsin K inhibitor, is considered a novel sensitizer for cancer treatment. Combination therapy between TRAIL and sensitizers is considered a potent platform that improves TRAIL-based anticancer therapies beyond TRAIL monotherapy. Herein, we developed ODN loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic) nanoparticles conjugated to GST-TRAIL (TRAIL-ODN-PLGA-NPs) to target and treat TRAIL-resistant cancer. TRAIL-ODN-PLGA-NPs demonstrated a significant increase in cellular uptake via death receptors (DR5 and DR4) on surface of cancer cells. TRAIL-ODN-PLGA-NPs exposure destroyed more TRAIL-resistant cells compared to a single treatment with free drugs. The released ODN decreased the Raptor protein, thereby increasing damage to mitochondria by elevating reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Additionally, Bim protein stabilization improved TRAIL-resistant cell sensitization to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. The in vivo biodistribution study revealed that TRAIL-ODN-PLGA-NPs demonstrated high location and retention in tumor sites via the intravenous route. Furthermore, TRAIL-ODN-PLGA-NPs significantly inhibited xenograft tumor models of TRAIL-resistant Caki-1 and TRAIL-sensitive MDA-MB-231 cells.The inhibition was associated with apoptosis activation, Raptor protein stabilizing Bim protein downregulation, Bax accumulation, and mitochondrial ROS generation elevation. Additionally, TRAIL-ODN-PLGA-NPs affected the tumor microenvironment by increasing tumor necrosis factor-α and reducing interleukin-6. In conclusion, we evealed that our formulation demonstrated synergistic effects against TRAIL compared with the combination of free drug in vitro and in vivo models. Therefore, TRAIL-ODN-PLGA-NPs may be a novel candidate for TRAIL-induced apoptosis in cancer treatment.

Erlotinib and curcumin-loaded nanoparticles embedded in thermosensitive chitosan hydrogels for enhanced treatment of head and neck cancer

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) remain a major oncological challenge with significant morbidity and mortality rates. Erlotinib (Er) and Curcumin (Cm) are potential therapeutic agents for HNSCC, yet they are hindered by poor solubility and bioavailability. This study explored the optimization of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles co-loaded with Er and Cm (Er/Cm-NP), prepared via a D-optimal response surface design-guided nanoprecipitation process. The optimized formulation, optEr/Cm-NP, was then incorporated into chitosan/β-glycerophosphate hydrogels (optEr/Cm-NP-HG) to create an injectable intratumoral (IT) nanocomposite hydrogel (HG) delivery system. Physicochemical properties of the formulations, including gelation time, injectability, mechanical strength and drug release profiles were assessed alongside hemolytic activity. Compared to optEr/Cm-NP alone, the NP-loaded HG formulation exhibited a more pronounced modulation effect, enabling sustained and controlled drug release. The cytotoxicity of the developed formulations was evaluated using the FaDu HNSCC cancer cell line. Both optEr/Cm-NP and optEr/Cm-NP-HG21 displayed enhanced cytotoxicity compared to free drugs. Confocal laser microscopy and flow cytometry confirmed superior cellular uptake of Er and Cm when delivered via NPs or NP-loaded HG. Furthermore, a significant increase in apoptotic cell death upon treatment with optEr/Cm-NP was observed, highlighting its potential for HNSCC therapy. In vivo studies conducted on a xenograft HNSCC mouse model revealed the significant capacity of the intratumorally-injected optEr/Cm-NP-HG21 formulation to retard the tumor growth. Conclusively, the results presented herein report the successful development of a nanocomposite HG system incorporating NPs co-loaded with Er and Cm that could be efficiently utilized in the treatment of HNSCC.

Silibinin-Loaded Amphiphilic PLGA-Poloxamer Nanoparticles: Physicochemical Characterization, Release Kinetics, and Bioactivity Evaluation in Lung Cancer Cells

Despite its potential against several carcinomas, the pharmacological efficacy of silibinin (SLB) is hampered by poor solubility, absorption, and oral bioavailability. To face these issues, we developed polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) coated with hydrophilic polyethene oxide (PEO) for controlled and targeted SLB delivery. NPs were produced at two different SLB loadings and presented a spherical shape with smooth surfaces and stable size in water and cell culture medium. The encapsulation efficiencies were found to be >84%, and thermal analysis revealed that the SLB was present in an amorphous state within the NPs. In vitro SLB release experiments revealed that at the lowest SLB loading, desorption of the active molecule from the surface or nanoporosities of the NPs mainly dictates release. In contrast, at the highest SLB loading, diffusion primarily regulates release, with negligible contributions from other mechanisms. Cell experiments showed that, compared with the free drug, SLB loaded in the produced NPs significantly increased the bioactivity against H1299, H1975, and H358 cells.

Enhanced browning of adipose tissue by mirabegron-microspheres

Thermogenic brown adipose tissue (BAT) has emerged as an attractive target for combating obesity. However, pharmacological activation of energy expenditure by BAT and/or induction of browning of white adipose tissue (WAT) has been hampered by cardiovascular side effects. To address these concerns, we developed polylactide-co-glycolide acid (PLGA) microspheres loaded with mirabegron (MIR), a selective beta-3 adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) agonist, to achieve sustained local induction and activation of thermogenic adipocytes. MIR-loaded PLGA microspheres (MIR-MS) effectively activated brown adipocytes and enhanced the thermogenic program in white adipocytes. Moreover, treating isolated inguinal WAT (iWAT) with MIR-MS resulted in increased expression of browning markers and elevated lipolysis mainly via ADRB3. In mice, injection of MIR-MS over four weeks induced browning of iWAT at the injection site. Importantly, local MIR-MS injection successfully mitigated unwanted cardiovascular risks, including high systolic blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate, as compared to MIR-treated mice. Finally, injecting MIR-MS into human subcutaneous WAT led to a significant induction of lipolysis and an increase in the expression of thermogenic marker uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). Taken together, our findings indicate that MIR-MS function as a local drug release system that induces browning of human and murine subcutaneous WAT while mitigating undesirable cardiovascular effects.

Physicochemical characterization and potential cancer therapy applications of hydrogel beads loaded with doxorubicin and GaOOH nanoparticles

A new type of hybrid polymer particles capable of carrying the cytostatic drug doxorubicin and labeled with a gallium compound was prepared. These microparticles consist of a core and a hydrogel shell, which serves as the structural matrix. The shell can be employed to immobilize gallium oxide hydroxide (GaOOH) nanoparticles and the drug, resulting in hybrid beads with sizes of approximately 3.81 ± 0.09 μm. The microparticles exhibit the ability to incorporate a remarkably large amount of doxorubicin, approximately 0.96 mg per 1 mg of the polymeric carrier. Additionally, GaOOH nanoparticles can be deposited within the hydrogel layer at an amount of 0.64 mg per 1 mg of the carrier. These nanoparticles, resembling rice grains with an average size of 593 nm by 155 nm, are located on the surface of the polymer carrier. In vitro studies on breast and colon cancer cell lines revealed a pronounced cytotoxic effect of the hybrid polymer particles loaded with doxorubicin, indicating their potential for cancer therapies. Furthermore, investigations on doping the hybrid particles with the Ga-68 radioisotope demonstrated their potential application in positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. The proposed structures present a promising theranostic platform, where particles could be employed in anticancer therapies while monitoring their accumulation in the body using PET.

