Nanovesicles-Mediated Drug Delivery for Oral Bioavailability Enhancement

Ameliorative Hypoglycemic Effect of 1-DNJ via Structural Derivatization Followed by Assembly Into Selenized Nanovesicles

Purpose

1-Deoxynojirimycin (1-DNJ), a phytomedicine derived from mulberry leaves and certain bacteria, can inhibit α-glycosidase activity and alleviate insulin resistance, thereby lowering blood glucose levels. However, its short half-life and limited in vivo residence compromise its therapeutic efficacy. This study aimed to optimize the structure of 1-DNJ and develop nano-formulation to ameliorate its pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic effects.

Methods

We synthesized N-oleoyl-1-DNJ (N-1-DNJ) and formulated it into selenized nanovesicles using a thin-film hydration method combined with in situ reduction.

Results

The resulting N-1-DNJ-loaded selenized nanovesicles (N-1-DNJ-Se@NVs) exhibited improved physiological stability and sustained release compared to non-selenized versions. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies in GK rats revealed that N-1-DNJ-Se@NVs presented prolonged absorption, higher mean retention time, and enhanced area under the blood drug concentration versus time curve (AUC), indicating superior bioavailability. Furthermore, N-1-DNJ-Se@NVs demonstrated long-lasting hypoglycemic effect and increased cellular uptake efficiency.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that structural derivatization improves the oral delivery of 1-DNJ and prolongs its therapeutic effect via selenized nanovesicles, positioning N-1-DNJ-Se@NVs as a promising nanomedicine for diabetes management.

Anti-Intracellular MRSA Activity of Antibiotic-Loaded Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles and Their Effectiveness in Murine Skin Wound Infection Models

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a significant concern for skin and soft tissue infections. Apart from biofilm formation, these bacteria can reside intracellularly in phagocytic and nonphagocytic mammalian cells, complicating treatment with conventional antibiotics. Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticle (LPN) systems, combining the advantages of polymeric nanoparticles and liposomes, represent a new generation of nanocarriers with the potential to address these therapeutic challenges. In this study, gentamicin (Gen) and vancomycin (Van) were encapsulated in LPNs and evaluated for their ability to eliminate intracellular MRSA in phagocytic macrophage RAW-Blue cells and nonphagocytic epithelial HaCaT cells. Compared to free antibiotics at 100 μg/mL, LPN formulations significantly reduced intracellular bacterial loads in both cell lines. Specifically, LPN-Van resulted in approximately 0.7 Log CFU/well reduction in RAW-Blue cells and 0.3 Log CFU/well reduction in HaCaT cells. LPN-Gen showed a more pronounced reduction, with approximately 1.26 Log CFU/well reduction in RAW-Blue cells and 0.45 Log CFU/well reduction in HaCaT cells. In vivo, LPN-Van at 500 μg/mL significantly reduced MRSA biofilm viability compared to untreated controls (p < 0.001), achieving 98% eradication based on median values. In comparison, free vancomycin achieved a nonstatistically significant 79.2% reduction in biofilm viability compared to control. Prophylactically, LPN-Van at 500 μg/mL decreased MRSA levels to the limit of detection, resulting in a ∼3.5 Log reduction in the median CFU/wound compared to free vancomycin. No acute dermal toxicity was observed for LPN-Van based on histological analysis. These data indicate that LPNs show promise as a drug delivery platform technology to address intracellular infections.

The Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Potential Applications of Bilosomes as Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery

Nano-drug delivery systems provide targeted solutions for addressing various drug delivery challenges, leveraging nanotechnology to enhance drug solubility and permeability. Liposomes, explored for several decades, face hurdles, especially in oral delivery. Bile-acid stabilized vesicles (bilosomes) are flexible lipid vesicles, composed of phospholipids or other surfactants, along with amphiphilic bile salts, and they show superior stability and pharmacokinetic behavior in comparison to conventional vesicular systems (liposomes and niosomes). Bilosomes enhance skin penetration, fluidize the stratum corneum, and improve drug stability. In oral applications, bilosomes overcome drawbacks, offering improved bioavailability, controlled release, and reduced side effects. Vaccines using bilosomes demonstrate efficacy, and bilosomes for intranasal, inhalation, ocular, and buccal applications enhance drug delivery, offering targeted, efficient, and controlled activities. Formulations vary based on active substances and optimization techniques, showcasing the versatility and potential of bilosomes across diverse drug delivery routes. Therefore, the aim of this comprehensive review was to critically explore the state-of-the-art of bilosomes in drug delivery and potential therapeutic applications.

