Invited review: Accelerating mammary gland involution after drying-off in dairy cattle

Transcriptomic profiling of gastrointestinal tracts in dairy cattle during lactation reveals molecular adaptations for milk synthesis

During lactation, dairy cattle's digestive tract requires significant adaptations to meet the increased nutrient demands for milk production. As we attempt to improve milk-related traits through selective pressure, it is crucial to understand the biological functions of the epithelia of the rumen, small intestine, and colonic tissues in response to changes in physiological state driven by changes in nutrient demands for milk synthesis. In this study, we obtained a total of 108 transcriptome profiles from three tissues (epithelia of the colon, duodenum, and rumen) of five Holstein cows, spanning eight time points from the early, mid, late lactation periods to the dry period. On average 97.06% of reads were successfully mapped to the reference genome assembly ARS-UCD1.2. We analyzed 27,607 gene expression patterns at multiple periods, enabling direct comparisons within and among tissues during different lactation stages, including early and peak lactation. We identified 1645, 813, and 2187 stage-specific genes in the colon, duodenum, and rumen, respectively, which were enriched for common or specific biological functions among different tissues. Time series analysis categorized the expressed genes within each tissue into four clusters. Furthermore, when the three tissues were analyzed collectively, 36 clusters of similarly expressed genes were identified. By integrating other comprehensive approaches such as gene co-expression analyses, functional enrichment, and cell type deconvolution, we gained profound insights into cattle lactation, revealing tissue-specific characteristics of the gastrointestinal tract and shedding light on the intricate molecular adaptations involved in nutrient absorption, immune regulation, and cellular processes for milk synthesis during lactation.

Longitudinal characterization of the metabolome of dairy cows transitioning from one lactation to the next: Investigations in fecal samples

The fecal metabolome comprises metabolites that are excreted or not absorbed by the animal. This study examined the changes in the fecal metabolome of dairy cows from the end of one lactation period, through the dry period, and into the subsequent lactation. Twelve Holstein cows (BW = 745 ± 71 kg, BCS = 3.43 ± 0.66) were housed in a tiestall barn from 7 wk before to 15 wk after parturition, with dry-off occurring approximately 6 wk before the expected calving date (mean dry-off time = 42 d). Fecal samples were taken at wk -7, -5, -1, +1, +5, +10, and +15 relative to calving. Targeted metabolomics identified a total of 93 metabolites, including AA, biogenic amines, bile acids (BA), acylcarnitines (AcylCN), and some phospholipids. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed clear metabolic shifts that showed a clear separation between the samples from the dry period and the samples from the end, early, and middle of lactation, indicating significant changes in the metabolic profiles in the feces. The transition from the dry period (wk -5, -1 relative to calving) to lactation (wk +1, +5, +10, +15, and -7 relative to calving) is characterized by an increase in fecal AA and metabolites, such as Glu, Met, β-alanine, and methionine sulfoxide, reflecting a shift in nitrogen metabolism to support increased protein metabolism for milk production. Higher concentrations of polyamines, such as spermidine and putrescine, were observed postpartum, indicating increased cell growth and improved tissue regeneration. Elevated gamma-aminobutyric acid levels during lactation indicate increased microbial activity driven by a nutrient-rich diet. Results showed significant adjustments in BA profiles as cows transitioned into lactation. Deoxycholic acid remained the predominant BA in feces, reflecting ongoing microbial transformation, whereas glycine- and taurine-conjugated BA increased postpartum, suggesting improved enterohepatic circulation and lipid absorption. Fecal AcylCN showed dynamic shifts with elevated levels during late gestation, a decrease in the dry period, and an increase postpartum, indicating increased fatty acid oxidation to meet energy demands. Results showed that phosphatidylcholines decreased prepartum but increased after calving. This indicates shifts in lipid metabolism reflecting energy requirements in lactation and suggests that fecal lipid composition is an indicator of metabolic adaptations in dairy cows. In particular, PCA revealed considerable overlap in the fecal metabolite profiles of multiparous and primiparous cows, indicating similar metabolic profiles. This was also confirmed by volcano plots, which showed no significant differences in fecal metabolism between the 2 groups across different weeks relative to calving (wk -7, -5, -1, +1, +5, +10, and +15). Overall, these results emphasize the complex interactions between dietary factors, liver and gastrointestinal function, and the gut microbiome in shaping the fecal metabolite profile of dairy cows. These results underscore the value of this data set in advancing the application of fecal metabolome profiling to investigate metabolic changes during critical transitions in the lactation cycle of dairy cows.

Investigating the relationship between dairy dam preconception and gestation characteristics and heifer offspring variables from birth to lactation

Little is known about effects of maternal characteristics around gestation in cows on their female offspring in early and later life. The objective of the current study was to investigate the relationship between cow characteristics during the preconception and gestation period, and the BW, energy metabolism, hormones, immune function, liver enzymes, and milk variables of their female offspring from birth until the first 100 d after their first calving. Holstein-Friesian dairy cows (n = 154) were blocked according to parity, milk yield, and SCC, and randomly assigned to a voluntary waiting period (VWP) of 50, 125, or 200 d. Female offspring (n = 62) from those cows were monitored from birth until the first 100 DIM of the offspring's first lactation. Not all dams were inseminated successfully soon after the planned VWP, resulting in differences between the planned VWP and intended calving interval (CInt) and the actual CInt. Dam-offspring pairs were regrouped according to the dam's actual CInt (CInt_1: 324 - 408 d; CInt_2: 409 - 468 d; CInt_3: 469 - 586 d). For data analysis, the dam variables were divided into 4 stages: 4 wk before conception, and the 3 trimesters of gestation. Similarly, the heifer calf variables were divided into 3 stages: calves from birth to weaning, heifers from weaning to calving, and lactating offspring during first 100 DIM after calving. To analyze the effects of preconception and gestation characteristics in dams on female offspring, each dam variable from 4 wk before conception until calving was included separately in a regression model, with fixed effects for dam's CInt, parity, offspring's age, and their 2-way interactions, with an repeated effect of time with female offspring as the repeated subject. Higher milk lactose in dams during the preconception period and the first 2 trimesters of gestation was related to higher BW in heifers from weaning to calving. Heavier dams during the preconception period and gestation had heifers with higher levels of plasma antikeyhole limpet hemocyanin IgG and IgM from weaning to calving. Higher plasma IGF-І concentration in dams in all stages was related to higher plasma IGF-І and insulin concentrations in heifers from weaning to calving, with increasing effect size over dam's stages. Higher milk yield of dams across all stages was associated with lower milk fat content, lower plasma nonesterified fatty acids, and higher glucose concentrations of lactating offspring during the first 100 DIM of their first lactation. Greater milk lactose and lower milk fat content in dams before conception and in the first 2 trimesters of gestation were related to greater BW in lactating offspring. In conclusion, some associations between dam in different stages and female offspring variables were present for all dam periods, but some disappeared over the course of gestation. Moreover, the greatest percentage of associations (16.56%, 159 out of 960 associations with a P-value <0.05) was present when the lactation periods of dams and their female offspring were compared, that is, when dam and offspring were in a similar life stage, compared with earlier life stages of the offspring during weaning (6.17%, 37 out of 600 associations with a P-value <0.05) and rearing (11.67%, 70 out of 600 associations with a P-value <0.05).

Systemic and mammary inflammation and mammary gland development of Holstein dairy cows around dry-off and calving

This study evaluated systemic and mammary inflammation and the immune cell population and developmental pattern of the mammary gland in Holstein dairy cows transitioning from late lactation to the dry period (LTD, n = 6) and from the dry period to early lactation (DTL, n = 7). All cows were healthy and free of mastitis at enrollment. Mammary biopsies, milk or mammary secretions, and blood samples were collected on d -7, 3, 7, and 15 relative to dry-off and on d -8, 3, 7, and 21 relative to calving. After dry-off, LTD cows had increased circulating concentrations of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, haptoglobin, and fibrinogen, suggesting upregulated inflammation. Protein, SCS, and SNF contents in milk or mammary secretions increased during the early dry period but decreased after calving. In contrast, lactose concentrations in mammary secretions decreased in the early dry period and increased following calving. Skim milk concentrations of TNF-α, IL-10, and haptoglobin increased following dry-off. Consistently, mammary tissue mRNA expression of IL1B and IL10 tended to increase on d 7 and 15 following dry-off, respectively. After calving, mammary alveolar and total cells had higher apoptosis rates. Mammary alveolar, stromal, and total cell proliferation rates peaked on d 7 after dry-off in mammary tissue collected from LTD cows and were greater in the late dry period than early lactation. Mammary mRNA expression of HGF increased on d 7 and 15 after dry-off. Mammary tissue collected in the late dry period had greater gene expression of IGF1, IGF2, PRLR than that collected in early lactation. Mammary tissues collected in the early dry period had greater percentages of CD20+ B lymphocytes, CD172a+ macrophages, and neutrophils than tissues collected during late lactation. Mammary tissues collected in early lactation had greater percentages of CD20+ B lymphocytes, CD3+ T lymphocytes, and CD172a+ macrophages than tissue collected in the late dry period. In conclusion, dairy cows experienced upregulated systemic and mammary inflammation during the early dry period, which warrants further research to elucidate its effect on mammary development. Our data also suggested that the increased mammary growth during the late gestation and early dry periods was mediated by different mechanisms. The concurrent increases in immune cell infiltration and mammary cell proliferation in the mammary gland following dry-off suggest an association between mammary immune responses and growth during the early dry period.