Advances, limitations and perspectives in the use of celecoxib-loaded nanocarriers in therapeutics of cancer

Cancer is highlighted as a major global health challenge in the XXI century. The cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme rises as a widespread tumor progression marker. Celecoxib (CXB) is a selective COX-2 inhibitor used in adjuvant cancer therapy, but high concentrations are required in humans. In this sense, the development of nanocarriers has been proposed once they can improve the biopharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacological properties of drugs. In this context, this article reviews the progress in the development of CXB-loaded nanocarriers over the past decade and their prospects. Recent advances in the field of CXB-loaded nanocarriers demonstrate the use of complex formulations and the increasing importance of in vivo studies. The types of CXB-loaded nanocarriers that have been developed are heterogeneous and based on polymers and lipids together or separately. It was found that the work on CXB-loaded nanocarriers is carried out using established techniques and raw materials, such as poly (lactic-co-glicolic acid), cholesterol, phospholipids and poly(ethyleneglycol). The main improvements that have been achieved are the use of cell surface ligands, the simultaneous delivery of different synergistic agents, and the presence of materials that can provide imaging properties and other advanced features. The combination of CXB with other anti-inflammatory drugs and/or apoptosis inducers appears to hold effective pharmacological promise. The greatest advance to date from a clinical perspective is the ability of CXB to enhance the cytotoxic effects of established chemotherapeutic agents.

Polyester nanoparticles delivering chemotherapeutics: Learning from the past and looking to the future to enhance their clinical impact in tumor therapy

Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), specifically those comprised of biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters, have been heralded as a game-changing drug delivery platform. In fact, poly(α-hydroxy acids) such as polylactide (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) have been heavily researched in the past three decades as the material basis of polymeric NPs for drug delivery applications. As materials, these polymers have found success in resorbable sutures, biodegradable implants, and even monolithic, biodegradable platforms for sustained release of therapeutics (e.g., proteins and small molecules) and diagnostics. Few fields have gained more attention in drug delivery through polymeric NPs than cancer therapy. However, the clinical translational of polymeric nanomedicines for treating solid tumors has not been congruent with the fervor or funding in this particular field of research. Here, we attempt to provide a comprehensive snapshot of polyester NPs in the context of chemotherapeutic delivery. This includes a preliminary exploration of the polymeric nanomedicine in the cancer research space. We examine the various processes for producing polyester NPs, including methods for surface-functionalization, and related challenges. After a detailed overview of the multiple factors involved with the delivery of NPs to solid tumors, the crosstalk between particle design and interactions with biological systems is discussed. Finally, we report state-of-the-art approaches toward effective delivery of NPs to tumors, aiming at identifying new research areas and re-evaluating the reasons why some research avenues have underdelivered. We hope our effort will contribute to a better understanding of the gap to fill and delineate the future research work needed to bring polyester-based NPs closer to clinical application. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Advances in medical polyesters for vascular tissue engineering

Blood vessels are highly dynamic and complex structures with a variety of physiological functions, including the transport of oxygen, nutrients, and metabolic wastes. Their normal functioning involves the close and coordinated cooperation of a variety of cells. However, adverse internal and external environmental factors can lead to vascular damage and the induction of various vascular diseases, including atherosclerosis and thrombosis. This can have serious consequences for patients, and there is an urgent need for innovative techniques to repair damaged blood vessels. Polyesters have been extensively researched and used in the treatment of vascular disease and repair of blood vessels due to their excellent mechanical properties, adjustable biodegradation time, and excellent biocompatibility. Given the high complexity of vascular tissues, it is still challenging to optimize the utilization of polyesters for repairing damaged blood vessels. Nevertheless, they have considerable potential for vascular tissue engineering in a range of applications. This summary reviews the physicochemical properties of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), polycaprolactone (PCL), poly-lactic acid (PLA), and poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), focusing on their unique applications in vascular tissue engineering. Polyesters can be prepared not only as 3D scaffolds to repair damage as an alternative to vascular grafts, but also in various forms such as microspheres, fibrous membranes, and nanoparticles to deliver drugs or bioactive ingredients to damaged vessels. Finally, it is anticipated that further developments in polyesters will occur in the near future, with the potential to facilitate the wider application of these materials in vascular tissue engineering.

Targeted Nanocarrier-Based Drug Delivery Strategies for Improving the Therapeutic Efficacy of PARP Inhibitors against Ovarian Cancer

The current focus of ovarian cancer (OC) research is the improvement of treatment options through maximising drug effectiveness. OC remains the fifth leading cause of cancer-induced mortality in women worldwide. In recent years, nanotechnology has revolutionised drug delivery systems. Nanoparticles may be utilised as carriers in gene therapy or to overcome the problem of drug resistance in tumours by limiting the number of free drugs in circulation and thereby minimising undesired adverse effects. Cell surface receptors, such as human epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2), folic acid (FA) receptors, CD44 (also referred to as homing cell adhesion molecule, HCAM), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are highly expressed in ovarian cancer cells. Generation of active targeting nanoparticles involves modification with ligands that recognise cell surface receptors and thereby promote internalisation by cancer cells. Several poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors (PARPi) are currently used for the treatment of high-grade serous ovarian carcinomas (HGSOC) or platinum-sensitive relapsed OC. However, PARP resistance and poor drug bioavailability are common challenges, highlighting the urgent need to develop novel, effective strategies for ovarian cancer treatment. This review evaluates the utility of nanoparticles in ovarian cancer therapy, with a specific focus on targeted approaches and the use of PARPi nanocarriers to optimise treatment outcomes.

A Comprehensive Review of Nanoparticles: From Classification to Application and Toxicity

Nanoparticles are structures that possess unique properties with high surface area-to-volume ratio. Their small size, up to 100 nm, and potential for surface modifications have enabled their use in a wide range of applications. Various factors influence the properties and applications of NPs, including the synthesis method and physical attributes such as size and shape. Additionally, the materials used in the synthesis of NPs are primary determinants of their application. Based on the chosen material, NPs are generally classified into three categories: organic, inorganic, and carbon-based. These categories include a variety of materials, such as proteins, polymers, metal ions, lipids and derivatives, magnetic minerals, and so on. Each material possesses unique attributes that influence the activity and application of the NPs. Consequently, certain NPs are typically used in particular areas because they possess higher efficiency along with tenable toxicity. Therefore, the classification and the base material in the NP synthesis hold significant importance in both NP research and application. In this paper, we discuss these classifications, exemplify most of the major materials, and categorize them according to their preferred area of application. This review provides an overall review of the materials, including their application, and toxicity.

Microfluidic nanoprecipitation of PEGylated PLGA nanoparticles with rapamycin and performance evaluation

Rapamycin (RAP) is currently being developed as potential antibreast cancer drug. However, its poor solubility completely limits its use. The aim of this study was to develop polyethylene glycol-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PEG-PLGA)-based nanoparticles (NPs) to load RAP via microfluidics with an appropriate polyethylene glycol (PEG) content to enhance the bioavailability of RAP. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) chips with a Y-shaped channel were designed to obtain RAP-loaded PEG-PLGA NPs (RAP-PEG-PLGA). The entrapment efficiency (EE) and drug loading (DL) as well as release profile of RAP-PEG-PLGA were evaluated, and their resistance to plasma albumin adsorption of NPs with different PEG contents was evaluated and compared. RAW264.7 and 4T1 cells were used to assess the antiphagocytic and anticancer cells effect of NPs, respectively. RAP-PEG-PLGA of around 124 nm in size were successfully prepared with the EE of 82.0% and DL of 12.3%, and sustained release for around 40 d. A PEG relative content of 10% within the PEG-PLGA molecule was shown superior in resisting protein adsorption. RAP-PEG-PLGA inhibited the growth of breast cancer cells when the concentration was over 10 μg/mL, and the inhibition efficiency was significantly higher than free RAP. Hence, the current RAP-PEG-PLGA could be a potential therapeutic system for breast cancer treatment.

Preparation and Evaluation of Chitosan Coated PLGA Nanoparticles Encapsulating Ivosidenib with Enhanced Cytotoxicity Against Human Liver Cancer Cells

Purpose

Ivosidenib (IVO), an isocitrate dehydrogenase-1 (IDH1) used for treatment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and cholangiocarcinoma. However, poor solubility, low bioavailability, high dose and side effects limit clinical application of IVO.