Consensus statement on extracellular vesicles in liquid biopsy for advancing laboratory medicine

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent a diverse class of nanoscale membrane vesicles actively released by cells. These EVs can be further subdivided into categories like exosomes and microvesicles, based on their origins, sizes, and physical attributes. Significantly, disease-derived EVs have been detected in virtually all types of body fluids, providing a comprehensive molecular profile of their cellular origins. As a result, EVs are emerging as a valuable addition to liquid biopsy techniques. In this collective statement, the authors share their current perspectives on EV-related research and product development, with a shared commitment to translating this newfound knowledge into clinical applications for cancer and other diseases, particularly as disease biomarkers. The consensus within this document revolves around the overarching recognition of the merits, unresolved questions, and existing challenges surrounding EVs. This consensus manuscript is a collaborative effort led by the Committee of Exosomes, Society of Tumor Markers, Chinese anti-Cancer Association, aimed at expediting the cultivation of robust scientific and clinically applicable breakthroughs and propelling the field forward with greater swiftness and efficacy.

Nanometerizing Taxifolin Into Selenized Liposomes to Ameliorate Its Hypoglycemic Effect by Optimizing Drug Release and Bioavailability

Purpose

Diabetes mellitus (DM) remains a significant health challenge, with traditional treatments often failing to provide lasting solutions. Taxifolin (Tax), a potential phytomedicine with antioxidant and anti-hyperglycemic properties, suffers from low water solubility and poor bioavailability, necessitating advanced delivery systems. This study aims to nanometerize taxifolin (Tax) into selenized liposomes (Tax-Se@LPs) for enhanced oral delivery and hypoglycemic effect.

Methods

Tax-Se@LPs were fabricated through a thin-film hydration/in situ reduction technique. The resulting nanomedicine was characterized through in vitro release studies, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluations, cellular uptake assays, and formulation stability tests.

Results

The optimized Tax-Se@LPs demonstrated an average particle size of 185.3 nm and an entrapment efficiency of 95.25% after optimization. In vitro release studies revealed that Tax-Se@LPs exhibited a slower and more sustained release profile compared to conventional liposomes, favoring gastrointestinal drug absorption. Pharmacokinetic evaluations in normal rats indicated that Tax-Se@LPs achieved a relative bioavailability of 216.65%, significantly higher than Tax suspensions and unmodified liposomes. Furthermore, in diabetic GK rats, Tax-Se@LPs resulted in a maximal blood glucose reduction of 46.8% and exhibited a more sustained therapeutic duration compared to other formulations. Cellular uptake tests manifested that selenization altered the internalization mechanisms of liposomes while preserving their absorption aptness by intestinal epithelial cells. The physiological and in vitro stability of Tax-Se@LPs was also reinforced by selenization.

Conclusion

Overall, Tax-Se@LPs not only improve the oral bioavailability of Tax but also enhance its therapeutic efficacy. These findings underscore the potential of Tax-Se@LPs as a promising therapeutic strategy for DM management.

Engineering Protein-Based Lipid-Binding Nanovesicles via Catechol-Amine-Derived Coacervation with Their Underlying Interfacial Mechanisms

The development of nonphospholipid nanovesicles has garnered tremendous attention as a viable alternative to traditional liposomal nanovesicles. Protein/peptide-based nanovesicles have demonstrated their potential to reduce immunogenicity while enhancing bioactivity. However, a fundamental understanding of how proteinaceous vesicles interact with lipids and cell membranes remains elusive. In this study, we engineered a series of protamine-based nonphospholipid nanovesicles by modulating intramolecular catechol-amine interactions. By grafting trihydroxybenzene (GA) and catechol (CA) groups onto the protamine (Prot), a salt-triggered coacervation was observed in an alkaline environment with the size of as-prepared vesicles ranging from 200 to 1200 nm. The bonding affinity to lipid interfaces followed the order of Prot-CA-Fe3+(25 μM) > Prot-CA-Fe3+(10 μM) > Prot-CA > original Prot with the underlying nanomechanics investigated by the lipid bubble force measurement. Direct quantification of interactions between the nanovesicles and living human gingival fibroblasts was performed by using surface charge difference mapping. Introducing trace amounts of Fe3+ (at 10 and 25 μM) enhanced vesicle-lipid interactions via the synergy of catechol-amine interactions and Fe3+-induced complexation. This work provides improved valuable insights into the interactions between nanovesicles and cell membranes, offering an energetic paradigm for modulating cell-target delivery processes via intramolecular short-range interactions.

