The costs and benefits of cannabis control policies

Getting "The whole picture": A review of international research on the outcomes of regulated cannabis supply

BACKGROUND

Several jurisdictions have pursued reforms that regulate cannabis production and/or sale for adult (non-medical) use. Looking at outcomes of such reforms across multiple jurisdictions may help to identify outcomes that are inherent to non-criminal cannabis supply, as well as provide insight into the outcomes of specific regulation models.

METHODS

We identified nine indicators of cannabis policy outcomes and aggregated them into three domains (social outcomes, outcomes in cannabis use, health-related outcomes). We assessed these outcomes across five jurisdictions with different models of regulating cannabis supply (Netherlands, Spain, U.S. states that legalized cannabis, Uruguay, and Canada). We used a three-level systematic literature review, prioritising studies with quasi-experimental design (i.e. comparative and longitudinal). We categorised the studies according to their design and the type of outcome (increase, decrease, or no outcome).

RESULTS

Across long-standing as well as recent cannabis supply regimes, and across different models of cannabis supply, our review identified common outcomes: a decrease in cannabis-related arrests, an increase in adult (but not adolescent) cannabis use, and increase in healthcare utilization (not traffic-related). Negative health-related outcomes were most consistently found for the U.S. states that legalised cannabis for adult non-medicinal use (there were limitations to nuancing cannabis supply models across U.S. states). In the remaining jurisdictions (the Netherlands, Spain, Canada, Uruguay), the design or time-frame of the identified studies was limited, and studies on certain outcomes were lacking.

CONCLUSIONS

Regulating cannabis supply may be associated with benefits in the social area and with potential harms regarding public health; there may though be trade-offs depending on the choice of a cannabis regulation model. Jurisdictions may attempt to mix and match the present models of cannabis regulation to achieve the best ratio of benefits and harms. More research into the specific parameters influencing cannabis policy outcomes is needed.

Harm reduction isn't enough: Introducing the concept of Mindful Consumption and Benefit Maximization (MCBM)

The concept of harm reduction was a radical departure from a century of stigmatizing demand reduction initiatives targeted at people who use drugs. In fact, since the early 1980's Harm Reduction has been used with great success to protect the lives and wellbeing of these individuals. When employed with people who use opioids, the relevancy and importance of harm reduction are easy to grasp because the potential dangers are both quite visible and profound. However, promoting harm reduction practices to people consuming cannabis is a more difficult challenge. Cannabis cannot cause death due to overconsumption, is not associated with the spread of communicable diseases, and is overall a relatively harmless drug both to the individual and society when compared with other legal substances such as tobacco and alcohol. Harm reduction campaigns targeted at cannabis consumers run the risk of sounding overly fearful and stigmatizing, ultimately being ignored like many of the old demand reduction initiatives. Cannabis does have potential harms, and teaching people to mitigate those harms is an important public health goal. This commentary argues that cannabis education targeted at young people should employ mindful consumption and benefit maximization (MCBM) language that promotes harm reduction practices but does not focus on harm as the primary issue related to cannabis use. We define what we mean by mindful consumption and benefit maximization, identify their convergence with harm reduction principles, and argue for their use to both promote knowledge and normalize cannabis consumption that incorporates harm reduction practices.

Post-legalization shifts in cannabis use among young adults in Georgia-A nationally representative study

BACKGROUND AND AIM

In 2018, the country of Georgia legalized cannabis for recreational use and decriminalized limited possession. This study aimed to assess whether cannabis use increased among young adults (ages 18-29 years) in Georgia after national policy changes and to evaluate whether perceived access became easier after legalization and current risk factors of young adult cannabis use.

METHODS

We used data from the Georgian nationally representative survey administered in 2015 (n = 1308) and 2022 (n = 758), before and after decriminalization. We performed appropriate bivariate analyses and multivariable linear and logistic regressions to assess the following: legalization's impact on cannabis use; perceived difficulty to obtain cannabis; age of first use; differences in use between females and males; and factors associated with current use.