International Symposium on Ruminant Physiology: The immunometabolism of transition dairy cows from dry-off to early lactation: lights and shadows

The mismatch between the nutrient intake from the diet and the output by the mammary gland causes a negative energy balance in transition dairy cows, that, if excessive, can promote several metabolic disorders. Other relevant phenomena occur during transition, such as inflammation at calving and changes in immunocompetence, redox balance, and mineral metabolism. Despite the efforts, some aspects of the adaptive mechanisms observed in the transition period still need to be clarified. For instance, alterations of physiological responses even before the dry-off or during the dry period can affect the success of the whole transition period in certain cows. In this context, the mechanism regulating the inflammatory response around calving may play a pivotal role, as suggested by the variety of factors influencing it and its consequences, particularly feed intake depression, that can amplify and anticipate the negative energy balance. When this mechanism derails is still unclear, but detecting the triggers of diverted or abnormal physiological responses and where they stem (e.g., liver, rumen and gut epithelia, uterus, or mammary gland) will help to discover the weak points in the immune system and the possible ways of restoring it. Furthermore, the postpartum healthy cow appears to have an acute phase response at the liver level, despite a decrease in circulating proinflammatory cytokines. What is physiological and what is pathological in this context? To understand the latter, finding markers of an unsuccessful transition period that go beyond the energy deficit would be advisable. Future efforts should be dedicated to clarifying the causes of the acute phase response at calving, exploiting the potential of the system biology. Moreover, it would be helpful, for both basic and applied research, to define biomarkers associated with pathological responses (i.e., cytokines and acute phase proteins) and to introduce in the genetic selection phenotypes related to the ability of cows to adapt to the immunometabolic stress typical of the transition period.

Cellular characteristics and milk component productivity of primary bovine mammary cells for cell-cultured milk component production

Despite the increasing demand for milk, there is a simultaneous growth in awareness regarding sustainable dairy farming and concerns about environmental issues. The concept of generating milk components without traditional dairy farming has been introduced through the utilization of bovine mammary cells. However, the establishment of a robust primary bovine mammary alveolar cells for cell-cultured milk component production remains a challenge. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess the cellular attributes and milk component productivity of primary bovine mammary cells through various stages of cell subculture. The 1 cm3 pieces of mammary tissues were incubated onto a 10-cm cell culture dish until the cells grow out from the tissues. After the removal of mammary tissues, primary bovine mammary cells (fibroblasts, FBs; myoepithelial cells, MCs; epithelial cells, ECs) were isolated and purified through their different trypsin sensitivity. The primary bovine mammary cells were cultured with control culture media (CCM; without hormones) and differentiation culture media (DCM; with prolactin, insulin, cortisol, progesterone, 17b-estradiol, and epidermal growth factor). At passage 1, FBs, MCs, and ECs cultured with CCM displayed the highest levels of vimentin, α-smooth muscle actin, and cytokeratin 18/19 expression, respectively (p < 0.001). These cellular characteristics were not consistently maintained across subsequent passages, with a notable reduction in cell numbers (p < 0.001). At passage 1, ECs cultured in DCM exhibited higher milk component productivity in comparison to those cultured in CCM (p < 0.05). However, the synthesis of milk components exhibited a gradual decline as vacuoles increased in ECs throughout consecutive passaging. ECs cultured with CCM were unable to synthesize milk components due to the loss of tight junctions caused by matrix metalloproteinase activation. Conversely, ECs cultured with DCM boosted milk component production by intact tight junctions and low matrix metalloproteinase activity (p < 0.05). Our findings demonstrated the requirement for various hormones to maintain the productivity of primary bovine mammary cells over successive passages. These results highlight the importance of hormonal optimization to establish the stable primary cells in cell-cultured milk production.

Effect of milk stasis on mammary gland involution and the microRNA profile

The presence of an autocrine factor in milk that can trigger mammary gland involution was proposed more than 50 yr ago. To provide evidence for the existence of one or more autocrine factors, 10 multiparous cows in late lactation were quarter-milked for 7 d. Following this baseline period, the right front quarter of each cow was left unmilked, and the other quarters were milked for 7 d. Before the last milking of that period, milk (mammary secretions) was collected aseptically from both front quarters. After that milking, 250 mL of the collected samples were infused in the cows' respective rear quarters. No quarters were milked for the following 7 d (milk stasis period), and quarter milking was then resumed in all quarters for the last 7 d of the experiment (remilking period). Quarter milk samples were collected during the baseline period, before the milk stasis period, and during the remilking period. These samples were used for measuring milk components and the concentration of involution markers (SCC, BSA, and lactoferrin). Samples of mammary secretions were collected manually from the quarters during the milk stasis period for involution marker determination. We extracted RNA from samples collected from front quarters before the last milking before the milk stasis period for microRNA (miRNA) determination. As anticipated, the longer milk stasis period implemented for the right front quarter resulted in a more advanced involution than in the left front quarter, based on the concentration of involution markers in the mammary secretions, lower milk production recovery, and changes in milk composition during the remilking period. All 3 involution marker concentrations in the mammary secretions increased in both rear quarters, but were greater in the right quarter secretions than in the left quarter secretions. Resuming milking reinitiated milk production in all quarters, but milk production recovery in the right rear quarters was less robust than that in the left rear quarters (54.3 ± 1.4% vs. 61.6 ± 1.4%, respectively). Milk from the quarters infused with mammary secretions (right rear) had a lower lactose content, but a higher milk protein content and higher SCC than the quarters infused with milk. We detected a total of 359 miRNAs, 76 of which were differentially expressed in milk and mammary secretions. Expression of bta-miR-221 and bta-miR-223 was upregulated in mammary secretions 34- and 40-fold, respectively. The results of the present experiment support the contention that milk stasis leads to the accumulation of one or more factors that trigger involution. The results also indicate that milk stasis leads to changes in the miRNA profile of the milk, but whether such changes are a cause or a consequence of the involution process remains to be established.

Effects of rumen-protected 5-hydroxytryptophan on circulating serotonin concentration, behaviour, and mammary gland involution in goats

The risk of acquiring new intramammary infections is high at the end of lactation, especially for the high milk-producing dairy animals. Resistance to bacterial infection increases following the completion of mammary gland involution after milking cessation. The serotonin precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) could accelerate involution by increasing circulating serotonin levels, but ruminal microbes may degrade 5-HTP if orally administered to adult ruminants. It is unclear whether rumen-protected 5-HTP could effectively mediate circulating serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) and therefore accelerate mammary gland involution in ruminants. Goats were used as a model in the current study to investigate the effects of rumen-protected 5-HTP on behaviour, 5-HT metabolism, and mammary involution in ruminants. In the first experiment, 16 female Dazu black goats were assigned to one of four groups in a randomised block design. The treatments included a basal diet plus 0, 4, 20, or 100 mg/kg BW of rumen-protected 5-HTP. Serum was collected at 0, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h after offering the rumen-protected 5-HTP in the morning feed, and the behaviours were monitored. In the second experiment, 12 female Dazu black goats (Somatic cell count < 250 000) were randomly assigned to the control (basal diet) or rumen-protected 5-HTP group (basal diet plus 20 mg/kg BW). Milk or mammary secretions were manually collected aseptically on d -1, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 around weaning. The results depicted that rumen-protected 5-HTP supplementation elevated circulating 5-HTP and 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid concentrations, while 20 mg/kg BW of rumen-protected 5-HTP supplementation lowered the goats' locomotive activity. A high concentration of rumen-protected 5-HTP (100 mg/kg BW) increased serum alkaline phosphatase and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase concentrations. Moreover, oral supplementation with 20 mg/kg BW of rumen-protected 5-HTP accelerated mammary gland involution and reduced feed intake in goats after weaning. These results demonstrate that oral supplementation with rumen-protected 5-HTP influences 5-HT metabolism and accelerates mammary gland involution after milking cessation in ruminants.