Encapsulation of synthesized purpurin-18-N-aminoimide methyl ester in lipid nanovesicles for use as agents in photodynamic cancer therapy

This study aimed to synthesize purpurin-18-N-aminoimide methyl ester (P18 N AI ME) and encapsulate it into lipid nanovesicles (LNVs) for potential application as photodynamic therapy (PDT) agents in cancer therapy. PDT, a light-induced treatment, offers several advantages over conventional cancer treatments, such as minimal invasiveness and localized action. P18 N AI ME, a chlorine class photosensitizer model drug, was synthesized in an attempt to treat tumor in deeper tissues by interacting long-wavelength light. LNVs were introduced to improve anticancer effect and photostability of P18 N AI ME. LNVs using glycerol monostearate demonstrated smaller particle sizes and more sustained release profiles than those using lauric acid. In photocytotoxicity against HeLa (human cervical carcinoma) and A549 (human lung carcinoma) cell lines, P18 N AI ME-LNVs demonstrated safety under dark conditions and enhanced anticancer effects under light conditions compared to P18 N AI ME alone. The inhibitory concentration values (IC50) were 0.86 μM (P18 N AI ME) and 0.68 μM (LNVs) in HeLa cell line and 0.85 μM (P18 N AI ME) and 0.64 μM (LNVs) in A549 cell line. These findings suggest that P18 N AI ME-LNVs hold promise as PDT agents in cancer therapy.

Emerging Strategies for Revascularization: Use of Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles and Artificial Nanovesicles in Critical Limb Ischemia

Critical limb ischemia (CLI) poses a substantial and intricate challenge in vascular medicine, necessitating the development of innovative therapeutic strategies to address its multifaceted pathophysiology. Conventional revascularization approaches often fail to adequately address the complexity of CLI, necessitating the identification of alternative methodologies. This review explores uncharted territory beyond traditional therapies, focusing on the potential of two distinct yet interrelated entities: cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) and artificial nanovesicles. Cell-derived EVs are small membranous structures naturally released by cells, and artificial nanovesicles are artificially engineered nanosized vesicles. Both these vesicles represent promising avenues for therapeutic intervention. They act as carriers of bioactive cargo, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, that can modulate intricate cellular responses associated with ischemic tissue repair and angiogenesis. This review also assesses the evolving landscape of CLI revascularization through the unique perspective of cell-derived EVs and artificial nanovesicles. The review spans the spectrum from early preclinical investigations to the latest translational advancements, providing a comprehensive overview of the current state of research in this emerging field. These groundbreaking vesicle therapies hold immense potential for revolutionizing CLI treatment paradigms.

Enhancing the Therapeutic Effect and Bioavailability of Irradiated Silver Nanoparticle-Capped Chitosan-Coated Rosuvastatin Calcium Nanovesicles for the Treatment of Liver Cancer

Liver cancer is a prevalent form of carcinoma worldwide. A novel chitosan-coated optimized formulation capped with irradiated silver nanoparticles (INops) was fabricated to boost the anti-malignant impact of rosuvastatin calcium (RC). Using a 23-factorial design, eight formulations were produced using the solvent evaporation process. The formulations were characterized in vitro to identify the optimal formulation (Nop). The FTIR spectra showed that the fingerprint region is not superimposed with that of the drug; DSC thermal analysis depicted a negligible peak shift; and XRPD diffractograms revealed the disappearance of the typical drug peaks. Nop had an entrapment efficiency percent (EE%) of 86.2%, a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.254, a zeta potential (ZP) of -35.3 mV, and a drug release after 12 h (Q12) of 55.6%. The chitosan-coated optimized formulation (CS.Nop) showed significant mucoadhesive strength that was 1.7-fold greater than Nop. Physical stability analysis of CS.Nop revealed negligible alterations in VS, ZP, PDI, and drug retention (DR) at 4 °C. The irradiated chitosan-coated optimized formulation capped with silver nanoparticles (INops) revealed the highest inhibition effect on carcinoma cells (97.12%) compared to the chitosan-coated optimized formulation (CS.Nop; 81.64) and chitosan-coated optimized formulation capped with silver nanoparticles (CS.Nop.AgNPs; 92.41). The bioavailability of CS-Nop was 4.95-fold greater than RC, with a residence time of about twice the free drug. CS.Nop has displayed a strong in vitro-in vivo correlation with R2 0.9887. The authors could propose that novel INop could serve as an advanced platform to improve oral bioavailability and enhance hepatic carcinoma recovery.

A Comprehensive Review: Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Greatly Improve Pharmacological Effectiveness of Phytoconstituent in Plant Extracts

Medicinal plants are increasingly being explored due to their possible pharmacological properties and minimal adverse effects. However, low bioavailability and stability often limit efficacy, necessitating high oral doses to achieve therapeutic levels in the bloodstream. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) offer a potential solution to these limitations. Due to their large surface area, substantial pore volume, and ability to precisely control pore size. MSNs are also capable of efficiently incorporating a wide range of therapeutic substances, including herbal plant extracts, leading to potential use for drug containment and delivery systems. Therefore, this review aimed to discuss and summarize the successful developments of herbal plant extracts loaded into MSN, focusing on preparation, characterization, and the impact on efficacy. Data were collected from publications on Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases using the precise keywords "mesoporous silica nanoparticle" and "herbal extract". The results showed that improved phytoconstituent bioavailability, modified release profiles, increased stability, reduced dose and toxicity are the primary benefits of this method. This review offers insights on the significance of integrating MSNs into therapeutic formulations to improve pharmacological characteristics and effectiveness of medicinal plant extracts. Future prospects show favorable potential for therapeutic applications using MSNs combined with herbal medicines for clinical therapy.