FINDINGS

Among young adults lifetime prevalence of cannabis use was similar in 2015 (17.3%) and 2022 (18.1%) [Odds Ratio (95% confidence interval) = 1.1 [0.7, 1.6], P = 0.726). Annual prevalence (7% in 2015 vs 7.7% in 2022) was also similar (1.1 [0.7, 2.0], P = 0.650). In 2022 it was less difficult to obtain cannabis than in 2015 (0.5 [0.4, 0.8], P = 0.021). The age of first use increased statistically significantly (18.1 years in 2015 vs 19.1 in 2022, P = 0.003). In 2022, annual prevalence of use was lower among females (1.9% vs 13.1%; OR = 0.1 [0.0, 0.3], P < 0.0001) and higher among those who gambled (11.7% vs 4.4%; OR = 3.2 [1.5, 6.8], P < 0.003). Males initiated cannabis use at an earlier age (19.1 years vs 20.6 for females, P = 0.03), and could obtain cannabis easier than females (P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

There was a minimal shift of cannabis use in young adults following implementation of recreational cannabis use legalization in Georgia. Males and people who gambled were at higher risk of cannabis use.

Adolescents' perceptions, experiences, and reactions to "fake" vaping devices

Use of electronic cigarette (vaping) devices, whether to inhale nicotine, cannabis, or other substances, may pose health risks to adolescents. Those risks could be heightened when a vaping device is "fake," a term we use to include inauthentic, knockoff, counterfeit, and/or adulterated devices, an issue exemplified by the Electronic Cigarette, or Vaping, Product Use-Associated Lung Injury (EVALI) outbreak of 2019-2020.

METHODS

Investigators completed in-depth, semi-structured interviews in 2020-2021 with 47 California adolescents (ages 13-17) who used nicotine products. Investigators used thematic analysis to examine participants' perceptions and reactions to fake vaping products, including devices to inhale nicotine or cannabis.

RESULTS

Participants were familiar with fake vaping devices, which they considered to be low-quality and potentially dangerous, learning about them from peers, their own experience, seeing other young people affected by them, social media, and occasionally from classes in school. Some had heard about health emergencies after using a fake product, but few were specifically familiar with EVALI. Some adolescents were confident that they could detect fake products, although others perceived encountering and using fake devices to be unavoidable. Participants believed that profit motives drove the existence of fake products, especially from informal sellers, and assumed that large companies and government agencies were actively protecting consumers.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents are aware of and may encounter fake vaping devices, potentially exposing them to elevated health risks. Effective public messaging and stronger actions to curb the fake product supply would better protect this population.

Sleep-Related Cannabis Expectancy Questionnaire (SR-CEQ): Factor Analysis Replication, Internal Reliability, and Construct Validity

Expectancies regarding the sleep-promoting effects of cannabis may exacerbate the propensity to self-medicate sleep problems with cannabis. Given the potential clinical importance of expectancies for the sedative effects of cannabis, Goodhines et al (2020) developed the Sleep-Related Cannabis Expectancies Questionnaire (SR-CEQ). However, concurrent validity of this instrument has not been evaluated. This study aimed to replicate the two-factor structure and internal reliability and explore incremental construct validity of the SR-CEQ. Cross-sectional online survey data were collected from 287 college students (Mage = 19.07 ± 1.44 years, range 18-25; 47% male; 84% non-Hispanic White; 61% lifetime cannabis use). Confirmatory factor analysis replicated an adequate fit of the two-factor model (SRMR = 0.08) with excellent internal consistency within positive (α = .94) and negative (α = .91) subscales. Novel correlates were observed for positive (greater mood, sleep, cannabis risk; rs = .16-.48, ps = .001-.03) and negative (lesser cannabis risk; rs = -.18-.61, ps = .001-.03) subscales. Positive expectancies were greater among students with insomnia (t[285] = 2.70, p < .01; d = .33) and hazardous cannabis use (t[284] = 6.63, p < .001; d = 0.91). No group differences were observed by sex or for negative sleep-related cannabis expectances. This study extends psychometric validation of the SR-CEQ and highlights positive expectancies as a potential risk factor for insomnia and hazardous cannabis use.