Association between days post-conception and lactation persistency in dairy cattle

Determining the optimal insemination moment for individual cows is complex, particularly when considering the effects of pregnancy on milk production. The effect of pregnancy on the absolute milk yield has already been reported in several studies. Currently, there is limited quantitative knowledge about the association between days post-conception (DPC) and lactation persistency, based on a lactation curve model, and, specifically, how persistency changes during pregnancy and relates to the days in milk at conception (DIMc). Understanding this association might provide valuable insights to determine the optimal insemination moment. This study, therefore, aimed to investigate the association between DPC and lactation persistency, with an additional focus on the influence of DIMc. Available milk production data from 2005 to 2022 were available for 23,908 cows from 87 herds located throughout the Netherlands and Belgium. Persistency was measured by a lactation curve characteristic decay, representing the time taken to halve milk production after peak yield. Decay was calculated for 8 DPC (0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, and 210 d after DIMc) and served as the dependent variable. Independent variables included DPC, DIMc (≤60, 61-90, 91-120, 121-150, 151-180, 181-210, >210), parity group, DPC × parity group, DPC × DIMc, and variables from 30 d before DIMc as covariates. The results showed an increase in decay, which is to say, a decrease in persistency, during pregnancy for both parity groups, albeit in different ways. Specifically, from DPC 150 to DPC 210, multiparous cows showed a greater decline in persistency compared with primiparous cows. Furthermore, a later DIMc (cows conceiving later) was associated with higher persistency. Except for the early DIMc groups (DIMc <90), DIMc does not affect the change in persistency by gestation. The findings from this study contribute to a better understanding of how DPC and DIMc during lactation influence lactation persistency, enabling more informed decision-making by farmers who wish to take persistency into account in their reproduction management.

Impact of nutrient restriction at dry-off on performance and metabolism

Thanks to improvements in genetics, nutrition, and management, modern dairy cows can still produce large amounts of milk at the end of lactation, with possible negative effects on health and welfare, particularly when milking is stopped abruptly. To limit yield at dry-off, strategies involving different types of dietary restriction have been used worldwide. Thus, we aimed to investigate the effects of a reduced nutrient density at dry-off on milk production, metabolism, the pattern of rumen fermentation, and milk fatty acid profile around dry-off and in the ensuing periparturient period. During the last week before dry-off, 26 Holstein cows were enrolled in pairs according to the expected calving date and either fed ad libitum ryegrass hay (nutrient restricted, NR; 13 cows) or continued to receive lactation diet (control group, CTR; 13 cows). After dry-off, both groups received only grass hay for 7 d, and free access to water was always provided. Blood, milk, and rumen fluid samples were collected from 7 d before dry-off to 28 DIM. Milk production, DMI (during the periparturient period), and rumination times were recorded daily. At dry-off, NR cows had decreased milk yield (-62%) and milk lactose compared with CTR but had higher fat and protein contents. In the subsequent lactation, no significant differences were observed in milk yield and composition. The BCS did not differ between groups during the transition period, but it decreased in NR after dry-off. Before dry-off, NR had decreased glucose, urea, and insulin, but higher creatinine, BHB, and nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA). The day after dry-off, NEFA were lower in NR, but they were higher 7 d after calving. At dry-off, NR had higher rumen pH, lower lactate, urea, and total volatile fatty acid concentrations. Considering volatile fatty acid molar proportions, NR had increased acetate but decreased propionate and butyrate at dry-off. Rumination time dropped 6 d before dry-off in NR and after dry-off in CTR, but no differences were observed in the periparturient period. Milk fatty acid profile revealed a remarkably lower proportion of short-chain fatty acids in NR at dry-off and a higher proportion of medium- and long-chain ones. These results confirmed that decreasing nutrient density reduce milk yield before dry-off. However, metabolism around dry-off was significantly affected, as suggested by plasma, rumen fluid, and milk analyses. Further research is required to investigate the impact of the metabolic effects on the inflammatory response, liver function, and immune system, particularly concerning the mammary gland.

A retrospective cohort study investigating the association of individual quarter dry-off with udder health, milk production, and culling risk

Individual quarter dry-off (QDO) has been increasingly employed as a strategy for managing cows with chronically elevated SCC and recurrent clinical mastitis. However, little knowledge is available on the effects of QDO on milk production, SCC, the risk of clinical mastitis, and the risk of removal from the herd. Therefore, this retrospective cohort study aimed to investigate these associations. Data from 471 dairy cows subjected to QDO were analyzed. The cows were housed on a 4,000-cow dairy farm with a thrice-daily milking schedule. The cows were grouped based on the reason for QDO: (1) cows detected with a nonlactating quarter at a fresh cow check (QFRESH); (2) cows with recurrent clinical mastitis (QMAST); (3) cows diagnosed with Staphylococcus aureus IMI (QSA); and (4) cows with chronic subclinical mastitis (QSCC). Additionally, we randomly selected herd mates at a ratio of 1:1 to serve as a control group (CON). Cows in the CON group were matched in terms of parity and stage of lactation. Generalized linear mixed models with an identical link were used to estimate milk yield and SCC at 1 test day before QDO (T-1) as well as 1, 2, and 3 (T1, T2, and T3) test days after QDO. All cows subjected to QDO exhibited a decrease in milk yield following QDO compared with their respective control groups. All QDO cows approached the yield of their control group by T3. In particular, the difference in milk yield between QMAST cows and their controls at T3 was less than the difference at T1. Cows in the QMAST and QSCC groups exhibited a decrease in their SCC following QDO. In particular, the SCC was significantly higher among QMAST cows than among their controls at T1, but this difference was no longer significant by T3. Proportional hazards regression models revealed that QDO was associated with clinical mastitis occurrence and removal from the herd. Compared with CON cows, the hazard ratio (95% CI) for clinical mastitis occurrence was 3.70 (1.65-8.28), 1.80 (1.31-2.47), and 2.27 (0.93-5.54) among QFRESH, QMAST, and QSA cows, respectively. The hazard ratio among QSCC cows was modified by the effect of parity. The hazard ratio (95% CI) for removal from the herd was higher among cows subjected to QDO than among CON cows (hazard ratio [95% CI] values of 2.30 [0.99-5.33], 3.27 [2.20-4.86], and 4.87 [1.81-13.12] for QFRESH, QMAST, and QSCC cows, respectively). We conclude that QDO can be a viable strategy for managing cows with recurrent clinical mastitis. However, the results for the cows that underwent QDO for other reasons are less clear, partially due to low statistical power. Therefore, future research should examine how to decrease the risks of clinical mastitis and removal from the herd among cows subjected to QDO.

A randomized control trial to test the effect of pegbovigrastim treatment at dry-off on plasma and milk oxylipid profiles during early mammary gland involution and the postparturient period

The early period of mammary gland involution is a critical juncture in the lactation cycle that can have significant effects on milk production and mammary gland health. Pegbovigrastim (PEG) administered 1 wk prior and on the day of parturition can enhance immune function and reduce the incidence of mastitis in the early postpartum period. Oxylipids are potent metabolites of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and are important mediators of inflammation. The objective of this study was to evaluate effects of PEG given 1 wk before and at the day of dry-off (D0) on concentrations of oxylipids in plasma and milk from 7 d before D0 to 14 d after, as well as the effects during the first 14 d of the subsequent lactation. We hypothesized that both pro- and anti-inflammatory oxylipids would vary based on initiation of mammary gland involution and that pegbovigrastim would affect oxylipid concentrations, particularly those related to leukocytes. A complete randomized blocked design was used to enroll cows into either a PEG treatment group (n = 10) or control group (n = 10; CON). Blood samples were collected -7, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 d relative to dry-off and 5, 10, and 14 d postcalving. Samples were analyzed for PUFA and oxylipids in milk and plasma by ultra-performance mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry, respectively. Overall, 30 lipid mediators were measured in both milk and plasma. Repeated measures analyses revealed a significant interaction of treatment by time for milk 8-iso-keto-15-prostaglandin E2, prostaglandin F2α, plasma 8,12-iso-prostaglandin Fα-VI, 11-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, and 12-hydroxyheptadecatienoic acid. The majority of milk PUFA and oxylipids differed significantly during early mammary gland involution and into the early postpartum period. This study demonstrated changes in oxylipids in milk secretions and plasma during early involution, and further investigation may illuminate multiple complex processes and reveal targets for optimization of mammary gland involution.

Cabergoline as a Novel Strategy for Post-Pregnancy Breast Cancer Prevention in Mice and Human

Post-pregnancy breast cancer often carries a poor prognosis, posing a major clinical challenge. The increasing trend of later-life pregnancies exacerbates this risk, highlighting the need for effective chemoprevention strategies. Current options, limited to selective estrogen receptor modulators, aromatase inhibitors, or surgical procedures, offer limited efficacy and considerable side effects. Here, we report that cabergoline, a dopaminergic agonist, reduces the risk of breast cancer post-pregnancy in a Brca1/P53-deficient mouse model, with implications for human breast cancer prevention. We show that a single dose of cabergoline administered post-pregnancy significantly delayed the onset and reduced the incidence of breast cancer in Brca1/P53-deficient mice. Histological analysis revealed a notable acceleration in post-lactational involution over the short term, characterized by increased apoptosis and altered gene expression related to ion transport. Over the long term, histological changes in the mammary gland included a reduction in the ductal component, decreased epithelial proliferation, and a lower presence of recombinant Brca1/P53 target cells, which are precursors of tumors. These changes serve as indicators of reduced breast cancer susceptibility. Additionally, RNA sequencing identified gene expression alterations associated with decreased proliferation and mammary gland branching. Our findings highlight a mechanism wherein cabergoline enhances the protective effect of pregnancy against breast cancer by potentiating postlactational involution. Notably, a retrospective cohort study in women demonstrated a markedly lower incidence of post-pregnancy breast cancer in those treated with cabergoline compared to a control group. Our work underscores the importance of enhancing postlactational involution as a strategy for breast cancer prevention, and identifies cabergoline as a promising, low-risk option in breast cancer chemoprevention. This strategy has the potential to revolutionize breast cancer prevention approaches, particularly for women at increased risk due to genetic factors or delayed childbirth, and has wider implications beyond hereditary breast cancer cases.