Bilosomes and Niosomes for Enhanced Intestinal Absorption and In Vivo Efficacy of Cytarabine in Treatment of Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Cytarabine (CTR) is a hydrophilic anticancer drug used to treat leukemia. It suffers from poor permeability and intestinal metabolism, diminishing its oral bioavailability.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The objective was to develop and evaluate niosomes and bilosomes for enhanced intestinal absorption; hence, oral bioavailability.

RESULTS

CTR-loaded niosomes and bilosomes with vesicle sizes of 152 and 204.3 nm were successfully prepared with acceptable properties. The presence of bile salts increased the zeta potential of bilosomes. The recorded entrapment efficiency of cytarabine was acceptable for such a hydrophilic drug. CTR-bilosomes showed a pH-dependent drug release pattern with preferred release in pH 6.8. Intestinal absorption behavior indicated a site-dependent CTR absorption pattern with unfavorable absorption in the distal intestine. Niosomal and bilosomal formulations enhanced intestinal absorption parameters with evidence for a predominant paracellular absorption mechanism that bypasses intestinal barriers. The investigation of the anti-leukemic effect of niosomal and bilosomal formulations indicated that both formulations ameliorated the blood parameters, reflecting significant improvement in leukemia treatment compared with the drug solution. Pathological examination of blood films revealed decreased blast cells in peripheral blood in groups treated with tested formulations.

METHODS

Tested formulations were prepared according to the pro-concentrate method and characterized for particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro release. CTR-loaded niosomes and bilosomes were evaluated for enhanced intestinal absorption utilizing the single-pass in situ intestinal perfusion method in rabbits, and the anti-leukemic effect was assessed using the benzene-induced leukemia model in rats.

CONCLUSIONS

This study introduced surfactant vesicles for enhanced oral bioavailability of CTR.

Surface Engineering of Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Diagnostics and Drug Delivery

Data published in 2020 by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization show that breast cancer (BC) has become the most common cancer globally, affecting more than 2 million women each year. The complex tumor microenvironment, drug resistance, metastasis, and poor prognosis constitute the primary challenges in the current diagnosis and treatment of BC. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONPs) have emerged as a promising nanoplatform for diagnostic tumor imaging as well as therapeutic drug-targeted delivery due to their unique physicochemical properties. The extensive surface engineering has given rise to multifunctionalized MIONPs. In this review, the latest advancements in surface modification strategies of MIONPs over the past five years are summarized and categorized as constrast agents and drug delivery platforms. Additionally, the remaining challenges and future prospects of MIONPs-based targeted delivery are discussed.

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum polysaccharide ameliorates cytokine storm syndrome via the IFN-γ-JAK2/STAT pathway

Acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is an disease characterized by pulmonary edema and widespread inflammation, leading to a notably high mortality rate. The dysregulation of both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory systems, results in cytokine storm (CS), is intricately associated with the development of ALI/ARDS. Tetrastigma hemsleyanum polysaccharide (THP) exerts remarkable anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects against the disease, although its precise role in pathogenesis remains unclear. In the present study, an ALI/ARDS model was established using bacterial lipopolysaccharides. THP administration via aerosol inhalation significantly mitigated lung injury, reduced the number of inflammatory cells, and ameliorated glycerophospholipid metabolism. Furthermore, specific CS-related pathways were investigated by examining the synergy between tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ used to establish CS models. The results indicated that THP effectively decreased inflammatory damage and cell death. The RNA sequencing revealed the involvement of the Janus kinase (JAK) 2-signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway in exerting the mentioned effects. Additionally, THP inhibited the activation of the JAK-STAT pathway, thereby alleviating the CS both in vivo and in vitro. Overall, THP exhibited marked therapeutic potential against ALI/ARDS and CS, primarily by targeting the IFN-γ-JAK2/STAT signaling pathway.

Harnessing nanomedicine for modulating microglial states in the central nervous system disorders: Challenges and opportunities

Microglia are essential for maintaining homeostasis and responding to pathological events in the central nervous system (CNS). Their dynamic and multidimensional states in different environments are pivotal factors in various CNS disorders. However, therapeutic modulation of microglial states is challenging due to the intricate balance these cells maintain in the CNS environment and the blood-brain barrier's restriction of drug delivery. Nanomedicine presents a promising avenue for addressing these challenges, offering a method for the targeted and efficient modulation of microglial states. This review covers the challenges faced in microglial therapeutic modulation and potential use of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems. We provide an in-depth examination of nanoparticle applications for modulating microglial states in a range of CNS disorders, encompassing neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases, infections, traumatic injuries, stroke, tumors, chronic pain, and psychiatric conditions. This review highlights the recent advancements and future prospects in nanomedicine for microglial modulation, paving the way for future research and clinical applications of therapeutic interventions in CNS disorders.