Methods

Ivosidenib-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (IVO-PLGA-NPs) and Ivosidenib-loaded chitosan coated PLGA nanoparticles (IVO-CS-PLGA-NPs) were prepared using emulsification and solvent evaporation method for the treatment of liver cancer.

Results

The developed IVO-PLGA-NPs were evaluated for their particle size (171.7±4.9 nm), PDI (0.333), ZP (-23.0±5.8 mV), EE (96.3±4.3%), and DL (9.66±1.1%); similarly, the IVO-CS-PLGA-NPs were evaluated for their particle size (177.3±5.2 nm), PDI (0.311), ZP +25.9±5.7 mV, EE (90.8±5.7%), and DL (9.42±0.7%). The chitosan coating of IVO-PLGA-NPs was evidenced by an increase in mean particle size and positive ZP value. Because of the chitosan coating, the IVO-CS-PLGA-NPs showed a more stable and prolonged release of IVO than IVO-PLGA-NPs. In comparison to pure-IVO, the IVO-PLGA-NPs and IVO-CS-PLGA-NPs were found to be more effective against HepG2 cells, with IC50 values for the MTT assay being approximately half of those of pure-IVO. In HepG2 cells, the expressions of caspase-3, caspase-9, and p53 were significantly (p < 0.05) elevated.

Conclusion

Overall, these findings suggest that chitosan coating of IVO-PLGA-NPs improves the delivery and efficacy of ivosidenib in liver cancer treatment.

Blood-brain barrier disruption in dementia: Nano-solutions as new treatment options

Candidate drugs targeting the central nervous system (CNS) demonstrate extremely low clinical success rates, with more than 98% of potential treatments being discontinued due to poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Neurological conditions were shown to be the second leading cause of death globally in 2016, with the number of people currently affected by neurological disorders increasing rapidly. This increasing trend, along with an inability to develop BBB permeating drugs, is presenting a major hurdle in the treatment of CNS-related disorders, like dementia. To overcome this, it is necessary to understand the structure and function of the BBB, including the transport of molecules across its interface in both healthy and pathological conditions. The use of CNS drug carriers is rapidly gaining popularity in CNS research due to their ability to target BBB transport systems. Further research and development of drug delivery vehicles could provide essential information that can be used to develop novel treatments for neurological conditions. This review discusses the BBB and its transport systems and evaluates the potential of using nanoparticle-based delivery systems as drug carriers for CNS disease with a focus on dementia.

Harnessing the Potential of PLGA Nanoparticles for Enhanced Bone Regeneration

Recently, nanotechnologies have become increasingly prominent in the field of bone tissue engineering (BTE), offering substantial potential to advance the field forward. These advancements manifest in two primary ways: the localized application of nanoengineered materials to enhance bone regeneration and their use as nanovehicles for delivering bioactive compounds. Despite significant progress in the development of bone substitutes over the past few decades, it is worth noting that the quest to identify the optimal biomaterial for bone regeneration remains a subject of intense debate. Ever since its initial discovery, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) has found widespread use in BTE due to its favorable biocompatibility and customizable biodegradability. This review provides an overview of contemporary advancements in the development of bone regeneration materials using PLGA polymers. The review covers some of the properties of PLGA, with a special focus on modifications of these properties towards bone regeneration. Furthermore, we delve into the techniques for synthesizing PLGA nanoparticles (NPs), the diverse forms in which these NPs can be fabricated, and the bioactive molecules that exhibit therapeutic potential for promoting bone regeneration. Additionally, we addressed some of the current concerns regarding the safety of PLGA NPs and PLGA-based products available on the market. Finally, we briefly discussed some of the current challenges and proposed some strategies to functionally enhance the fabrication of PLGA NPs towards BTE. We envisage that the utilization of PLGA NP holds significant potential as a potent tool in advancing therapies for intractable bone diseases.

Polyamidoamine Dendrimers Functionalized with ZnO-Chitosan Nanoparticles as an Efficient Surface for L-asparaginase Immobilization

In this study, the third-generation polyamidoamine dendrimer was functionalized with a 5-amino-1H-tetrazole heterocycle to load the synthesis enzyme and its surface groups. Then, chitosan was attached to the dendrimer by a suitable linker, and finally, zinc oxide nanoparticles were inserted into dendrimer cavities to increase loading. FTIR, FESEM, TEM, and DLS analysis showed that this new dendrimer has specific branches, and ZnO nanoparticles were spread between the branches and connected with the branches and chitosan biopolymer. Also proved the presence of stabilized L-asparaginase enzyme and ZnO nanoparticles in the designed system. Furthermore, the extent of L-asparaginase enzyme loading and release was investigated in the laboratory with a dialysis bag. Examining the toxicity of the new third-generation polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimeric nanocarrier based on chitosan-zinc oxide biopolymer (PAMAM-G3@ZnO-Cs nanocarrier) on the Jurkat cell line (human acute lymphoblastic leukemia) at pH 7.4 showed that this nanocarrier effectively encapsulates the drug L-asparaginase and slowly releases it and also preventing the growth of cancer cells. The activity of the loaded enzyme in the nanocarrier and the free enzyme was calculated. During the investigations, it was found that the enzyme attached to the nanocarrier is more stable than the free enzyme at optimal pH and temperature and at high temperatures, acidic and basic pHs. Vmax and Km values were lower for loaded enzymes. The synthesized PAMAM-G3@ZnO-Cs nanocarrier can be a promising candidate in the pharmaceutical industry and medical science for cancer treatment due to its biocompatibility, non-toxicity, stability, and slow release of L-asparaginase.

Selected strategies to fight pathogenic bacteria

Natural products and analogues are a source of antibacterial drug discovery. Considering drug resistance levels emerging for antibiotics, identification of bacterial metalloenzymes and the synthesis of selective inhibitors are interesting for antibacterial agent development. Peptide nucleic acids are attractive antisense and antigene agents representing a novel strategy to target pathogens due to their unique mechanism of action. Antisense inhibition and development of antisense peptide nucleic acids is a new approach to antibacterial agents. Due to the increased resistance of biofilms to antibiotics, alternative therapeutic options are necessary. To develop antimicrobial strategies, optimised in vitro and in vivo models are needed. In vivo models to study biofilm-related respiratory infections, device-related infections: ventilator-associated pneumonia, tissue-related infections: chronic infection models based on alginate or agar beads, methods to battle biofilm-related infections are discussed. Drug delivery in case of antibacterials often is a serious issue therefore this review includes overview of drug delivery nanosystems.

Modular Drug-Loaded Nanocapsules with Metal Dome Layers as a Platform for Obtaining Synergistic Therapeutic Biological Activities

Multifunctional drug-loaded polymer-metal nanocapsules have attracted increasing attention in drug delivery due to their multifunctional potential endowed by drug activity and response to physicochemical stimuli. Current chemical synthesis methods of polymer/metal capsules require specific optimization of the different components to produce particles with precise properties, being particularly complex for Janus structures combining polymers and ferromagnetic and highly reactive metals. With the aim to generate tunable synergistic nanotherapeutic actuation with enhanced drug effects, here we demonstrate a versatile hybrid chemical/physical fabrication strategy to incorporate different functional metals with tailored magnetic, optical, or chemical properties on solid drug-loaded polymer nanoparticles. As archetypical examples, we present poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (diameters 100-150 nm) loaded with paclitaxel, indocyanine green, or erythromycin that are half-capped by either Fe, Au, or Cu layers, respectively, with application in three biomedical models. The Fe coating on paclitaxel-loaded nanocapsules permitted efficient magnetic enhancement of the cancer spheroid assembly, with 40% reduction of the cross-section area after 24 h, as well as a higher paclitaxel effect. In addition, the Fe-PLGA nanocapsules enabled external contactless manipulation of multicellular cancer spheroids with a speed of 150 μm/s. The Au-coated and indocyanine green-loaded nanocapsules demonstrated theranostic potential and enhanced anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo due to noninvasive fluorescence imaging with long penetration near-infrared (NIR) light and simultaneous photothermal-photodynamic actuation, showing a 3.5-fold reduction in the tumor volume growth with only 5 min of NIR illumination. Finally, the Cu-coated erythromycin-loaded nanocapsules exhibited enhanced antibacterial activity with a 2.5-fold reduction in the MIC50 concentration with respect to the free or encapsulated drug. Altogether, this technology can extend a nearly unlimited combination of metals, polymers, and drugs, thus enabling the integration of magnetic, optical, and electrochemical properties in drug-loaded nanoparticles to externally control and improve a wide range of biomedical applications.