Effect of different inflammation states on the antimicrobial components in milk of goat udders after milking cessation

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of milking cessation under different inflammatory conditions on the changes in antimicrobial components in milk and the process of mammary gland involution. Twenty udder halves were divided into two groups: those with (LPS) and without (control) lipopolysaccharide infusion, followed by cessation of milking for 8 weeks. Milk samples were collected weekly. Udder tissue was collected 4 weeks after milking cessation to measure the area of the lobule and connective tissue. After milking cessation, the somatic cell count (SCC) in the control group increased, whereas that in the LPS group did not. Lactoferrin (LF) and cathelicidin (Cath)-2 concentrations increased in both groups, whereas only LF was significantly lower in the LPS group than in the control group at week 4. The Cath-7 and S100A8 concentrations were significantly lower in the LPS group than in the control group. The lobule area was higher, and the connective tissue area was lower in the LPS group than in the control group. These results indicate that inflammation at milking cessation decreased the concentrations of some antimicrobial components and interfered with mammary gland involution. Therefore, animals with mastitis should recover prior to the onset of the dry period.

Morphophysiological Responses of the Goat Mammary Gland to Water Scarcity in Arid and Semi-Arid Environments: Are They Enough to Generate Adaptation to New Climatic Challenges?

Due to climate change, diverse territories of the planet will suffer from water restrictions. Goats are perceived as the most resilient ruminants in this scenario. So, various studies have focused on describing how a lower water intake influences milk production, especially in breeds adapted to desert environments. In water-stress situations, goats lose up to 32% of their body weight (BW), the rate of passage is reduced, and the digestibility of the feed increases. When goats consume water again, the rumen prevents hemolysis and osmotic shock from occurring. Regarding milk production, the response varies depending on the breed and the level of water restriction, maintaining the milk volume or reducing it by up to 41%. Systemically, it decreases the urinary volume and glomerular filtration rate, increasing blood osmolality and the vasopressin (ADH) concentration. Studies are scarce regarding changes in blood flow to the mammary gland, but there would be a reduction in blood flow velocity of up to 40% without changing blood pressure. New studies must be undertaken to determine which breeds or crosses are the best adapted to changing environmental conditions and to improve our understanding of the changes that occur at the morphophysiological level of the caprine mammary gland.

Unraveling the Genetic Basis of Feed Efficiency in Cattle through Integrated DNA Methylation and CattleGTEx Analysis

Feed costs can amount to 75 percent of the total overhead cost of raising cows for milk production. Meanwhile, the livestock industry is considered a significant contributor to global climate change due to the production of greenhouse gas emissions, such as methane. Indeed, the genetic basis of feed efficiency (FE) is of great interest to the animal research community. Here, we explore the epigenetic basis of FE to provide base knowledge for the development of genomic tools to improve FE in cattle. The methylation level of 37,554 CpG sites was quantified using a mammalian methylation array (HorvathMammalMethylChip40) for 48 Holstein cows with extreme residual feed intake (RFI). We identified 421 CpG sites related to 287 genes that were associated with RFI, several of which were previously associated with feeding or digestion issues. Activator of transcription and developmental regulation (AUTS2) is associated with digestive disorders in humans, while glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase 2 (GPD2) encodes a protein on the inner mitochondrial membrane, which can regulate glucose utilization and fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis. The extensive expression and co-expression of these genes across diverse tissues indicate the complex regulation of FE in cattle. Our study provides insight into the epigenetic basis of RFI and gene targets to improve FE in dairy cattle.

Colour Doppler study of blood flow in the portal vein in relation to blood flow in the milk vein, milk yield and body condition of dairy cows during dry period and lactation

In dairy cows, the liver supports the increased nutrient demands of the udder for milk production. Blood flow is key for the transport of these nutrients. This study investigated portal vein blood flow volume (PVBFVol) in relation to daily milk yield (DMY), milk vein blood flow volume (MVBFVol) and body condition parameters of high-producing dairy cows, starting from late lactation, throughout dry period, and consecutive early lactation. Seventeen repeated examinations were performed on 19 Holstein cows and 313 measurement days were finally included. Vein morphology and blood flow were examined via B-mode and spectral Doppler (triplex) ultrasonography, respectively. Body condition parameters recorded were body condition score (BCS), backfat thickness (BFT) measurement with ultrasonography, heart girth circumference (HG) and withers height (WH). Longitudinal relationship of PVBFVol with MVBFVol, DMY, BCS, BFT, HG and WH was analyzed with linear mixed models, with random intercept effects, using restricted cubic splines. A significant increase of 8.28% (p < 0.01) in PVBFVol appeared for every 1 L/min increase in MVBFVol in the univariable model. PVBFVol presented a significant negative association with BCS (p < 0.01) and BFT (p = 0.02), while interaction with production stage was significant, too. PVBFVol significantly increased by 0.38% (p = 0.04) for every 1 kg increase in DMY in the multivariable model. In conclusion, the increased PVBFVol during lactation accompanies the escalation in metabolic activity of the liver and the increased blood circulation through the udder, coping with the udder's escalating nutrient demands for milk synthesis.

Graduate Student Literature Review: The challenge of drying-off high-yielding dairy cows

The cessation of lactation (i.e., dry-off) in dairy cattle is an area of research that has received much focus in recent years. The dry period is necessary to optimize tissue remodeling of the mammary gland, but represents a stressful event, incorporating several changes in daily routine, diet, and metabolism. Moreover, the high milk yields achieved by modern cows in late gestation exacerbate the need for relevant manipulations in the days around dry-off, as excessive accumulation of milk might jeopardize the success of the dry period, with potential negative effects on future lactation. Production levels over 15 kg/d are an additional risk factor for udder health, delay mammary involution, and worsen metabolic stress and inflammatory responses. Furthermore, the pressure to reduce antibiotic usage in farm animals has resulted in increased attention on the dry period, given that historically most dairy cattle were provided prophylactic intramammary antibiotic treatment at dry-off as a means to reduce the risk of intramammary infections in the subsequent lactation. Several strategies have been proposed over the years to cope with these challenges, aiming to gradually reduce milk yield before dry-off, promoting at the same time the start of mammary involution. Among them, the most common are based on feed or nutrient restriction, a decrease in milking frequency, or administration of prolactin inhibitors. These practices have different capacities to reduce milk yield through different mechanisms and entail several implications for udder health, animal welfare, behavior, endocrine status, metabolism, and inflammatory conditions. The present review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the dry-off phase in high-yielding cows and of the impact of high milk production at dry-off, and to describe possible strategies that might be implemented by farmers and veterinarians to optimize this critical phase in an integrated way.

Effects of Serotonin on Cell Viability, Permeability of Bovine Mammary Gland Epithelial Cells and Their Transcriptome Analysis

Serotonin (5-HT) has been reported to play an important role in mammary gland involution that is defined as the process through which the gland returns to a nonlactating state. However, the overall picture of the regulatory mechanisms of 5-HT and the effects of serotonylation on mammary gland involution still need to be further investigated. The current study aimed to investigate the effects of 5-HT on global gene expression profiles of bovine mammary epithelial cells (MAC-T) and to preliminarily examine whether the serotonylation involved in the mammary gland involution by using Monodansylcadaverine (MDC), a competitive inhibitor of transglutaminase 2. Results showed that a high concentration of 5-HT decreased viability and transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) in MAC-T cells. Transcriptome analysis indicated that 2477 genes were differentially expressed in MAC-T cells treated with 200 μg/mL of 5-HT compared with the control group, and the Notch, p53, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways were enriched. MDC influenced 5-HT-induced MAC-T cell death, fatty acid synthesis, and the formation and disruption of tight junctions. Overall, a high concentration of 5-HT is able to accelerate mammary gland involution, which may be regulated through the Notch, p53, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways. Serotonylation is involved in bovine mammary gland involution.