The Antiviral Potential of Perilla frutescens: Advances and Perspectives

Viruses pose a significant threat to human health, causing widespread diseases and impacting the global economy. Perilla frutescens, a traditional medicine and food homologous plant, is well known for its antiviral properties. This systematic review examines the antiviral potential of Perilla frutescens, including its antiviral activity, chemical structure and pharmacological parameters. Utilizing bioinformatics analysis, we revealed the correlation between Perilla frutescens and antiviral activity, identified overlaps between Perilla frutescens target genes and virus-related genes, and explored related signaling pathways. Moreover, a classified summary of the active components of Perilla frutescens, focusing on compounds associated with antiviral activity, provides important clues for optimizing the antiviral drug development of Perilla frutescens. Our findings indicate that Perilla frutescens showed a strong antiviral effect, and its active ingredients can effectively inhibit the replication and spread of a variety of viruses in this review. The antiviral mechanisms of Perilla frutescens may involve several pathways, including enhanced immune function, modulation of inflammatory responses, and inhibition of key enzyme activities such as viral replicase. These results underscore the potential antiviral application of Perilla frutescens as a natural plant and provide important implications for the development of new antiviral drugs.

Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Nanovesicles Containing H8 Improve Hepatic Glucose and Lipid Metabolism and Exert Ameliorative Effects in Type 2 Diabetes

Purpose

Nanovesicles (NVs) derived from bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) as drug delivery systems are considered an effective therapeutic strategy for diabetes. However, its mechanism of action remains unclear. Here, we evaluated the efficacy and molecular mechanism of BMSC-derived NVs carrying the curcumin analog H8 (H8-BMSCs-NVs) on hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism in type 2 diabetes (T2D).

Subjects and Methods

Mouse BMSCs were isolated by collagenase digestion and H8-BMSCs-NVs were prepared by microvesicle extrusion. The effects of H8-BMSCs-NVs on hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism were observed in a T2D mouse model and a HepG2 cell insulin resistance model. To evaluate changes in potential signaling pathways, the PI3K/AKT/AMPK signaling pathway and expression levels of G6P and PEPCK were assessed by Western blotting.

Results

H8-BMSCs-NVs effectively improved lipid accumulation in liver tissues and restored liver dysfunction in T2D mice. Meanwhile, H8-BMSCs-NVs effectively inhibited intracellular lipid accumulation in the insulin resistance models of HepG2 cells. Mechanistic studies showed that H8-BMSCs-NVs activated the PI3K/AKT/AMPK signaling pathway and decreased the expression levels of G6P and PEPCK.

Conclusion

These findings demonstrate that H8-BMSCs-NVs improved hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism in T2D mice by activating the PI3K/AKT/AMPK signaling pathway, which provides novel evidence suggesting the potential of H8-BMSCs-NVs in the clinically treatment of T2D patients.

Review on novel targeted enzyme drug delivery systems: enzymosomes

The goal of this review is to present enzymosomes as an innovative means for site-specific drug delivery. Enzymosomes make use of an enzyme's special characteristics, such as its capacity to accelerate the reaction rate and bind to a particular substrate at a regulated rate. Enzymosomes are created when an enzyme forms a covalent linkage with a liposome or lipid vesicle surface. To construct enzymosomes with specialized activities, enzymes are linked using acylation, direct conjugation, physical adsorption, and encapsulation techniques. By reducing the negative side effects of earlier treatment techniques and exhibiting efficient medication release, these cutting-edge drug delivery systems improve long-term sickness treatments. They could be a good substitute for antiplatelet medication, gout treatment, and other traditional medicines. Recently developed supramolecular vesicular delivery systems called enzymosomes have the potential to improve drug targeting, physicochemical characteristics, and ultimately bioavailability in the pharmaceutical industry. Enzymosomes have advantages over narrow-therapeutic index pharmaceuticals as focusing on their site of action enhances both their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles. Additionally, it reduces changes in normal enzymatic activity, which enhances the half-life of an enzyme and accomplishes enzyme activity on specific locations.

Oral targeted drug delivery to post-gastrointestinal sites

As an essential branch of targeted drug delivery, oral targeted delivery is attracting growing attention in recent years. In addition to site-specific delivery for the treatment of locoregional diseases in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), oral targeted delivery to remote sites beyond the GIT emerges as a cutting-edge research topic. This review aims to provide an overview of the fundamental concepts and most recent advances in this field. Owing to the physiological barriers existing in the GIT, carrier systems should be transported across the enteric epithelia to target remote sites. Recently, pioneer investigations have validated the transport of intact micro- or nanocarriers across gastrointestinal barriers and subsequently to various distal organs and tissues. The microfold (M) cell pathway is the leading mechanism underlying the oral absorption of particulates, but the contribution of the transcellular and paracellular pathways should not be neglected either. In addition to well-acknowledged physicochemical and biological factors, the formation of a protein corona may also influence the biological fate of carrier systems. Although in an early stage of conceptualization, oral targeted delivery to remote diseases has demonstrated promising potential for the treatment of inflammation, tumors, and diseases inflicting the lymphatic and mononuclear phagocytosis systems.