Targeting endothelial permeability in the EPR effect

The characteristics of the primary tumor blood vessels and the tumor microenvironment drive the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, which confers an advantage towards enhanced delivery of anti-cancer nanomedicine and has shown beneficial effects in preclinical models. Increased vascular permeability is a landmark feature of the tumor vessels and an important driver of the EPR. The main focus of this review is the endothelial regulation of vascular permeability. We discuss current challenges of targeting vascular permeability towards clinical translation and summarize the structural components and mechanisms of endothelial permeability, the principal mediators and signaling players, the targeted approaches that have been used and their outcomes to date. We also critically discuss the effects of the tumor-infiltrating immune cells, their interplay with the tumor vessels and the impact of immune responses on nanomedicine delivery, the impact of anti-angiogenic and tumor-stroma targeting approaches, and desirable nanoparticle design approaches for greater translational benefit.

Anticancer activity of thymoquinone against breast cancer cells: Mechanisms of action and delivery approaches

The rising incidence of breast cancer has been a significant source of concern in the medical community. Regarding the adverse effects and consequences of current treatments, cancers' health, and socio-economical aspects have become more complicated, leaving research aimed at improved or new treatments on top priority. Medicinal herbs contain multitarget compounds that can control cancer development and advancement. Owing to Nigella Sativa's elements, it can treat many disorders. Thymoquinone (TQ) is a natural chemical derived from the black seeds of Nigella sativa Linn proved to have anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties. TQ interferes in a broad spectrum of tumorigenic procedures and inhibits carcinogenesis, malignant development, invasion, migration, and angiogenesis owing to its multitargeting ability. It effectively facilitates miR-34a up-regulation, regulates the p53-dependent pathway, and suppresses Rac1 expression. TQ promotes apoptosis and controls the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic genes. It has also been shown to diminish the phosphorylation of NF-B and IKK and decrease the metastasis and ERK1/2 and PI3K activity. We discuss TQ's cytotoxic effects for breast cancer treatment with a deep look at the relevant stimulatory or inhibitory signaling pathways. This review discusses the various forms of polymeric and non-polymeric nanocarriers (NC) and the encapsulation of TQ for increasing oral bioavailability and enhanced in vitro and in vivo efficacy of TQ-combined treatment with different chemotherapeutic agents against various breast cancer cell lines. This study can be useful to a broad scientific community, comprising pharmaceutical and biological scientists, as well as clinical investigators.

Biodegradable Polymer-Based Drug-Delivery Systems for Ocular Diseases

Ocular drug delivery is a challenging field due to the unique anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye. Biodegradable polymers have emerged as promising tools for efficient and controlled drug delivery in ocular diseases. This review provides an overview of biodegradable polymer-based drug-delivery systems for ocular diseases with emphasis on the potential for biodegradable polymers to overcome the limitations of conventional methods, allowing for sustained drug release, improved bioavailability, and targeted therapy. Natural and synthetic polymers are both discussed, highlighting their biodegradability and biocompatibility. Various formulation strategies, such as nanoparticles, hydrogels, and microemulsions, among others, are investigated, detailing preparation methods, drug encapsulation, and clinical applications. The focus is on anterior and posterior segment drug delivery, covering glaucoma, corneal disorders, ocular inflammation, retinal diseases, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. Safety considerations, such as biocompatibility evaluations, in vivo toxicity studies, and clinical safety, are addressed. Future perspectives encompass advancements, regulatory considerations, and clinical translation challenges. In conclusion, biodegradable polymers offer potential for efficient and targeted ocular drug delivery, improving therapeutic outcomes while reducing side effects. Further research is needed to optimize formulation strategies and address regulatory requirements for successful clinical implementation.

Inhibition of Tumor-Derived C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 Expression Attenuates Tactile Allodynia in NCTC 2472 Fibrosarcoma-Inoculated Mice

Neuropathic pain associated with cancers is caused by tumor growth compressing and damaging nerves, which would also be enhanced by inflammatory factors through sensitizing nociceptor neurons. A troublesome hallmark symptom of neuropathic pain is hypersensitivity to innocuous stimuli, a condition known as "tactile allodynia", which is often refractory to NSAIDs and opioids. The involvement of chemokine CCL2 (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1) in cancer-evoked neuropathic pain is well established, but opinions remain divided as to whether CCL2 is involved in the production of tactile allodynia with tumor growth. In this study, we constructed Ccl2 knockout NCTC 2472 (Ccl2-KO NCTC) fibrosarcoma cells and conducted pain behavioral test using Ccl2-KO NCTC-implanted mice. Implantation of naïve NCTC cells around the sciatic nerves of mice produced tactile allodynia in the inoculated paw. Although the growth of Ccl2 KO NCTC-formed tumors was comparable to that of naïve NCTC-formed tumors, Ccl2-KO NCTC-bearing mice failed to show tactile pain hypersensitivity, suggesting the involvement of CCL2 in cancer-induced allodynia. Subcutaneous administration of controlled-release nanoparticles containing the CCL2 expression inhibitor NS-3-008 (1-benzyl-3-hexylguanidine) significantly attenuated tactile allodynia in naïve NCTC-bearing mice accompanied by a reduction of CCL2 content in tumor masses. Our present findings suggest that inhibition of CCL2 expression in cancer cells is a useful strategy to attenuate tactile allodynia induced by tumor growth. Development of a controlled-release system of CCL2 expression inhibitor may be a preventative option for the treatment of cancer-evoked neuropathic pain. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The blockade of chemokine/receptor signaling, particularly for C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and its high-affinity receptor C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2), has been implicated to attenuate cancer-induced inflammatory and nociceptive pain. This study demonstrated that continuous inhibition of CCL2 production from cancer cells also prevents the development of tactile allodynia associated with tumor growth. Development of a controlled-release system of CCL2 expression inhibitor may be a preventative option for management of cancer-evoked tactile allodynia.

Gold Half-Shell-Coated Paclitaxel-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles for the Targeted Chemo-Photothermal Treatment of Cancer

Conventional cancer therapies suffer from nonspecificity, drug resistance, and a poor bioavailability, which trigger severe side effects. To overcome these disadvantages, in this study, we designed and evaluated the in vitro potential of paclitaxel-loaded, PLGA-gold, half-shell nanoparticles (PTX-PLGA/Au-HS NPs) conjugated with cyclo(Arg-Gly-Asp-Phe-Lys) (cyRGDfk) as a targeted chemo-photothermal therapy system in HeLa and MDA-MB-231 cancer cells. A TEM analysis confirmed the successful gold half-shell structure formation. High-performance liquid chromatography showed an encapsulation efficiency of the paclitaxel inside nanoparticles of more than 90%. In the release study, an initial burst release of about 20% in the first 24 h was observed, followed by a sustained drug release for a period as long as 10 days, reaching values of about 92% and 49% for NPs with and without near infrared laser irradiation. In in vitro cell internalization studies, targeted nanoparticles showed a higher accumulation than nontargeted nanoparticles, possibly through a specific interaction of the cyRGDfk with their homologous receptors, the ανβ3 y ανβ5 integrins on the cell surface. Compared with chemotherapy or photothermal treatment alone, the combined treatment demonstrated a synergistic effect, reducing the cell viability to 23% for the HeLa cells and 31% for the MDA-MB-231 cells. Thus, our results indicate that these multifuncional nanoparticles can be considered to be a promising targeted chemo-photothermal therapy system against cancer.