Cannabis Use and Cannabis Use Disorders in South Africa: A Narrative Review

Cannabis significantly contributes to the substance use and abuse statistics in South Africa (SA), rendering it a dangerous drug into which research on the contextual motivations and long and short term effects must be conducted. The aim of this review was to determine the availability of cannabis use and CUD research in SA, identify the central issues and themes explored over the past 2 years (2020–2022), and outline literary inconsistencies and shortcomings in cannabis use and CUD-related research in SA. The 16 articles used in this study were sourced from five databases. Reflexive Thematic Analysis (RTA) was then used to analyse the findings of the study. The study revealed, literature has a thematic focus on one or more of the following: cannabis use and psychophysiological health, determinants of cannabis use and CUD, polysubstance use, legalisation of cannabis in SA, and the effects of cannabis use and CUD.

Current Status of Cannabis Legalization and Decriminalization Efforts in Nepal

The unique historical and cultural background of Nepal has shaped its perspective on cannabis usage. Narcotic Drugs Control Act 1976 of Nepal prohibits the cultivation, production, manufacture, sales, and distribution of narcotic drugs, which also include various forms of cannabis. With proponents for cannabis legalization increasing in the country, it is equally crucial to analyze context and practices in countries already adopting legalization. As such, this article contextualizes the current debates in Nepal with global policies and practices and talks about the possible impacts of changing the laws on society, the economy, and public health. Policymakers in Nepal must make decisions based on evidence and facts when deciding how to regulate cannabis.

Internet, App-Based, and Casino Gambling: Associations Between Modality, Problem Gambling, and Substance Use

Technology-based gambling prevalence is not well understood since relevant questions are not included in health and disease surveillance studies. The current study sought to estimate the prevalence of internet-based and smartphone app-based gambling, along with casino gambling, in a sample of U.S. young adults and determine if gambling modality was associated with problem gambling symptoms or substance use. The 2022 Rhode Island Young Adult Survey included N = 1,022 students between the ages of 18 to 25 years old who had lived in Rhode Island, with n = 414 lifetime gamblers (40.5%) included in this study. Odds of gambling via a smartphone app and on the internet, respectively, were greater in heterosexual cis-males compared to heterosexual cis-females (OR[95%CI] = 3.14 [1.25,7.91]; OR[95%CI] = 6.30 [2.05,19.3]). Internet gambling amongst employed students was less common than among those who were not a student and not employed (OR[95%CI] = 0.25 [0.06,1.00]). Odds of problem gambling symptoms were higher among those who gambled via a smartphone app (OR[95%CI] = 3.23 [1.21,8.60]). All forms of gambling were associated with alcohol consumption, although the strength of the association was stronger in app and internet gamblers. Casino gamblers were more likely to be high risk marijuana and illicit drug users. The rising availability of app gambling coupled with its social, psychological, and cultural context may presents an alternative pathway to problem gambling. Bans on internet gambling and/or strict guidelines on the frequency of wagers and cash placed per wager, should be considered as viable methods to mitigate associated consequences.

Navigating the Grey Zone: The Impact of Legislative Frameworks in North America and Europe on Adolescent Cannabis Use-A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

This paper aims to systematically review the impact of legislative framework changes in North America and Europe on adolescent cannabis use. It not only seeks to examine the prevalence of adolescent marijuana use following legislative changes but also to identify the driving forces behind fluctuations in use and to address the gaps left by previous studies.

METHODS

A systematic literature review was conducted in selected databases. After screening English-language publications dating from 2013 to 2023 (n = 453 studies), 24 met the inclusion criteria. Articles were considered if they analyzed the impact of legislative changes on adolescent cannabis use in countries across North America and Europe.