Targeted exosome-based nanoplatform for new-generation therapeutic strategies

Exosomes, typically 30-150 nm in size, are lipid-bilayered small-membrane vesicles originating in endosomes. Exosome biogenesis is regulated by the coordination of various mechanisms whereby different cargoes (e.g. proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids) are sorted into exosomes. These components endow exosomes with bioregulatory functions related to signal transmission and intercellular communication. Exosomes exhibit substantial potential as drug-delivery nanoplatforms owing to their excellent biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. Proteins, miRNA, siRNA, mRNA, and drugs have been successfully loaded into exosomes, and these exosome-based delivery systems show satisfactory therapeutic effects in different disease models. To enable targeted drug delivery, genetic engineering and chemical modification of the lipid bilayer of exosomes are performed. Stimuli-responsive delivery nanoplatforms designed with appropriate modifications based on various stimuli allow precise control of on-demand drug delivery and can be utilized in clinical treatment. In this review, we summarize the general properties, isolation methods, characterization, biological functions, and the potential role of exosomes in therapeutic delivery systems. Moreover, the effective combination of the intrinsic advantages of exosomes and advanced bioengineering, materials science, and clinical translational technologies are required to accelerate the development of exosome-based delivery nanoplatforms.

Ultrasound-nanovesicles interplay for theranostics

Nanovesicles (NVs) are widely used in the treatment and diagnosis of diseases due to their excellent vascular permeability, good biocompatibility, high loading capacity, and easy functionalization. However, their yield and in vivo penetration depth limitations and their complex preparation processes still constrain their application and development. Ultrasound, as a fundamental external stimulus with deep tissue penetration, concentrated energy sources, and good safety, has been proven to be a patient-friendly and highly efficient strategy to overcome the restrictions of traditional clinical medicine. Recent research has shown that ultrasound can drive the generation of NVs, increase their yield, simplify their preparation process, and provide direct therapeutic effects and intelligent control to enhance the therapeutic effect of NVs. In addition, NVs, as excellent drug carriers, can enhance the targeting efficiency of ultrasound-based sonodynamic therapy or sonogenetic regulation and improve the accuracy of ultrasound imaging. This review provides a detailed introduction to the classification, generation, and modification strategies of NVs, emphasizing the impact of ultrasound on the formation of NVs and summarizing the enhanced treatment and diagnostic effects of NVs combined with ultrasound for various diseases.

Materials and structure of polysaccharide-based delivery carriers for oral insulin: A review

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease that affects >500 million patients worldwide. Subcutaneous injection of insulin is the most effective treatment at present. However, regular needle injections will cause pain, inflammation, and other adverse consequences. In recent years, significant progress has been made in non-injectable insulin preparations. Oral administration is the best way of administration due to its simplicity, convenience, and good patient compliance. However, oral insulin delivery is hindered by many physiological barriers in the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in the low relative bioavailability of direct oral insulin delivery. To improve the relative bioavailability, a variety of insulin delivery vectors have been developed. Polysaccharides are used to achieve safe and effective insulin loading due to their excellent biocompatibility and protein affinity. The functional characteristics of polysaccharide-based delivery carriers, such as pH responsiveness, mucosal adhesion, and further functionalization modifications, enhance the gastrointestinal absorption and bioavailability of insulin. This paper reviews the materials and structures of oral insulin polysaccharide-based carriers, providing ideas for further improving the relative bioavailability of oral insulin.

Triterpenes Drug Delivery Systems, a Modern Approach for Arthritis Targeted Therapy

Arthritis is a major cause of disability. Currently available anti-arthritic drugs, such as disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), have serious side-effects associated with long-term use. Triterpenoids are natural products with known anti-inflammatory properties, and many have revealed efficiency against arthritis both in vitro and in vivo in several animal models, with negligible cytotoxicity. However, poor bioavailability due to low water solubility and extensive metabolism upon oral administration hinder the therapeutic use of anti-arthritic triterpenoids. Therefore, drug delivery systems (DDSs) able to improve the pharmacokinetic profile of triterpenoids and achieve sustained drug release are useful alternatives for targeted delivery in arthritis treatment. Several DDSs have been described in the literature for triterpenoid delivery, including microparticulate and nanoparticulate DDSs, such as polymeric micro and nanoparticles (NPs), polymeric micelles, liposomes, micro and nanoemulsions, and hydrogels. These systems have shown superior therapeutic effects in arthritis compared to the free drugs and are similar to currently available anti-arthritic drugs without significant side-effects. This review focuses on nanocarriers for triterpenoid delivery in arthritis therapy, including osteoarthritis (OA), rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and gout that appeared in the literature in the last ten years.