Udder Ultrasonography of Dairy Cows: Investigating the Relationship between Echotexture, Blood Flow, Somatic Cell Count and Milk Yield during Dry Period and Lactation

Udder health of dairy cows is related to their productivity and welfare. The period from dry-off to calving and early lactation is crucial. Ultrasonography is a useful and practical tool for the examination of the mammary parenchyma and blood flow. This observational study investigated the relationship between udder echotexture features, blood flow volume (BFVol) in the milk vein, milk somatic cell count (SCC) and daily milk yield (DMY) from late lactation, throughout the dry period and consecutive early lactation. Seventeen repeated measurements were performed on twenty-one Holstein cows. The udder parenchyma was examined with B-mode ultrasonography. Udder echotexture was studied using 15 features: Numerical Pixel Value (NPV), Pixel Standard Deviation (PSD), Skewness, Excess, Contrast, Homogeneity, Correlation, Entropy, Run Percentage, Long-Run Emphasis, Grey Value Distribution, Runlength Distribution, Gradient Mean Value, Gradient Variance and Percentage of Non-zero Gradients. Blood flow in the milk vein was examined with spectral Doppler. Linear mixed-effects models were employed to investigate relationships between BFVol, udder echotexture features, SCC and DMY throughout the study period. Our models showed that a 1 kg increase in DMY was associated with a significant increase of 0.25 L/min in the expected BFVol and that a 1,000,000-cells/mL increase in SCC was associated with a significant BFVol decrease of 0.49 L/min, keeping all other variables constant. Multivariable models showed significant associations between DMY and NPV, between PSD and Long-Run Emphasis, and between SCC and NPV, PSD, Gradient Mean Value, Homogeneity, Gradient Variance and Entropy. In conclusion, udder echotexture and BFVol in the milk vein are related to SCC and milk yield. Ultrasonography can be used for the comprehensive assessment of udder health in support of precision dairy farming.

Identification and Characterization of circRNAs in Non-Lactating Dairy Goat Mammary Glands Reveal Their Regulatory Role in Mammary Cell Involution and Remodeling

This study conducted transcriptome sequencing of goat-mammary-gland tissue at the late lactation (LL), dry period (DP), and late gestation (LG) stages to reveal the expression characteristics and molecular functions of circRNAs during mammary involution. A total of 11,756 circRNAs were identified in this study, of which 2528 circRNAs were expressed in all three stages. The number of exonic circRNAs was the largest, and the least identified circRNAs were antisense circRNAs. circRNA source gene analysis found that 9282 circRNAs were derived from 3889 genes, and 127 circRNAs' source genes were unknown. Gene Ontology (GO) terms, such as histone modification, regulation of GTPase activity, and establishment or maintenance of cell polarity, were significantly enriched (FDR < 0.05), which indicates the functional diversity of circRNAs' source genes. A total of 218 differentially expressed circRNAs were identified during the non-lactation period. The number of specifically expressed circRNAs was the highest in the DP and the lowest in LL stages. These indicated temporal specificity of circRNA expression in mammary gland tissues at different developmental stages. In addition, this study also constructed circRNA-miRNA-mRNA competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory networks related to mammary development, immunity, substance metabolism, and apoptosis. These findings help understand the regulatory role of circRNAs in mammary cell involution and remodeling.

In vitro evaluation of ginsenoside Rg1 immunostimulating effect in bovine mononuclear cells

The aim of this study was to evaluate the immunomodulatory effect of ginsenoside Rg1 on mammary secretion and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (MSMC and PBMC, respectively). The mRNA expression of TLR2, TLR4 and selected cytokines were evaluated on MSMC after Rg1 treatment. Also, TLR2 and TLR4 protein expression was evaluated on MSMC and PBMC after Rg1 treatment. Phagocytic activity and capacity, ROS production and MHC-II expression were evaluated on MSMC and PBMC after Rg1 treatment and co-culture with Staphylococcus aureus strain 5011. Rg1 induced mRNA expression of TLR2, TLR4, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8 in groups treated with different concentrations and at different times in MSMC, and induced TLR2 and TLR4 protein expression in MSMC and PBMC. Rg1 increased phagocytic capacity and ROS production in MSMC and PBMC. Rg1 increased MHC-II expression by PBMC. However, Rg1 pre-treatment had no effect on cells co-cultured with S. aureus. In conclusion, Rg1 was able to stimulate several sensing and effector activities in these immune cells.

Amplifying local serotonin signaling prior to dry-off hastens mammary gland involution and redevelopment in dairy cows

The monoamine serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) has been reported to inhibit milk protein gene expression and increase mammary epithelial cell (MEC) tight junction permeability after milk stasis. We hypothesized that increasing serotonin synthesis and signaling within the mammary epithelium before milk stasis would increase systemic and local involution markers, and downregulate the expression of milk protein and tight junction during involution, leading to more efficient tissue growth during the redevelopment phase. Herein, we examined the outcomes of increasing local mammary 5-HT synthesis before milk stasis on involution biomarkers, mammary gland microstructure, and gene and protein expression during the dry period. Multiparous Holstein cows were administered intramammary infusions (via the teat canal) of sterile water (CON, 4 mL/teat, n = 7) or 5-hydroxy-l-tryptophan (5-HTP, serotonin precursor, 20 mg/teat, n = 7) once daily for 5 d before dry-off (d 0). Blood, milk, and mammary secretions were collected and analyzed for components and metabolites. Mammary secretions were collected 12 h after the last milking and on d 1 to 4 during the dry period at 1200 h. Mammary gland biopsies were performed on d 4 (i.e., involution phase) and d 36 (i.e., redevelopment phase) of the dry period for histological and molecular evaluation. Milk protein and tight junction gene expression was quantified via real-time PCR. Hematoxylin and eosin staining, immunohistochemistry (Ki67), and immunofluorescence (serotonin, cleaved caspase 3) were performed to visualize tissue microstructure and to quantify serotonin intensity and cell turnover. Data were analyzed in SAS (SAS Institute Inc.) using 2-way ANOVA. After d 0, mammary secretions of 5-HTP cows had increased concentrations of 5-HT, lactoferrin, and bovine serum albumin. On d 1, 5-HTP cows had greater α-lactalbumin concentrations in plasma relative to CON. Serotonin intensity was increased in the mammary tissue of 5-HTP cows on d 4, relative to CON. On d 4, milk protein and tight junction gene expression was downregulated, MEC number was reduced, and cleaved caspase 3 protein was greater in mammary tissue of 5-HTP cows, relative to CON. On d 36, milk protein genes were upregulated, and the lumen:outer alveolar area and Ki67-positive cells were increased in the mammary tissue of 5-HTP cows, relative to CON. Amplifying serotonin signaling in the mammary epithelium before milk stasis at dry-off achieves greater apoptosis, leading to a reduction in MEC, allowing for greater cell proliferation, which results in more MEC during the redevelopment phase preceding the onset of lactation.

Traditional and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins disrupt homeostasis of bovine mammary cells by altering cell permeability and innate immune function

High incidence of traditional and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in cereal grains and silages can be a potential threat to feed safety and ruminants. Inadequate biodegradation of Fusarium mycotoxins by rumen microflora following ingestion of mycotoxin-contaminated feeds can lead to their circulatory transport to target tissues such as mammary gland. The bovine udder plays a pivotal role in maintaining milk yield and composition, thus, human health. However, toxic effects of Fusarium mycotoxins on bovine mammary gland are rarely studied. In this study, the bovine mammary epithelial cell line was used as an in-vitro model of bovine mammary epithelium to investigate effects of deoxynivalenol (DON), enniatin B (ENB) and beauvericin (BEA) on bovine mammary gland homeostasis. Results indicated that exposure to DON, ENB and BEA for 48 h significantly decreased cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.001). Exposure to DON at 0.39 μmol/L and BEA at 2.5 μmol/L for 48 h also decreased paracellular flux of FITC-40 kDa dextran (P < 0.05), whereas none of the mycotoxins affected transepithelial electrical resistance after 48 h exposure. The qPCR was performed for assessment of expression of gene coding tight junction (TJ) proteins, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and cytokines after 4, 24 and 48 h of exposure. DON, ENB and BEA significantly upregulated the TJ protein zonula occludens-1, whereas markedly downregulated claudin 3 (P < 0.05). Exposure to DON at 1.35 μmol/L for 4 h significantly increased expression of occludin (P < 0.01). DON, ENB and BEA significant downregulated TLR4 (P < 0.05). In contrast, ENB markedly increased expression of cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) (P < 0.001), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-a) (P < 0.05) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) (P < 0.01). BEA significantly upregulated IL- 6 (P < 0.001) and TGF-β (P = 0.01), but downregulated TNF-α (P < 0.001). These results suggest that DON, ENB and BEA can disrupt mammary gland homeostasis by inducing cell death as well as altering its paracellular permeability and expression of genes involved in innate immune function.

Programming effects of late gestation heat stress in dairy cattle

The final weeks of gestation represent a critical period for dairy cows that can determine the success of the subsequent lactation. Many physiological changes take place and additional exogenous stressors can alter the success of the transition into lactation. Moreover, this phase is pivotal for the final stage of intrauterine development of the fetus, which can have negative long-lasting postnatal effects. Heat stress is widely recognised as a threat to dairy cattle welfare, health, and productivity. Specifically, late gestation heat stress impairs the dam's productivity by undermining mammary gland remodelling during the dry period and altering metabolic and immune responses in early lactation. Heat stress also affects placental development and function, with relevant consequences on fetal development and programming. In utero heat stressed newborns have reduced birth weight, growth, and compromised passive immune transfer. Moreover, the liver and mammary DNA of in utero heat stressed calves show a clear divergence in the pattern of methylation relative to that of in utero cooled calves. These alterations in gene regulation might result in depressed immune function, as well as altered thermoregulation, hepatic metabolism, and mammary development jeopardising their survival in the herd and productivity. Furthermore, late gestation heat stress appears to exert multigenerational effects, influencing milk yield and survival up to the third generation.