SYNTHESIS

The overall findings suggest an inconsistency regarding the prevalence of cannabis use among youth and adolescents following policy changes. The effects of modifications in cannabis policies on marijuana consumption are complex and influenced by various factors. These include the details of legislation, societal perspectives, enforcement methods, socioeconomic status, and cultural background.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this analysis reveal a nuanced reality. Although research suggests a rise in cannabis use after legalization, there are variations in the outcomes observed. This highlights the significance of considering context and demographics. Moreover, studies shed light on how specific policy changes, such as depenalization, can affect cannabis use.

Cannabis use among adolescents and young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review

Background

A systematic review of the literature was performed to summarize cannabis use among adolescents and young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Special focus was given to the prevalence of cannabis use during COVID-19, as well as factors that may explain changes in cannabis consumption patterns.

Methods

The protocol of this systematic review was registered. Articles from seven publication databases were searched in January 2022. The inclusion criteria for studies were as follows: 1) published in English; 2) study instruments needed to include items on COVID-19; 3) conducted after January 1st, 2020; 4) published in a peer-reviewed journal, dissertation, or thesis; 5) study population ≤25 years of age; 6) study designs were limited to observational analytical studies; 7) measured cannabis use. This review excluded other reviews, editorials, and conference abstracts that were not available as full text manuscripts. Independent review, risk of bias assessment, and data abstraction were performed by two authors.

Results

Fifteen articles from the United States (n=11) and Canada (n=4) were included in this review. The findings of this review showed that the prevalence of cannabis use during the pandemic among adolescents and young adults were mixed. Some mental health symptoms, including depression and anxiety, were identified as the most commonly reported reasons for increased cannabis use during the pandemic.

Conclusions

This review highlights the inconsistencies in the prevalence of cannabis use among adolescents and young adults during the pandemic. Therapeutic interventions for mental health and continued public health surveillance should be conducted to understand the long-term effects of cannabis use among adolescents and young adults.

Public Knowledge, Perceptions, and Behavioral Intention Regarding Medical Cannabis in Belgium

Growing evidence on medical cannabis has moved its legislation forward in various countries, which has increased research on stakeholder reactions. While various studies looked at experts and users, research on public perceptions is scarce. This study aims to (1) examine the relationships between knowledge, perceptions, and behavioral intention toward medical cannabis, and (2) identify and profile key segments within the general public. An online survey was conducted among 656 respondents in Belgium. Findings showed that both subjective and objective knowledge are relatively poor, while risk/benefit perceptions and behavioral intention are much more positive. Subjective and objective knowledge as well as social trust have a positive influence on benefit perceptions and a negative influence on risk perceptions. In turn, risk and benefit perceptions are key determinants of behavioral intention, but in opposite directions. Furthermore, cluster analysis identified a cautious (23% of the sample), positive (50%), and enthusiastic cluster (27%). In terms of socio-demographic profile, older and highly educated people were significantly more represented in the latter two clusters. While our study demonstrated that cannabis is well accepted for medical purposes, research is needed to further validate the relationships between knowledge, perceptions, and (intended) behavior in different settings and policy contexts.

Cannabis and Alcohol Use by U.S. Young Adults, 2008-2019: Changes in Prevalence After Recreational Cannabis Legalization

INTRODUCTION

Young adults' cannabis and alcohol use patterns have changed after state recreational cannabis legalization according to studies based on college samples but not nationally representative samples. Associations between recreational cannabis legalization and changes in cannabis and alcohol use outcomes among young adults were examined, including differences by college enrollment and minor status (ages 18-20 vs 21-23 years).

METHODS

Repeated cross-sectional data (2008-2019) were collected from college-eligible participants aged 18-23 years in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Self-reported past-month cannabis use and frequent use (≥20 days) and a proxy for past-year DSM-5 cannabis use disorder were primary outcomes; past-month frequent alcohol use and binge drinking were secondary outcomes. Multilevel logistic regression models quantified changes in outcome prevalence from the study years before to after recreational cannabis legalization, adjusting for secular trends. Analyses were conducted on March 22, 2022.