Construction of a novel amphiphilic peptide paclitaxel rod micelle: Demonstrating that the nano-delivery system shape can affect the cellular uptake efficiency of paclitaxel and improve the therapeutic efficacy for breast cancer

Recent studies have shown that the morphology of nano-delivery systems has become a key factor affecting their anti-tumor effects. Although it has been demonstrated that rod-like nanoparticles are more easily absorbed by tumor cells, the application of rod-like nanoparticles is still limited by the lack of safe vector in vivo. In this study, a biocompatible amphiphilic peptide (IIQQQQ, I2Q4), was designed to form rod-like micelles. The key forces of the self-assembly mechanism were investigated. Driven by hydrogen bonds, the hydrophilic segment of the peptide formed a β-sheet structure, and the molecules accumulated and extended along the side chain direction to form a rod-like structure. Using paclitaxel (PTX) as the model drug, a PTX rod-like nano-drug delivery system, PTX@I2Q4, was constructed. PTX exists in a randomly coiled state in the hydrophobic cavity formed by the peptide. Compared to PTX and spherical PTX albumin nanoparticles, PTX@I2Q4 showed higher entry efficiency and better antitumor effects in vivo and in vitro. This was mainly because PTX@I2Q4 not only allowed more efficient entry into cells via macro-pinocytosis, but also significantly prolonged the t1/2 of PTX. The results confirmed the feasibility of regulating the morphology of nanoparticles to improve the efficacy of PTX and provide a reference for further research on the influence of the morphology of the nano-drug delivery system on the efficacy of antitumor effects.

Liposome-Derived Nanosystems for the Treatment of Behavioral and Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Promise of Niosomes, Transfersomes, and Ethosomes for Increased Brain Drug Bioavailability

Psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders are amongst the most prevalent and debilitating diseases, but current treatments either have low success rates, greatly due to the low permeability of the blood-brain barrier, and/or are connected to severe side effects. Hence, new strategies are extremely important, and here is where liposome-derived nanosystems come in. Niosomes, transfersomes, and ethosomes are nanometric vesicular structures that allow drug encapsulation, protecting them from degradation, and increasing their solubility, permeability, brain targeting, and bioavailability. This review highlighted the great potential of these nanosystems for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, anxiety, and depression. Studies regarding the encapsulation of synthetic and natural-derived molecules in these systems, for intravenous, oral, transdermal, or intranasal administration, have led to an increased brain bioavailability when compared to conventional pharmaceutical forms. Moreover, the developed formulations proved to have neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects, including brain neurotransmitter level restoration and brain oxidative status improvement, and improved locomotor activity or enhancement of recognition and working memories in animal models. Hence, albeit being relatively new technologies, niosomes, transfersomes, and ethosomes have already proven to increase the brain bioavailability of psychoactive drugs, leading to increased effectiveness and decreased side effects, showing promise as future therapeutics.

Gout therapeutics and drug delivery

Gout is a common inflammatory arthritis caused by persistently elevated uric acid levels. With the improvement of people's living standards, the consumption of processed food and the widespread use of drugs that induce elevated uric acid, gout rates are increasing, seriously affecting the human quality of life, and becoming a burden to health systems worldwide. Since the pathological mechanism of gout has been elucidated, there are relatively effective drug treatments in clinical practice. However, due to (bio)pharmaceutical shortcomings of these drugs, such as poor chemical stability and limited ability to target the pathophysiological pathways, traditional drug treatment strategies show low efficacy and safety. In this scenario, drug delivery systems (DDS) design that overcome these drawbacks is urgently called for. In this review, we initially describe the pathological features, the therapeutic targets, and the drugs currently in clinical use and under investigation to treat gout. We also comprehensively summarize recent research efforts utilizing lipid, polymeric and inorganic carriers to develop advanced DDS for improved gout management and therapy.

Bilosomes as Nanocarriers for the Drug and Vaccine Delivery against Gastrointestinal Infections: Opportunities and Challenges

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) environment has an intricate and complex nature, limiting drugs' stability, oral bioavailability, and adsorption. Additionally, due to the drugs' toxicity and side effects, renders are continuously seeking novel delivery systems. Lipid-based drug delivery vesicles have shown various loading capacities and high stability levels within the GIT. Indeed, most vesicular platforms fail to efficiently deliver drugs toward this route. Notably, the stability of vesicular constructs is different based on the different ingredients added. A low GIT stability of liposomes and niosomes and a low loading capacity of exosomes in drug delivery have been described in the literature. Bilosomes are nonionic, amphiphilic, flexible surfactant vehicles that contain bile salts for the improvement of drug and vaccine delivery. The bilosomes' stability and plasticity in the GIT facilitate the efficient carriage of drugs (such as antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and antifungal drugs), vaccines, and bioactive compounds to treat infectious agents. Considering the intricate and harsh nature of the GIT, bilosomal formulations of oral substances have a remarkably enhanced delivery efficiency, overcoming these conditions. This review aimed to evaluate the potential of bilosomes as drug delivery platforms for antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, and antiparasitic GIT-associated drugs and vaccines.