The Effect of Anthocyanins from Dioscorea alata L. on Antioxidant Properties of Perinatal Hainan Black Goats and Its Possible Mechanism in the Mammary Gland

(1) Background: The mammary glands of the perinatal goats are susceptible to reactive oxygen species (ROS) leading to oxidative injury. Although Dioscorea alata L. is rich in anthocyanins with high safety and excellent free-radical-scavenging ability, the effect and mechanism of Dioscorea alata L. anthocyanins (DAC) on the antioxidant capacity of the black Hainan goat has been the subject of few studies to date; (2) Methods: For this reason, feeding experiments were performed by feeding experimental diets, and the pre-protective capacity of DAC on goat mammary epithelial cells was explored on the basis of the established model of H₂O₂ injury; (3) Results: As well as altering rumen fermentation parameters in perinatal female goats, dietary challenge also improves antioxidant capacity in their blood and milk. thereby enhancing children's antioxidant capacity and increasing their resistance to oxidative stress. However, we also found that DAC pretreatment was capable of activating both Nrf2 and MAPK/JNK pathways, which results in enhanced antioxidase activity and elimination of ROS; (4) Conclusions: Together, these findings suggest that DAC may have a pre-protective role on perinatal Hainan black goats through the regulation of Nrf2 and MAPK/JNK pathways in GMEC.

Transcriptome Analysis of Goat Mammary Gland Tissue Reveals the Adaptive Strategies and Molecular Mechanisms of Lactation and Involution

To understand how genes precisely regulate lactation physiological activity and the molecular genetic mechanisms underlying mammary gland involution, this study investigated the transcriptome characteristics of goat mammary gland tissues at the late gestation (LG), early lactation (EL), peak lactation (PL), late lactation (LL), dry period (DP), and involution (IN) stages. A total of 13,083 differentially expressed transcripts were identified by mutual comparison of mammary gland tissues at six developmental stages. Genes related to cell growth, apoptosis, immunity, nutrient transport, synthesis, and metabolism make adaptive transcriptional changes to meet the needs of mammary lactation. Notably, platelet derived growth factor receptor beta (PDGFRB) was screened as a hub gene of the mammary gland developmental network, which is highly expressed during the DP and IN. Overexpression of PDGFRB in vitro could slow down the G1/S phase arrest of goat mammary epithelial cell cycle and promote cell proliferation by regulating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. In addition, PDGFRB overexpression can also affect the expression of genes related to apoptosis, matrix metalloproteinase family, and vascular development, which is beneficial to the remodeling of mammary gland tissue during involution. These findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms involved in lactation and mammary gland involution.

Effect of experimental stress and cortisol release induced by ACTH administration on expression of key genes related to milk synthesis and apoptosis during mammary involution of Saanen goats

This research paper addresses the hypothesis that stress, induced by ACTH administration and cortisol release increases somatic cell count (SCC) in mammary secretion, and improves the effectiveness of dry off in goats. We report indicators of milk synthesis and mammary gland involution during dry off. Thirty Saanen goats were subjected to abrupt dry off and treatments: (1) ACTH administration (ACTH) or (2) placebo (Control) on days 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 30, and 60 of dry off. The expression of target genes in mammary tissue that are related to milk synthesis and cell survival such as insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PIK3CA), protein kinase B (AKT1) and mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR), casein (CSN2), lactalbumin (LALBA) and lactoferrin (LF) were evaluated, and plasma cortisol concentration, SCC, leucocyte count, and microbiological analyses in milk and mammary secretions were assessed. ACTH significantly downregulated the expression of IGF1R and upregulated the expression of PIK3CA in mammary tissue, increased lactoferrin concentration and SCC, and changed immune cell levels in mammary secretions compared to Control. Furthermore, ACTH administration increased the percentage of dry goats compared to the Control (73 vs. 46%, respectively). We conclude that the effect of stress via ACTH administration and cortisol release accelerated mammary involution during the early dry-off period.

Effect of temporary cessation of milking and estradiol combination on the antimicrobial components in goat milk

A temporary cessation of milking is widely used in Japan to treat mastitis in dairy cows. Exogenous administration of estradiol (E2) is known to inhibit milk production in dairy cows. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the effects of the temporary cessation of milking in combination with E2 administration on the antimicrobial components of goat milk. Twelve goats, divided into two groups-with and without E2 injection (E2 and control group, respectively), were subjected to cessation of milking in both udder halves for 3 d (day 0-2). Milk yield in the E2 group was significantly lower than that in the control group on days 7 to 10. The concentrations of cathelicidin-2, IgA, and lactoferrin in the E2 group were significantly higher than those in the control group. These results suggest that the temporary cessation of milking with simultaneous E2 administration leads to a higher concentration of certain antimicrobial components in milk than that observed after using cessation of milking alone. Thus, this combination may contribute to a stronger innate immune system and a faster recovery from mastitis, and might prove to be an alternative to antibiotic treatment upon further research.

Effect of serotonin on the cell viability of the bovine mammary alveolar cell-T (MAC-T) cell line

5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), a monoamine, as a local regulator in the mammary gland is a chemical signal produced by the mammary epithelium cell. In cows, studies have shown that 5-HT is associated with epithelial cell apoptosis during the degenerative phase of the mammary gland. However, studies in other tissues have shown that 5-HT can effectively promote cell viability. Whether 5-HT could have an effect on mammary cell viability in dairy cows is still unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine: (1) effect of 5-HT on the viability of bovine mammary epithelial cells and its related signaling pathways, (2) interaction between prolactin (PRL) and 5-HT on the cell viability. The bovine mammary alveolar cell-T (MAC-T) were cultured with different concentrations of 5-HT for 12, 24, 48 or 72 hours, and then were assayed using cell counting kit-8, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunobloting. The results suggested that 20 μM 5-HT treatment for 12 or 24 h promote cell viability, which was mainly induced by the activation of 5-HT receptor (5-HTR) 1B and 4, because the increase caused by 5-HT vanished when 5-HTR 1B and 4 was blocked by SB224289 and SB204070. And protein expression of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), eukaryotic translation elongation factor 2 (eEF2), janus kinase 2 (JAK2) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5) were decreased after blocking 5-HT 1B and 4 receptors. When MAC-T cells were treated with 5-HT and PRL simultaneously for 24 h, both the cell viability and the level of mTOR protein were significantly higher than that cultured with 5-HT or PRL alone. In conclusion, our study suggested that 5-HT promotes the viability of MAC-T cells by 5-HTR 1B and/or 4. Furthermore, there is a reciprocal relationship between PRL and 5-HT.

Identification and profiling of microRNAs involved in the regenerative involution of mammary gland

Regenerative involution is important for the subsequent lactation, but molecular mechanism has not been revealed. The crucial miRNA in tissue development indicates that miRNAs might participate in regenerative involution. In the present study, the mammary tissues of the dairy goats (n = 3) were collected via biopsy at wk-8 (time to dry off), -6, -4, -1, and + 1 relative to lambing for the Hematoxylin and Eosin staining and miRNA sequencing. Alveolar structures collapsed during regenerative involution, but the structures remained intact and distended. Among the 50 miRNA expression trajectories categorized by short time-series expression miner, two significant patterns were clustered. The differentially expressed miRNAs in the two patterns were mainly related to the self-renewal of tissue and enriched in pathways containing vesical-mediated transport, tissue development, tube development, vasculature development and epithelial development. The identification of the miRNA will help in elucidating the regulatory roles of miRNAs in mammary gland development.

The Analysis of the Ubiquitylomic Responses to Streptococcus agalactiae Infection in Bovine Mammary Gland Epithelial Cells

Purpose

Streptococcus agalactiae is one of the primary pathogens responsible for subclinical mastitis, a significant economic burden for dairy farms. An essential component of the immune response to infection is ubiquitination, which plays important roles in the complex interactions between the pathogen and host.

Materials and Methods

In the present study, quantitative ubiquitylomics was performed to profile changes in the global ubiquitinome of bovine mammary gland epithelial cells (BMECs) infected with S. agalactiae.

Results

The most notable changes in the BMEC ubiquitinome were related to the adherens junction, ribosome, and tight junction pathways. Ubiquitination of CTNNB1, EGFR, ITGB1, CTNNA1, CTNNA2, CDH1, YES1, and SLC9A3R1 appears to be fundamental for regulating multiple cellular processes in BMECs in response to S. agalactiae infection. In addition, broad ubiquitination of various effectors and outer membrane proteins was observed. Ubiquitinated proteins in S. agalactiae-infected BMECs were associated with regulating cell junctions in the host, with potential implications for susceptibility to infection.