RESULTS

Prevalence increased from before to after recreational cannabis legalization for past-month cannabis use (from 21% to 25%) and past-year proxy cannabis use disorder (from 11% to 13%); the increases were statistically significant [adjusted odds ratio (95% CI) = 1.20 (1.08-1.32) and 1.14 (1.003-1.30), respectively]. Increases were detected for young adults who were not in college and who were aged 21-23 years. Recreational cannabis legalization impacts were not detected for secondary outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Some young adults appear sensitive to state recreational cannabis legalization, including in terms of cannabis use disorder risk. Additional prevention efforts should be directed to young adults who are not in college and timed to occur before age 21 years.

Predicting Maternal and Infant Tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure in Lactating Cannabis Users: A Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling Approach

A knowledge gap exists in infant tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) data to guide breastfeeding recommendations for mothers who use cannabis. In the present study, a paired lactation and infant physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was developed and verified. The verified model was used to simulate one hundred virtual lactating mothers (mean age: 28 years, body weight: 78 kg) who smoked 0.32 g of cannabis containing 14.14% THC, either once or multiple times. The simulated breastfeeding conditions included one-hour post smoking and subsequently every three hours. The mean peak concentration (Cmax) and area under the concentration-time curve (AUC(0-24 h)) for breastmilk were higher than in plasma (Cmax: 155 vs. 69.9 ng/mL; AUC(0-24 h): 924.9 vs. 273.4 ng·hr/mL) with a milk-to-plasma AUC ratio of 3.3. The predicted relative infant dose ranged from 0.34% to 0.88% for infants consuming THC-containing breastmilk between birth and 12 months. However, the mother-to-infant plasma AUC(0-24 h) ratio increased up to three-fold (3.4-3.6) with increased maternal cannabis smoking up to six times. Our study demonstrated the successful development and application of a lactation and infant PBPK model for exploring THC exposure in infants, and the results can potentially inform breastfeeding recommendations.

Cannabis Social Clubs in Contemporary Legalization Reforms: Talking Consumption Sites and Social Justice

There is ongoing debate about what policy approaches to cannabis use might best address health and social related harm. Profit-driven, adult-use cannabis markets have been introduced in the United States and Canada, where legalization reform has had mixed effects to date in terms of public health and has made limited progress in achieving social justice aims. Meanwhile, several jurisdictions have seen an organic evolution of alternative cannabis-supply regimes. Cannabis social clubs (CSCs), the focus of this commentary, are nonprofit cooperatives that supply cannabis to consumers with the goal of harm reduction. The peer and participatory aspects of CSCs may have positive effects on health-related outcomes of cannabis use, such as through encouraging the use of safer products and responsible use practices. The nonprofit objectives of CSCs may diminish the risk for increasing cannabis consumption in wider society. CSCs have recently made an important transition from grassroots organizations in Spain and elsewhere. In particular, they have become key players in top-down cannabis legalization reform in Uruguay and, most recently, Malta. The history of CSCs in reducing harm from cannabis use is an important advantage, but there might be concerns around the grassroots origins, low taxation opportunities, and capacity to sustain social objectives. Also, the CSC model might not seem unique, as contemporary cannabis entrepreneurs have absorbed some features of their community-based predecessors. CSCs can play an important role in future cannabis legalization reform due to their unique strengths as cannabis-consumption sites and can be effective in advancing social justice by giving people affected by cannabis prohibition agency and direct access to resources.