Oral Vaccines: A Better Future of Immunization

Oral vaccines are gaining more attention due to their ease of administration, lower invasiveness, generally greater safety, and lower cost than injectable vaccines. This review introduces certified oral vaccines for adenovirus, recombinant protein-based, and transgenic plant-based oral vaccines, and their mechanisms for inducing an immune response. Procedures for regulatory approval and clinical trials of injectable and oral vaccines are also covered. Challenges such as instability and reduced efficacy in low-income countries associated with oral vaccines are discussed, as well as recent developments, such as Bacillus-subtilis-based and nanoparticle-based delivery systems that have the potential to improve the effectiveness of oral vaccines.

Interleukin-10-alveolar macrophage cell membrane-coated nanoparticles alleviate airway inflammation and regulate Th17/regulatory T cell balance in a mouse model

Background

Allergic airway disease (AAD) is a chronic disease characterized by airway inflammation, bronchoconstriction, and hyperresponsiveness. Although exogenous interleukin-10 (IL-10) alleviates allergic inflammation, it has a short half-life in vivo. Cell membrane-coated nanomaterials have been shown to protect therapeutic payloads and increase therapeutic efficacy.

Objective

This study was aimed at investigating the efficacy of a novel macrophage-based nanoparticle drug for the treatment of house dust mite (HDM)-induced allergic airway diseases.

Methods

IL-10-poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles were encapsulated in alveolar macrophage cell membranes. An allergic airway disease mouse model was established by repeated inhalation of HDM extracts. The mice were treated with free IL-10, IL-10-PLGA nanoparticles (IL10-NP), or IL-10-alveolar macrophage cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (IL10-AMNP). The therapeutic effects were evaluated by measuring airway hyperresponsiveness, lung inflammation, cytokine levels, and regulatory T cells (Treg)- T-helper 17 (Th17) cell balance.

Results

Compared to free IL-10, IL10-AMNP significantly reduced airway hyperresponsiveness and T-helper 2 (Th2)/Th17 cytokines and inhibited neutrophilia and eosinophilia recruitment into the airways of HDM-induced mouse models. Additionally, the balance between Tregs and Th17 cells was significantly improved in groups treated with IL10-AMNP.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that PLGA nanoparticle cores coated with alveolar macrophage cell membranes can effectively deliver therapeutic cytokines to the lungs and improve the homeostatic balance between Tregs and Th17 cells. These findings suggest that macrophage-based nanoparticle drugs represent a promising approach for treating allergic airway diseases.

Recent Developments in Oral Delivery of Vaccines Using Nanocarriers

As oral administration of vaccines is the preferred route due to its high patient compliance and ability to stimulate both cellular and humoral immune responses, it is also associated with several challenges that include denaturation of vaccine components in the acidic environment of the stomach, degradation from proteolytic enzymes, and poor absorption through the intestinal membrane. To achieve effective delivery of such biomolecules, there is a need to investigate novel strategies of formulation development that can overcome the barriers associated with conventional vaccine delivery systems. Nanoparticles are advanced drug delivery carriers that provide target-oriented delivery by encapsulating vaccine components within them, thus making them stable against unfavorable conditions. This review provides a detailed overview of the different types of nanocarriers and various approaches that can enhance oral vaccine delivery.

Pharmacokinetics and Oral Bioavailability of Panax Notoginseng Saponins Administered to Rats Using a Validated UPLC-MS/MS Method

Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) are the most important bioactive components of P. Notoginseng. In this paper, an evaluation of the pharmacokinetics and oral absolute bioavailability of PNS was carried out following intravenous and oral administration of PNS to Sprague-Dawley rats. The plasma concentration of 28 PNS was determined using a validated UPLC-MS/MS system. The results demonstrated that Rb1(32.8%), Rg1(41.4%), R1(9.4%), Re(4.5%), and Rd(3.5%) are the five main ingredients of PNS for administration. After oral administration, it was found that the area under the curve (AUC_0-72 h) for these five major saponins was significantly different. AUC_0-72 h of Rb1 and Rd accounted for about 60% of all PNS exposure, while AUC_0-72 h of Rg1 and R1 only accounted for 0.7%, and Re was undetectable in plasma. Also, PPD, PPT, and CK were detected as the major PNS metabolites in vivo. Furthermore, it was shown that the total oral bioavailability of PNS was only 1.2%.