Ferulic acid-loaded polymeric nanoparticles prepared from nano-emulsion templates facilitate internalisation across the blood-brain barrier in model membranes

A hydroxycinnamic acid derivative, namely ferulic acid (FA) has been successfully encapsulated in polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA). FA-loaded polymeric NPs were prepared from O/W nano-emulsion templates using the phase inversion composition (PIC) low-energy emulsification method. The obtained PLGA NPs exhibited high colloidal stability, good drug-loading capacity, and particle hydrodynamic diameters in the range of 74 to 117 nm, depending on the FA concentration used. In vitro drug release studies confirmed a diffusion-controlled mechanism through which the amount of released FA reached a plateau at 60% after 6 hours-incubation. Five kinetic models were used to fit the FA release data as a function of time. The Weibull distribution and Korsmeyer-Peppas equation models provided the best fit to our experimental data and suggested quasi-Fickian diffusion behaviour. Moderate dose-response antioxidant and radical scavenging activities of FA-loaded PLGA NPs were demonstrated using the DPPH˙ assay achieving inhibition activities close to 60 and 40%, respectively. Cell culture studies confirmed that FA-loaded NPs were not toxic according to the MTT colorimetric assay, were able to internalise efficiently SH-SY5Y neuronal cells and supressed the intracellular ROS-level induced by H₂O₂ leading to 52% and 24.7% of cellular viability at 0.082 and 0.041 mg mL^-1, respectively. The permeability of the NPs through the blood brain barrier was tested with an in vitro organ-on-a-chip model to evaluate the ability of the FA-loaded PLGA and non-loaded PLGA NPs to penetrate to the brain. NPs were able to penetrate the barrier, but permeability decreased when FA was loaded. These results are promising for the use of loaded PLGA NPs for the management of neurological diseases.

A multiple controlled-release hydrophilicity minocycline hydrochloride delivery system for the efficient treatment of periodontitis

The complexity of periodontitis, including the complex formation mechanisms and the complex periodontium physiological environment, as well as the complex association with multiple complications, often results in poor therapy effects. Herein, we aimed to design a nanosystem with a controlled release of minocycline hydrochloride (MH) and good retention to effectively treat periodontitis by inhibiting inflammation and repairing the alveolar bone. Firstly, insoluble ion-pairing (IIP) complexes were constructed to improve the encapsulation efficiency of hydrophilic MH in PLGA nanoparticles. Then, a nanogenerator was constructed and combined with a double emulsion method to encapsulate the complexes into PLGA nanoparticles (MH-NPs). The average particle size of MH-NPs was about 100 nm as observed by AFM and TEM, and the drug loading and encapsulation efficiency were 9.59% and 95.58%, respectively. Finally, a multifunctional system (MH-NPs-in-gels) was prepared by dispersing MH-NPs into thermosensitive gels, which could continue to release drug for 21 days in vitro. And the release mechanism showed that this controlled release behavior for MH was influenced by the insoluble ion-pairing complex, PLGA nanoparticles, and gels. In addition, the periodontitis rat model was established to investigate the pharmacodynamic effects. After 4 weeks of treatment, changes in the alveolar bone were assessed by Micro-CT (BV/TV: 70.88%; BMD: 0.97 g/cm³; TB.Th: 0.14 mm; Tb.N: 6.39 mm^-1; Tb.Sp: 0.07 mm). The mechanism of MH-NPs-in-gels in vivo was clarified by the analysis of pharmacodynamic results, which showed that insoluble ion-pairing complexes with the aid of PLGA nanoparticles and gels achieved significant anti-inflammatory effects and bone repair capabilities. In conclusion, the multiple controlled-release hydrophilicity MH delivery system would have good prospects for the effective treatment of periodontitis.

Interaction of gentamicin and gentamicin-AOT with poly-(lactide-co-glycolate) in a drug delivery system - density functional theory calculations and molecular dynamics simulation

Gentamicin is used to treat brucellosis, an infectious disease caused by the Brucella species but the drug faces several issues such as low efficacy, instability, low solubility, and toxicity. It also has a very short half-life, therefore, requiring frequent dosing. Consequently, several other antibiotics are also being used for the treatment of brucellosis as a single dose as well as in combination with other antibiotics but none of these therapies are satisfactory. Nanoparticles in particular polymer-based ones utilizing polymers that are biodegradable and biocompatible for instance PLGA are a method of choice to overcome such drug delivery issues and enable potential targeted delivery. The current study focuses on the evaluation of the structural and dynamical properties of a drug-polymer system consisting of gentamicin drug and PLGA polymer nanoparticles in the water representing a targeted drug delivery system for the treatment of brucellosis. For this purpose, all-atom molecular dynamics simulations were carried out on the drug-polymer systems in the absence and presence of the surfactant bis(2-Ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT) to determine the structural and dynamical properties as well as the effect of the surfactant on these properties. We also investigated systems in which the polymer constituents were in the form of monomeric units toward decoupling the primary interactions of the monomer units and polymer effects. The simulation results explain the nature of the interactions between the drug and the polymer as well as transport properties in terms of drug diffusion coefficients, which characterize the molecular behavior of gentamicin-polymer nanoparticles for use in brucellosis.

Engineered PLGA microspheres for extended-release of naltrexone: in vitro, in vivo, and IVIVR

Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA)-based formulation is one of the most often used parenteral extended-release forms to deliver various therapeutics. VIVITROL^® as a commercialized PLGA microsphere formulation encapsulates naltrexone, a narcotic antagonist for opioid addiction and alcohol dependency. However, no U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved generic product of naltrexone PLGA microsphere formulation has entered the market. The availability of generic naltrexone PLGA microspheres in low-income countries will broaden patients' accessibility to the safe, effective, and more affordable drug. A major challenge in developing such generic forms is the sensitivity of the drug-loaded microspheres' critical characteristics to the small manufacturing changes, even in formulations with the same compositions as the reference product. In this study, we evaluated the different key manufacturing parameters on the physicochemical, in vitro and in vivo release characteristics of naltrexone microspheres to develop a generic form of naltrexone PLGA microspheres. The selected formulations demonstrated a significant similarity in physicochemical characteristics and release profiles (f2 > 50) to the reference product, VIVITROL^®. A strong relationship was observed between in vitro release profile of naltrexone as against its corresponding in vivo profile. It helped to roughly predict the in vivo release behavior of the different manufactured formulations by their corresponding in vitro release profiles.

Ketorolac-Loaded PLGA-/PLA-Based Microparticles Stabilized by Hyaluronic Acid: Effects of Formulation Composition and Emulsification Technique on Particle Characteristics and Drug Release Behaviors

This study aimed to develop ketorolac microparticles stabilized by hyaluronic acid based on poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), poly(lactide) (PLA), and their blend for further application in osteoarthritis. The polymer blend may provide tailored drug release and improved physicochemical characteristics. The microparticles were prepared by water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) double emulsion solvent evaporation using two emulsification techniques, probe sonication (PS) and high-speed stirring (HSS), to obtain the microparticles in different size ranges. The results revealed that the polymer composition and emulsification technique influenced the ketorolac microparticle characteristics. The PS technique provided significantly at least 20 times smaller average size (1.3-2.2 µm) and broader size distribution (1.5-8.5) than HSS (45.5-67.4 µm and 1.0-1.4, respectively). The encapsulation efficiency was influenced by the polymer composition and the emulsification technique, especially in the PLA microparticles. The DSC and XRD results suggested that the drug was compatible with and molecularly dissolved in the polymer matrix. Furthermore, most of the drug molecules existed in an amorphous form, and some in any crystalline form. All of the microparticles had biphasic drug release composed of the burst release within the first 2 h and the sustained release over 35 days. The obtained microparticles showed promise for further use in the treatment of osteoarthritis.