Effects of cannabis legalization on the use of cannabis and other substances

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

As more jurisdictions legalize cannabis for non-medical use, the evidence on how legalization policies affect cannabis use and the use of other substances remains inconclusive and contradictory. This review aims to summarize recent research findings on the impact of recreational cannabis legalization (RCL) on cannabis and other substance use among different population groups, such as youth and adults.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent literature reports mixed findings regarding changes in the prevalence of cannabis use after the adoption of RCL. Most studies found no significant association between RCL and changes in cannabis use among youth in European countries, Uruguay, the US, and Canada. However, some studies have reported increases in cannabis use among youth and adults in the US and Canada, although these increases seem to predate RCL. Additionally, there has been a marked increase in unintentional pediatric ingestion of cannabis edibles postlegalization, and an association between RCL and increased alcohol, vaping, and e-cigarette use among adolescents and young adults.

SUMMARY

Overall, the effects of cannabis legalization on cannabis use appear to be mixed. Further monitoring and evaluation research is needed to provide longer-term evidence and a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of RCL.

The effects of the 4/20 cannabis holiday and adult-use cannabis legalization on medical cannabis sales and medical cannabis patient registration in Arizona

BACKGROUND

This study examined whether the 4/20 cannabis holiday was associated with increases in medical cannabis sales from licensed dispensaries in Arizona from 2018-2021, and whether adult-use cannabis legalization (the vote in November 2020 and retail sales in January 2021) was associated with declines in medical cannabis sales and in the number of registered medical patients.

METHODS

Data came from the Arizona Medical Marijuana Program monthly reports from January 2018-December 2021. The reports show daily sales from licensed medical cannabis dispensaries (i.e., the number of medical cannabis dispensary transactions and the amount of cannabis sold in pounds), which we averaged by week, and show the number of registered medical cannabis patients each month. Autoregressive integrated moving average models were used to test changes in these outcomes associated with the 4/20 cannabis holiday and with legalization of adult-use cannabis.

RESULTS

During the week of the 4/20 cannabis holiday, medical cannabis dispensary transactions abruptly increased by an average of 2,319.4 transactions each day (95% CI: 1636.1, 3002.7), and the amount of medical cannabis sold increased by an average of 120.3 pounds each day (95% CI: 99.3-141.3). During the first week of adult-use cannabis sales in late January 2021, medical cannabis dispensary transactions abruptly decreased by an average of 5,073 transactions each day (95% CI: -5,929.5, -4216.7), and the amount of medical cannabis sold decreased by an average of 119.1 pounds each day (95% CI: -144.2, -94.0). Moreover, medical cannabis sales continued to gradually decline each week after the start of adult-use retail sales, with declines in sales preceding declines in registered patients. By December 2021, slightly over a year after the vote to legalize adult-use cannabis, the actual number of registered medical cannabis patients fell short of the forecasted number, had adult-use not been legalized, by 36.5%. Moreover, the number of medical dispensary transactions and the amount of medical cannabis sold fell short of expectations, had adult-use cannabis not been legalized, by 58% and 53%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings document the blurred boundary between medical and non-medical cannabis use and are consistent with the possibility that medical cannabis legalization contributes to increases in adult cannabis use and dependence.

The clouded debate: A systematic review of comparative longitudinal studies examining the impact of recreational cannabis legalization on key public health outcomes

Background

Ineffective cannabis regulatory frameworks such as prohibition have sparked interest in alternative solutions to reduce individual and societal harms. While it has been suggested that the recreational legalization process has yielded early successes, the relatively recent implementation of the novel policies has provided a modest time frame for a truly thorough establishment and assessment of key population-level indicators. The following systematic review focuses on identifying the downstream public health sequelae of cannabis legalization policies, including parameters such as cannabis consumption rates, hospitalization rates, vehicular accidents and fatalities, criminal activity, and suicidal behaviors, as well as other substance use trends.

Methods

An exhaustive search of the MEDLINE and Google Scholar databases were performed to identify high-quality (1) longitudinal studies, which (2) compared key public health outcomes between regions which had and had not implemented recreational cannabis legalization (RML) policies, (3) using distinct databases and/or time frames. Thirty-two original research articles were retained for review.