Conclusion

The preliminary findings suggest that extensive ubiquitination of CTNNB1, CDH1 and SLC9A3R1 and proteins closely related to cell junctions might play an important role in mastitis progression in dairy cows. The results provide evidence that ubiquitin modification of certain proteins in S. agalactiae-infected BMECs could be a promising therapeutic strategy for reducing mammary gland injury and mastitis.

Gene network expression of whole blood leukocytes in dairy cows with different milk yield at dry-off

Dairy cows at dry-off undergo several management and physiological changes, resulting in alterations in plasma biomarkers of inflammation, oxidative stress, and immune system. High milk yield at the end of lactation exacerbates these responses. The underlying mechanism of these changes has yet to be elucidated. We hypothesized altered leukocyte gene expression after dry-off and different responses in cows with different milk yield. Thirteen Holstein dairy cows were sampled at the turn of dry-off to investigated whole blood leukocyte gene expression and were grouped according to the average milk yield during the last week of lactation: low (< 15 kg/d) and high milk yield (> 15 kg/d). Blood samples were collected in PAXgene tubes (Preanalytix, Hombrechtikon, Switzerland) at -7, 7, and 34 days from dry-off (DFD) to measure mRNA abundance of 37 genes. Normalized gene abundance data were subjected to MIXED model ANOVA (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Compared with -7 DFD, at 7 DFD RNA abundance of lipoxygenase genes (ALOX5, ALOX15) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) increased, and that of the antioxidant gene (SOD2) decreased. Meanwhile, genes related to recognition and immune mediation (CD16, MYD88, TLR2), migration and cell adhesion (CX3CR1, ITGAL, ITGB2, TLN1), and the antimicrobial gene MMP9 were downregulated at 7 or 34 DFD, whereas the antimicrobial IDO1 gene was upregulated. Compared with low-producing cows, cows with high milk yield at dry-off cows had upregulated expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL8 and IL18 and a greater reduction in transcript abundance of the toll-like receptor (TLR) recognition-related gene TLR2. Overall, the dry-off confirmed to be a phase of intense changes, triggering an inflammatory response and somewhat suppressing leukocyte immune function. In cows with high milk yield during the week before dry-off, the inflammatory response was exacerbated.

Associations between dry period length and time to culling and pregnancy in the subsequent lactation

The association between dry period length (DPL) and time to culling and pregnancy in the subsequent lactation may be important for the economically optimal length of the dry period. Therefore, this study aimed to (1) quantify the association between DPL and hazard of culling and pregnancy in the subsequent lactation; (2) develop continuous functions of DPL for the hazard ratios of culling and pregnancy; and (3) investigate the effect of a cause-specific hazards model and a subdistribution model to analyze competing events. The data used in this observational cohort study were from dairy herd improvement milk test lactation records from 40 states in the United States. After edits, there remained 1,108,515 records from 6,730 herds with the last days dry in 2014 or 2015. The records from 2 adjacent lactations (current, subsequent) were concatenated with the DPL of interest, 21 to 100 d, in between both lactations. We defined 8 DPL categories of 10 d each. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were used to show associations between DPL and time to culling or pregnancy for 3 lactation groups: lactation 1 and 2, lactation 2 and 3, and lactation 3 and greater. To control for confounding factors in Cox proportional models, we included 6 current lactation covariates and 3 time-dependent variables in the survival models. Hazard ratios of culling were estimated for 4 days in milk (DIM) categories from 1 to 450 DIM. Hazard ratios of pregnancy were estimated for 3 DIM categories from 61 to 300 DIM. Competing risk analysis of 8 disposal codes (i.e., farmer reported reasons) for culling and the culling event for pregnancy were conducted by a cause-specific hazards model and a subdistribution model. Hazard ratios were also estimated as quadratic polynomials of DPL. Compared with the reference DPL category of 51 to 60 d, hazard ratios of culling and pregnancy of the other 7 DPL categories ranged between 0.70 and 1.49, and 0.93 and 1.15, respectively. Short DPL were associated with lower risk of culling in the early lactation but not over the entire lactation. Short DPL were associated with greater hazard of pregnancy. Trends in hazard ratios over the ranges of the 8 DPL categories were not always consistent. Competing risk analysis with both models provided little differences in hazard ratios of culling and pregnancy. In conclusion, variations in DPL were associated with meaningful differences in the hazard ratios for culling and pregnancy and minor differences in the relative frequency of disposal codes. Subdistribution hazards models produced hazard ratios similar to cause-specific hazard models. The quadratic polynomials may be useful for decision support on customization of DPL for individual cows.

Involvement of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in Staphylococcus aureus chronically infected bovine mammary glands during active involution

The aim of this study was to characterize the protein expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and -- 9 and their inhibitors (TIMP-1 and -2) in mammary tissue of dairy cows with naturally occurring chronic S. aureus intramammary infections (IMI) during active involution. Moreover, the gelatinolytic activity of MMP-2 and -9 in mammary secretions was evaluated. Cows in late lactation that were either uninfected or with chronic naturally acquired S. aureus IMI were included in this study. Protein expression of MMP-2 and -9 in mammary tissues was significantly higher in S. aureus-infected than uninfected quarters at day 14 and 21 of involution. Protein expression of TIMP-1 and -2 was significantly higher in S. aureus-infected than uninfected quarters at day 7, 14 and 21 of involution. The MMP-2/TIMP-1, MMP-2/TIMP-2, MMP-9/TIMP-1 and MMP-9/TIMP-2 ratios were significantly higher in S. aureus-infected compared with uninfected quarters at day 14 of involution. The MMP-2 activity was significantly higher in mammary secretions from S. aureus-infected compared with uninfected quarters at day 1, 2, 7 and 14 of involution. The MMP-9 activity was significantly higher in mammary secretions from infected quarters compared with uninfected quarters at day 7, 14 and 21 of involution. The increased expression of MMP-2 and -9 in mammary tissue as well as the high levels of activity observed in mammary secretion from infected quarters compared with uninfected quarters during active involution, strongly suggests that these gelatinases could contribute to degradation of mammary tissue components during chronic S. aureus IMI. The MMPs/TIMPs imbalance could lead to greater proteolysis and potentially more damage to mammary tissue in S. aureus-infected quarters.

Chronic prepartum light-dark phase shifts in cattle disrupt circadian clocks, decrease insulin sensitivity and mammary development, and are associated with lower milk yield through 60 days postpartum

Circadian and metabolic systems are interlocked and reciprocally regulated. To determine if the circadian system regulates glucose homeostasis and mammary development, the function of the circadian system was disrupted by exposing cattle to chronic light-dark cycle phase shifts from 5 wk before expected calving (BEC) to parturition. Multiparous Holstein cows were exposed to 16 h of light and 8 h of dark (CON, n = 8) or phase shifting (PS, n = 8) the light cycle 6 h every 3 d beginning 35 d BEC. After calving, both treatments were exposed to CON lighting. Mammary biopsies were taken at 21 d BEC and 21 d in milk (DIM), and histological analysis indicated PS treatment decreased the ratio of lumen to alveolar area and percentage of proliferating epithelial cells in the prepartum period. Intravenous glucose tolerance test was performed at 14 d BEC and 7 DIM by administering 50% dextrose. Blood glucose, β-hydroxybutyrate, insulin, and nonesterified fatty acids were consequently measured over 3 h. At 14 d BEC no treatment differences were observed in baseline glucose or insulin. Treatment had no effect on blood glucose or glucose area under the curve at 14 d BEC and 7 DIM. Insulin area under the curve was higher in PS versus CON at 14 d BEC and 7 DIM. The PS cows produced less milk than CON cows through 60 DIM (40.3 vs. 42.6 kg/d). Exposure to chronic light-dark PS in late gestation decreased mammary development and increased insulin resistance in periparturient cows, which may have caused subsequent lower milk yield.

Heritability of Teat Condition in Italian Holstein Friesian and Its Relationship with Milk Production and Somatic Cell Score

In spite of the impressive advancements observed on both management and genetic factors, udder health still represents one of most demanding objectives to be attained in the dairy cattle industry. Udder morphology and especially teat condition might represent the first physical barrier to pathogens' access. The objectives of this study were to investigate the genetic component of teat condition and to elucidate its relationship with both milk yield and somatic cell scores in dairy cattle. Moreover, the effect of selection for both milk yield and somatic cell scores on teat condition was also investigated. A multivariate analysis was conducted on 10,776 teat score records and 30,160 production records from 2469 Italian Holstein cows. Three teat scoring traits were defined and included in the analysis. Heritability estimates for the teat score traits were moderate to low, ranging from 0.084 to 0.238. When teat score was based on a four-classes ordinal scoring, its genetic correlation with milk yields and somatic cell score were 0.862 and 0.439, respectively. The scale used to classify teat-end score has an impact on the magnitude of the estimates. Genetic correlations suggest that selection for milk yield could deteriorate teat health, unless more emphasis is given to somatic cell scores. Considering that both at national and international level, the current selection objectives are giving more emphasis to health traits, a further genetic deterioration in teat condition is not expected.