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) Acid (PLGA) Nanoparticles and Transdermal Drug Delivery: An Overview

BACKGROUND

Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles have garnered pharmaceutical industry attention throughout the past decade. PLGA [Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)] is an excellent biodegradable polymer explored for the preparation of nanoparticles that are administered through various routes like intravenous and transdermal. PLGA's versatility makes it a good choice for the preparation of nanoparticles.

OBJECTIVE

The main objective of this review paper was to summarize methods of preparation and characterization of PLGA nanoparticles along with their role in the transdermal delivery of various therapeutic agents.

METHODS

A literature survey for the present review paper was done using various search engines like Pubmed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct.

RESULTS

In comparison to traditional transdermal administration systems, PLGA nanoparticles have demonstrated several benefits in preclinical investigations, including fewer side effects, low dosage frequency, high skin permeability, and simplicity of application.

CONCLUSION

PLGA nanoparticles can be considered efficient nanocarriers for the transdermal delivery of drugs. Nevertheless, the clinical investigation of PLGA nanoparticles for the transdermal administration of therapeutic agents remains a formidable obstacle.

PLGA-based nanoparticles for the treatment of cancer: current strategies and perspectives

Research on cancer treatment is always of great importance because of the extensive and difficult treatment options and side effects of chemotherapeutic agents. Due to this, novel techniques for cancer treatment are the need of the day. Nowadays, nanotechnology is of great interest for its applications as diagnostic tools, theragnostic, contrasting agents, and vehicles for delivering drugs. Nanoparticles (NPs) are made up of biocompatible and biodegradable polymers that improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of drugs, reduce side effects, improve stability, prolong the release of drug, and reduce the dosing frequency. Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is FDA-approved synthetic polymer which can be used to formulate NPs that can be targeted to a specific site for the safe and effective delivery of drugs. PLGA-based NPs can be used for a variety of cancer therapies including tumor-targeted drug delivery, gene therapy, hyperthermia, and photodynamic therapy. This article discusses the method of preparation, characterization, encapsulation of chemotherapeutic drugs, effect of physicochemical properties of PLGA- based NPs, and how we can exploit these aspects through various methods of preparation for drug loading, biodistribution, target specificity, and their use in cancer treatment. Along with these targeting strategies, gene therapy, cancer immunotherapy, and various applications have also been discussed. This article also aims to discuss the incorporation of diagnostic tools and therapeutic moiety in one versatile formulation of PLGA-NPs and the difficulties faced in translating this promising tool to clinical use.

Orally administered docetaxel-loaded chitosan-decorated cationic PLGA nanoparticles for intestinal tumors: formulation, comprehensive in vitro characterization, and release kinetics

Intestinal cancers are the third most lethal cancers globally, beginning as polyps in the intestine and spreading with a severe metastatic tendency. Chemotherapeutic drugs used in the treatment of intestinal tumors are usually formulated for parenteral administration due to poor solubility and bioavailability problems. Pharmaceutically, clinical failure due to a drug's wide biodistribution and non-selective toxicity is one of the major challenges of chemotherapy. In addition, parenteral drug administration in chronic diseases that require long-term drug use, such as intestinal tumors, is challenging in terms of patient compliance and poses a burden in terms of health economy. Especially in the field of chemotherapy research, oral chemotherapy is a subject that has been intensively researched in recent years, and developments in this field will provide serious breakthroughs both scientifically and socially. Development of orally applicable nanodrug formulations that can act against diseases seen in the distant region of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), such as intestinal tumor, brings with it a series of difficulties depending on the drug and/or GIT physiology. The aim of this study is to develop an oral nanoparticle drug delivery system loaded with docetaxel (DCX) as an anticancer drug, using poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) as nanoparticle material, and modified with chitosan (CS) to gain mucoadhesive properties. In this context, an innovative nanoparticle formulation that can protect orally administered DCX from GIT conditions and deliver the drug to the intestinal tumoral region by accumulating in mucus has been designed. For this purpose, DCX-PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) and CS/DCX-PLGA NPs were prepared, and their in vitro characteristics were elucidated. Nanoparticles around 250-300 nm were obtained. DCX-PLGA NPs had positive surface charge with CS coating. The formulations have the potential to deliver the encapsulated drug to the bowel according to the in vitro release studies in three different simulated GIT fluids for approximately 72 h. Mucin interaction and penetration into the artificial mucus layer were also investigated in detail, and the mucoadhesive and mucus-penetration characteristics of the formulations were examined. Furthermore, in vitro release kinetic studies of the NPs were elucidated. DCX-PLGA NPs were found to be compatible with the Weibull model, and CS/DCX-PLGA NPs were found to be compatible with the Peppas-Sahlin model. Within the scope of in vitro cytotoxicity studies, the drug-loaded NPs showed significantly higher cytotoxicity than a DCX solution on the HT-29 colon cell line, and CS/DCX-PLGA showed the highest cytotoxicity (p < 0.05). According to the permeability studies on the Caco-2 cell line, the CS/DCX-PLGA formulation increased permeability by 383% compared to free DCX (p < 0.05). In the light of all results, CS/DCX-PLGA NPs can offer a promising and innovative approach as an oral anticancer drug-loaded nanoformulation for intestinal tumors.

Biomaterials for Treatment of Baldness

Androgenic alopecia affects men and women today, where many factors can be the unknown cause of it. It is essential to find a good, effective, and inexpensive treatment for it, as it is a prevalent dermatological condition. Many drugs like minoxidil (MXD) and finasteride (FNS) are commercially used for its treatment but we are still lacking in terms of a complete cure for alopecia. In this study, we came up with different treatment options for alopecia and assessed their advantages and disadvantages. Not only is the treatment part is essential, but the mode of drug delivery is equally important when it comes to hair and its growth for the maximum output. The following discussion considers the idea of nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with drugs and biomaterials used for the treatment of alopecia.

PLGA-PVA-PEG Single Emulsion Method as a Candidate for Aminolevulinic Acid (5-ALA) Encapsulation: Laboratory Scaling Up and Stability Evaluation

One of the most widely used molecules used for photodynamic therapy (PDT) is 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), a precursor in the synthesis of tetrapyrroles such as chlorophyll and heme. The 5-ALA skin permeation is considerably reduced due to its hydrophilic characteristics, decreasing its local bioavailability and therapeutic effect. For this reason, five different systems containing polymeric particles of poly [D, L-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)] were developed to encapsulate 5-ALA based on single and double emulsions methodology. All systems were standardized (according to the volume of reagents and mass of pharmaceutical ingredients) and compared in terms of laboratory scaling up, particle formation and stability over time. UV-VIS spectroscopy revealed that particle absorption/adsorption of 5-ALA was dependent on the method of synthesis. Different size distribution was observed by DLS and NTA techniques, revealing that 5-ALA increased the particle size. The contact angle evaluation showed that the system hydrophobicity was dependent on the surfactant and the 5-ALA contribution. The FTIR results indicated that the type of emulsion influenced the particle formation, as well as allowing PEG functionalization and interaction with 5-ALA. According to the 1H-NMR results, the 5-ALA reduced the T1 values of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and PLGA in the double emulsion systems due to the decrease in molecular packing in the hydrophobic region. The results indicated that the system formed by single emulsion containing the combination PVA-PEG presented greater stability with less influence from 5-ALA. This system is a promising candidate to successfully encapsulate 5-ALA and achieve good performance and specificity for in vitro skin cancer treatment.