Results

Adult past-month cannabis consumption (26+ years) seems to have significantly increased following RML, whereas young adult (18-26 years) and adolescent (12-17 years) populations do not show a significant rise in past-month cannabis use. RML shows preliminary trends in increasing service use (such as hospitalizations, emergency department visits, or poisonings) or vehicular traffic fatalities. Preliminary evidence suggests that RML is related to potential increases in serious/violent crimes, and heterogeneous effects on suicidal behaviors. While the research does not illustrate that RML is linked to changing consumptions patterns of cigarette, stimulant, or opioid use, alcohol use may be on the rise, and opioid prescribing patterns are shown to be significantly correlated with RML.

Conclusion

The current data supports the notion that RML is correlated with altered cannabis consumption in adults, potentially increased criminal activity, and a decline in opioid quantities and prescriptions provided to patients. Future work should address additional knowledge gaps for vulnerable populations, such as individuals with mental health problems or persons consuming cannabis frequently/at higher THC doses. The effects of varying legalization models should also be evaluated for their potentially differing impacts on population-level outcomes.

Minimizing policy-biased appraisals of the evidence on cannabis and psychosis

Appraisals of the evidence on the relationship between cannabis use and psychosis are often biased by appraisers' pre-existing views on whether adult cannabis use should or should not be legal. This viewpoint gives examples of such policy-biased appraisals and suggests strategies for avoiding them.

International Association for the Study of Pain Presidential Task Force on Cannabis and Cannabinoid Analgesia: research agenda on the use of cannabinoids, cannabis, and cannabis-based medicines for pain management

ABSTRACT

The President of the International Association for the Study of Pain established a task force on cannabis and cannabinoid analgesia to systematically examine the evidence on (1) analgesic pharmacology of cannabinoids and preclinical evidence on their efficacy in animal models of injury-related or pathological persistent pain; (2) the clinical efficacy of cannabis, cannabinoids, and cannabis-based medicines for pain; (3) harms related to long-term use of cannabinoids; as well as (4) societal issues and policy implications related to the use of these compounds for pain management. Here, we summarize key knowledge gaps identified in the task force outputs and propose a research agenda for generating high-quality evidence on the topic. The systematic assessment of preclinical and clinical literature identified gaps in rigor of study design and reporting across the translational spectrum. We provide recommendations to improve the quality, rigor, transparency, and reproducibility of preclinical and clinical research on cannabis and cannabinoids for pain, as well as for the conduct of systematic reviews on the topic. Gaps related to comprehensive understanding of the endocannabinoid system and cannabinoid pharmacology, including pharmacokinetics and drug formulation aspects, are discussed. We outline key areas where high-quality clinical trials with cannabinoids are needed. Remaining important questions about long-term and short-term safety of cannabis and cannabinoids are emphasized. Finally, regulatory, societal, and policy challenges associated with medicinal and nonmedicinal use of cannabis are highlighted, with recommendations for improving patient safety and reducing societal harms in the context of pain management.

Pros and Cons of the Cannabinoid System in Cancer: Focus on Hematological Malignancies

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a composite cell-signaling system that allows endogenous cannabinoid ligands to control cell functions through the interaction with cannabinoid receptors. Modifications of the ECS might contribute to the pathogenesis of different diseases, including cancers. However, the use of these compounds as antitumor agents remains debatable. Pre-clinical experimental studies have shown that cannabinoids (CBs) might be effective for the treatment of hematological malignancies, such as leukemia and lymphoma. Specifically, CBs may activate programmed cell death mechanisms, thus blocking cancer cell growth, and may modulate both autophagy and angiogenesis. Therefore, CBs may have significant anti-tumor effects in hematologic diseases and may synergistically act with chemotherapeutic agents, possibly also reducing chemoresistance. Moreover, targeting ECS might be considered as a novel approach for the management of graft versus host disease, thus reducing some symptoms such as anorexia, cachexia, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and neuropathic pain. The aim of the present review is to collect the state of the art of CBs effects on hematological tumors, thus focusing on the essential topics that might be useful before moving into the clinical practice.