Piecewise modeling of the associations between dry period length and milk, fat, and protein yield changes in the subsequent lactation

Our objective was to develop predictive models of 305-d mature-equivalent milk, fat, and protein yields in the subsequent lactation as continuous functions of the number of days dry (DD) in the current lactation. In this retrospective cohort study with field data, we obtained DHIA milk recording lactation records with the last DD in 2014 or 2015. Cows included had DD from 21 to 100 d. After editing, 1,030,141 records from cows in 7,044 herds remained. Three parity groups of adjacent (current, subsequent) lactations were constructed. We conducted all analyses by parity group and yield component. We first applied control models to pre-adjust the yields in the subsequent lactation for potentially confounding effects. Control models included the covariates mature-equivalent yield, days open, somatic cell score at 180 d pregnant, daily yield at 180 d pregnant, and a herd-season random effect, all observed in the current lactation. Days dry was not included. Second, we modeled residuals from control models with smooth piecewise regression models consisting of a simple linear, quadratic, and another simple linear equation depending on DD. Yield deviations were calculated as differences from predicted mature-equivalent yield at 50 DD. For validation, predictions of yield deviations from piecewise models by DD were compared with predictions from local regression for the DHIA field records and yield deviations reported in 38 experimental and field studies found in the literature. Control models reduced the average root mean squared prediction error by approximately 21%. Yield deviations were increasingly more negative for DD shorter than 50 d, indicating lower yields in the subsequent lactation. For short DD, the decrease in 305-d mature-equivalent milk yield ranged from 43 to 53 kg per DD. For mature-equivalent fat and protein yields, decreases were between 1.28 and 1.71 kg per DD, and 1.06 and 1.50 kg per DD, respectively. Yield deviations often were marginally positive and increasing for DD >50, so that the highest yield in the subsequent lactation was predicted for 100 DD. For long DD, the 305-d mature-equivalent milk yield increased at most 4.18 kg per DD. Patterns in deviations for fat and protein yield were similar to those for milk yield deviations. Predictions from piecewise models and local regressions were very similar, which supports the chosen functional form of the piecewise models. Yield deviations from field studies in the literature typically were decreasing when DD were longer, likely because of insufficient control for confounding effects. In conclusion, piecewise models of mature-equivalent milk, fat, and protein yield deviations as continuous functions of DD fit the observed data well and may be useful for decision support on the optimal dry period length for individual cows.

Comparative mammary gland postnatal development and tumourigenesis in the sheep, cow, cat and rabbit: Exploring the menagerie

Sheep, cows, cats, and rabbits are kept by humans for agricultural purposes and as companion animals. Much of the mammary research in these species has focussed on mastitis in the case of ruminants and rabbits, and mammary tumourigenesis in cats and rabbits. However, similarities with the human breast suggest that these species may be currently underutilised as valuable comparative models of breast development and disease. The mammary gland undergoes cyclical postnatal development that will be considered here in the context of these non-traditional model species, with a focus on the mammary microenvironment at different postnatal developmental stages. The second part of this review will consider mammary tumour development. Ruminants are thought to be relatively 'resistant' to mammary tumourigenesis, likely due to multiple factors including functional properties of ruminant mammary stem/progenitor cells, diet, and/or the fact that production animals undergo a first parity soon after puberty. By contrast, unneutered female cats and rabbits have a propensity to develop mammary neoplasms, and subsets of these may constitute valuable comparative models of breast cancer.

Suppression of prolactin and reduction of milk secretion by effect of cabergoline in lactating dairy ewes

The effects of cabergoline, an ergot derivative and dopamine receptor agonist, were investigated in 30 ewes of 2 dairy breeds (Manchega; MN, n = 15; Lacaune; LC, n = 15). Ewes were in a similar late-lactation stage, but differed in milk yield according to breed (MN vs. LC, 1.02 ± 0.03 vs. 2.27 ± 0.05 kg/d). Treatments consisted of a single intramuscular injection of cabergoline at different doses per ewe. Cabergoline doses (per ewe) were: low (0.56 mg), high (1.12 mg), and control (CON; 0 mg; 1 mL of saline). Milk yield was recorded daily (d -14 to 25), milk and blood were sampled, and udder traits were measured from d -2 to 14 after injection. No local reaction at the injection site, nor behavior and metabolic indicators of the ewes were detected after the cabergoline injection, but milk yield fell rapidly in both breeds (MN vs. LC, -54% vs. -27%) when compared with CON ewes. Cabergoline effects progressively disappeared after d 5, and no milk yield differences between treatments were detected from d 8 to 25 after injection. Milk fat and protein contents increased similarly (22% and 23%; respectively) in both breeds and at both cabergoline doses until d 5, and the effects disappeared thereafter. Plasma prolactin (PRL) decreased dramatically in the low- and high-treated ewes the day after injection when compared with the CON ewes, and reached values below the detection limit of the assay between d 1 and 5, increasing similarly thereafter. On d 14, PRL values were 58% greater in the low- and high-treated than in the CON ewes, showing that PRL concentrations rebounded when the cabergoline effects ceased. Total udder volume correlated with milk accumulated in the udder (r = 0.77) of all groups of ewes throughout the experiment, suggesting its use as a noninvasive method for the estimation of milk stored in the udder. Udder volume was similar for the low and high ewes, but both values were lower than those of the CON ewes from d 1 to 14 after injection. No other effects on udder size were detected. Cabergoline dramatically inhibited PRL secretion and decreased milk yield and udder volume of lactating dairy ewes. The low dose of cabergoline was as effective as the high dose in the 2 breeds of dairy ewes. These results suggest the use of cabergoline to facilitate the decrease of milk production in dairy ewes (e.g., dry-off, illness care), although further research in pregnant dairy ewes and during the following lactation is still needed.

Late gestation heat stress in dairy cows: Effects on dam and daughter

In dairy cattle, the final weeks before parturition are physiologically challenging and an important determinant of subsequent production performance. External stressors should be carefully managed during this period to avoid adding strain on the animals. Late-gestation heat stress impairs productivity in the dam and exerts transgenerational effects on progeny. Physiological responses are complex and detriments to performance are multifaceted. Late-gestation heat stress blunts mammary gland involution in the first half of the dry period and impairs cell proliferation as calving approaches. Moreover, cows that were exposed to prepartum heat-stress exhibit reduced adipose tissue mobilization and a lower degree of insulin resistance during early lactation. Prepartum heat exposure also depresses immune function and evidence links this decrease to altered prolactin signaling under heat stress. Placental functions are also impaired as reflected in a higher cotyledon mass but lower maternal circulating estrone sulfate concentrations, potentially resulting in lower nutrient supply and reduced calf birth weight. In addition, calves born to heat-stressed dams show impaired immune function and therefore higher disease susceptibly. Novel evidence reported that intrauterine heat stress alters the methylation profile of liver and mammary DNA, which may also contribute to the poorer performance during adulthood of calves exposed to heat stress in utero. Understanding the contribution of all altered biological systems during late-gestation heat stress can be used as a basis for improving cow management during the dry period. This article provides a review of the impacts of late-gestation heat stress and of the emerging understanding of the biological mechanisms that underlie the observed impairments of performance.

Symposium review: Determinants of milk production: Understanding population dynamics in the bovine mammary epithelium

The mammary gland undergoes distinct periods of growth, development, and secretory activity. During bovine lactation, a gradual decrease in the number of mammary epithelial cells largely accounts for the decline in milk production with advancing lactation. The net decline in cell number (approx. 50%) is due to cell death but is simultaneously accompanied by cell renewal. Although the rate of cell proliferation is slow, by the end of lactation most cells in the gland were formed after calving. Typically milking is terminated when cows are in the final 2 mo of pregnancy. This causes regenerative involution, wherein extensive cell replacement and mammary growth occurs. We hypothesized that replacement of senescent secretory cells and progenitor cells during the dry period increases milk yield in the next lactation. Analysis of global gene expression revealed networks and canonical pathways during regenerative involution that support cell turnover and mammary growth, and reflect oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Immune responses consistent with influx of neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes, and processes that support mammary differentiation and lactogenesis were also evident. Data also suggest that replication of stem and progenitor cells occurs during the dry period. Relying on long-term retention of bromodeoxyuridine-labeled DNA, we identified putative bovine mammary stem cells. These label-retaining epithelial cells (LREC) are in low abundance within mammary epithelium (<1%), predominantly estrogen receptor-negative, and localized in a basal or suprabasal layer of the epithelium. Analyses of gene expression in laser-microdissected LREC are consistent with the concept that LREC represent stem cells and progenitor cells, which differ in properties and location within the epithelial layer. We identified potential markers for these cells and have increased their number by infusing xanthosine through the teat canal of prepubertal heifers. Altering population dynamics of mammary stem and progenitor cells during the mammary cycle may be a means to increase efficiency of milk production.