Carboplatin-loaded surface modified-PLGA nanoparticles confer sustained inhibitory effect against retinoblastoma cell in vitro

PURPOSE

To investigate the antiproliferative effect of carboplatin-loaded surface-modified poly(lactide-co-glycolide) on retinoblastoma cells.

METHODS

Carboplatin-loaded poly(lactide-co-glycolide) with or without sodium alginate surface modification was prepared using sodium alginate-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and poly(lactide-co-glycolide). The zeta potential and carboplatin release behavior were investigated. The cellular uptake of the released drug was observed in the retinoblastoma cell line Y79. The inhibitory effect of carboplatin-loaded nanoparticles against the Y79 cell line was evaluated using methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium assay and western blot. Native carboplatin and void nanoparticles without carboplatin loading were used as controls.

RESULTS

The zeta potential was -(26.1 ± 3.1) mV for carboplatin-loaded poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and-(43.1 ± 8.1) mV for carboplatin-loaded sodium alginate-poly(lactide-co-glycolide). The burst release percentages of carboplatin-loaded poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and sodium alginate-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) were (40.0% ± 8.2%) and (18.9% ± 4.3%) at 24 hours, respectively. A significant difference was identified regarding drug release between carboplatin-loaded sodium alginate-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and carboplatin-loaded poly(lactide-co-glycolide). Fluorescence detection revealed that intense uptake of carboplatin into the cytoplasm of the Y79 cell line that was exposed to carboplatin-loaded sodium alginate-poly(lactide-co-glycolide). Carboplatin-loaded poly(lactide-co-glycolide) or sodium alginate-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) exposure inhibited proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression in Y79 cells on day 3. Extension of exposure to day 5 revealed that the sodium alginate-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) surface modification was superior to that of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) in terms of proliferating cell nuclear antigen inhibition. The cell viability test using methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium revealed a similar inhibitory effect. Furthermore, the carboplatin-loaded nanoparticles of lower concentration inhibited cell viability more strongly than native carboplatin of higher concentration in methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium assay.

CONCLUSIONS

Carboplatin-loaded sodium alginate-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) inhibited retinoblastoma cell proliferation with superior effect as compared with poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and native carboplatin. Sodium alginate surface modification offers a potential strategy for the sustained carboplatin release system.

Poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) Acid Nanoparticles Entrapping Pterostilbene for Targeting Aspergillus Section Nigri

Poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) is a biodegradable, biosafe, and biocompatible copolymer. The Aspergillus section Nigri causes otomycosis localized in the external auditory canal. In this research, Aspergillus brasiliensis, a species belonging to the Nigri section, was tested. Coumarin 6 and pterostilbene loaded in poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles (PLGA-coumarin6-NPs and PLGA-PTB-NPs) were tested for fungal cell uptake and antifungal ability against A. brasiliensis biofilm, respectively. Moreover, the activity of PLGA-PTB-NPs in inhibiting the A. brasiliensis infection was tested using Galleria mellonella larvae. The results showed a fluorescence signal, after 50 nm PLGA-coumarin6-NPs treatment, inside A. brasiliensis hyphae and along the entire thickness of the biofilm matrix, which was indicative of an efficient NP uptake. Regarding antifungal activity, a reduction in A. brasiliensis biofilm formation and mature biofilm with PLGA-PTB-NPs has been demonstrated. Moreover, in vivo experiments showed a significant reduction in mortality of infected larvae after injection of PLGA-PTB-NPs compared to free PTB at the same concentration. In conclusion, the PLGA-NPs system can increase the bioavailability of PTB in Aspergillus section Nigri biofilm by overcoming the biofilm matrix barrier and delivering PTB to fungal cells.

In Vitro, Ex Vivo, and In Vivo Evaluation of Nanoparticle-Based Topical Formulation Against Candida albicans Infection

Ketoconazole is commonly used in the treatment of topical fungal infections. The therapy requires frequent application for several weeks. Systemic side effects, allergic reactions, and prolonged treatment are often associated with non-compliance and therapy failure. Hence, we developed an optimized topical antifungal gel that can prolong the release of drug, reduce systemic absorption, enhance its therapeutic effect, and improve patient compliance. Ketoconazole-loaded PLGA nanoparticles were prepared by the emulsion/solvent evaporation method and were characterized with respect to colloidal properties, surface morphology, and drug entrapment efficiency. The optimized ketoconazole-loaded PLGA nanoparticles and commercially available silver nanoparticles were incorporated into a Carbopol 934P-NF gel base. This arrangement was characterized and compared with commercially available 2% ketoconazole cream to assess physical characteristics of the gel, in vitro drug release, ex vivo skin permeation and retention, and in vivo studies on Wister male albino rats. The results showed that polymeric PLGA nanoparticles were very effective in extending the release of ketoconazole in our optimized formulation. Nanoparticles were smooth, spherical in shape, and below 200 nm in size which is consistent with the data obtained from light scattering and SEM images. The ex vivo data showed that our gel formulation could strongly reduce drug permeation through the skin, and more than 60% of the drug was retained on the upper surface of the skin in contrast to 38.42% of the commercial cream. The in vivo studies showed that gel formulation could effectively treat the infection. This study demonstrates that our topical gel could be effective in sustaining the release of drug and suggests its potential use as a possible strategy to combat antifungal-resistant Candida albicans.

Controlled release of carnosine from poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) beads using nanomechanical magnetic trigger towards the treatment of glioblastoma

Nanometer scale rods of superparamagnetic iron oxide have been encapsulated, along with the anti-cancer therapeutic carnosine, inside porous poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microbeads with a uniform morphology, synthesised using microfluidic arrays. The sustained and externally triggered controlled release from these vehicles was demonstrated using a rotating Halbach magnet array, quantified via liquid chromatography, and imaged in situ using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In the absence of the external magnetic trigger, the carnosine was found to be released from the polymer in a linear profile; however, over 50% of the drug could be released within 30 minutes of exposure to the rotating magnetic field. In addition, the release of carnosine embedded on the surface of the nano-rods was delayed if it was mixed with the iron oxide nano rods before the encapsulation. These new drug delivery vesicles have the potential to pave the way towards the safe and triggered release of onsite drug delivery, as part of a theragnostic treatment for glioblastoma.

Natural product myricetin is a pan-KDM4 inhibitor which with poly lactic-co-glycolic acid formulation effectively targets castration-resistant prostate cancer

Background

Castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) with sustained androgen receptor (AR) signaling remains a critical clinical challenge, despite androgen depletion therapy. The Jumonji C-containing histone lysine demethylase family 4 (KDM4) members, KDM4A‒KDM4C, serve as critical coactivators of AR to promote tumor growth in prostate cancer and are candidate therapeutic targets to overcome AR mutations/alterations-mediated resistance in CRPC.

Methods

In this study, using a structure-based approach, we identified a natural product, myricetin, able to block the demethylation of histone 3 lysine 9 trimethylation by KDM4 members and evaluated its effects on CRPC. A structure-based screening was employed to search for a natural product that inhibited KDM4B. Inhibition kinetics of myricetin was determined. The cytotoxic effect of myricetin on various prostate cancer cells was evaluated. The combined effect of myricetin with enzalutamide, a second-generation AR inhibitor toward C4-2B, a CRPC cell line, was assessed. To improve bioavailability, myricetin encapsulated by poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), the US food and drug administration (FDA)-approved material as drug carriers, was synthesized and its antitumor activity alone or with enzalutamide was evaluated using in vivo C4-2B xenografts.

Results

Myricetin was identified as a potent α-ketoglutarate-type inhibitor that blocks the demethylation activity by KDM4s and significantly reduced the proliferation of both androgen-dependent (LNCaP) and androgen-independent CRPC (CWR22Rv1 and C4-2B). A synergistic cytotoxic effect toward C4-2B was detected for the combination of myricetin and enzalutamide. PLGA-myricetin, enzalutamide, and the combined treatment showed significantly greater antitumor activity than that of the control group in the C4-2B xenograft model. Tumor growth was significantly lower for the combination treatment than for enzalutamide or myricetin treatment alone.

Conclusions

These results suggest that myricetin is a pan-KDM4 inhibitor and exhibited potent cell cytotoxicity toward CRPC cells. Importantly, the combination of PLGA-encapsulated myricetin with enzalutamide is potentially effective for CRPC.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12929-022-00812-3.

Poly(l-lactide-co-caprolactone-co-glycolide)-Based Nanoparticles as Delivery Platform: Effect of the Surfactants on Characteristics and Delivery Efficiency

Polymeric nanoparticles made of the copolymer Poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone-co-glycolide) were prepared using the solvent evaporation method. Two different surfactants, polyvinyl alcohol and dextran, and a mixture of the two were employed. The three types of nanoparticles were used as hosting carriers of two chemotherapeutic drugs, the hydrophilic doxorubicin and the hydrophobic SN-38. The morphostructural characterization showed similar features for the three types of nanoparticles, while the drug encapsulation efficiency indicated that the dextran-based systems are the most effective with both drugs. Cellular studies with breast cancer cells were performed to compare the delivery capability and the cytotoxicity profile of the three nanosystems. The results show that the unloaded nanoparticles are highly biocompatible at the administered concentrations and confirmed that dextran-coated nanoparticles are the most efficient vectors to release the two drugs, exerting cytotoxic activity. PVA, on the other hand, shows limited drug release in vitro, probably due to strong interactions with both drugs. Data also show the release is more efficient for doxorubicin than for SN-38; indeed, the doxorubicin IC₅₀ value for the dextran-coated nanoparticles was about 35% lower than the free drug. This indicates that these nanocarriers are suitable candidates to deliver hydrophilic drugs while needing further modification to host hydrophobic molecules.

Unveiling the Bio-corona Fingerprinting of Potential Anticancer Carbon Nanotubes Coupled with D-Amino Acid Oxidase

The oxidation therapy, based on the controlled production of Reactive Oxygen Species directly into the tumor site, was introduced as alternative antitumor approach. For this purpose, d-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) from the yeast Rhodotorula gracilis, an enzyme able to efficiently catalyze the production of hydrogen peroxide from d-amino acids, was adsorbed onto multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), previously functionalized with polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) or polyethylene glycol (PEG) at different degrees to reduce their toxicity, to be targeted directly into the tumor. In vitro activity and cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that DAAO-functionalized nanotubes (f-MWCNTs) produced H2O2 and induced toxic effects to selected tumor cell lines. After incubation in human plasma, the protein corona was investigated by SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry analysis. The enzyme nanocarriers generally seemed to favor their biocompatibility, promoting the interaction with dysopsonins. Despite this, PLGA or high degree of PEGylation promoted the adsorption of immunoglobulins with a possible activation of immune response and this effect was probably due to PLGA hydrophobicity and dimensions and to the production of specific antibodies against PEG. In conclusion, the PEGylated MWCNTs at low degree seemed the most biocompatible nanocarrier for adsorbed DAAO, preserving its anticancer activity and forming a bio-corona able to reduce both defensive responses and blood clearance.

Effect of Solvents, Stabilizers and the Concentration of Stabilizers on the Physical Properties of Poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) Nanoparticles: Encapsulation, In Vitro Release of Indomethacin and Cytotoxicity against HepG2-Cell

A biocompatible, biodegradable and FDA-approved polymer [Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)] was used to prepare the nanoparticles (NPs) to observe the effect of solvents, stabilizers and their concentrations on the physical properties of the PLGA-NPs, following the encapsulation and in vitro release of Indomethacin (IND). PLGA-NPs were prepared by the single-emulsion solvent evaporation technique using dichloromethane (DCM)/chloroform as the organic phase with Polyvinyl-alcohol (PVA)/Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as stabilizers to encapsulate IND. The effects of different proportions of PVA/PVP with DCM/chloroform on the physiochemical properties (particle size, the polydispersity index, the zeta potential by Malvern Zetasizer and morphology by SEM) of the NPs were investigated. DSC was used to check the physical state, the possible complexation of PLGA with stabilizer(s) and the crystallinity of the encapsulated drug. Stabilizers at all concentrations produced spherical, regular-shaped, smooth-surfaced discrete NPs. Average size of 273.2–563.9 nm was obtained when PVA (stabilizer) with DCM, whereas it ranged from 317.6 to 588.1 nm with chloroform. The particle size was 273.2–563.9 nm when PVP was the stabilizer with DCM, while it was 381.4–466.6 nm with chloroform. The zeta potentials of PVA-stabilized NPs were low and negative (−0.62 mV) while they were comparatively higher and positive for PVP-stabilized NPs (+17.73 mV). Finally, drug-loaded optimal NPs were composed of PLGA (40 mg) and IND (4 mg) in 1 mL DCM/chloroform with PVA/PVP (1–3%), which resulted in sufficient encapsulation (54.94–74.86%) and drug loading (4.99–6.81%). No endothermic peak of PVA/PVP appeared in the optimized formulation, which indicated the amorphous state of IND in the core of the PLGA-NPs. The in vitro release study indicated a sustained release of IND (32.83–52.16%) from the PLGA-NPs till 72 h and primarily followed the Higuchi matrix release kinetics followed by Korsmeyer–Peppas models. The cell proliferation assay clearly established that the organic solvents used to prepare PLGA-NPs had evaporated. The PLGA-NPs did not show any particular toxicity in the HepG2 cells within the dose range of IND (250–500 µg/mL) and at an equivalent concentration of PLGA-NPs (3571.4–7142.7 µg/mL). The cytotoxicity of the hepatotoxic drug (IND) was reduced by its encapsulation into PLGA-NPs. The outcomes of this investigation could be implemented to prepare PLGA-NPs of acceptable properties for the encapsulation of low/high molecular weight drugs. It would be useful for further in vitro and in vivo applications to use this delivery system.

Nanocluster-Based Drug Delivery and Theranostic Systems: Towards Cancer Therapy

Over the last decades, the global life expectancy of the population has increased, and so, consequently, has the risk of cancer development. Despite the improvement in cancer therapies (e.g., drug delivery systems (DDS) and theranostics), in many cases recurrence continues to be a challenging issue. In this matter, the development of nanotechnology has led to an array of possibilities for cancer treatment. One of the most promising therapies focuses on the assembly of hierarchical structures in the form of nanoclusters, as this approach involves preparing individual building blocks while avoiding handling toxic chemicals in the presence of biomolecules. This review aims at presenting an overview of the major advances made in developing nanoclusters based on polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) and/or inorganic NPs. The preparation methods and the features of the NPs used in the construction of the nanoclusters were described. Afterwards, the design, fabrication and properties of the two main classes of nanoclusters, namely noble-metal nanoclusters and hybrid (i.e., hetero) nanoclusters and their mode of action in cancer therapy, were summarized.

PLGA-Based Composites for Various Biomedical Applications

Polymeric materials have been extensively explored in the field of nanomedicine; within them, poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) holds a prominent position in micro- and nanotechnology due to its biocompatibility and controllable biodegradability. In this review we focus on the combination of PLGA with different inorganic nanomaterials in the form of nanocomposites to overcome the polymer’s limitations and extend its field of applications. We discuss their physicochemical properties and a variety of well-established synthesis methods for the preparation of different PLGA-based materials. Recent progress in the design and biomedical applications of PLGA-based materials are thoroughly discussed to provide a framework for future research.