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1
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Das A, Sonar S, Dhar R, Subramaniyan V. Exosomes in melanoma: Future potential for clinical theranostics. Pathol Res Pract 2025; 269:155950. [PMID: 40179441 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2025.155950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2025] [Revised: 03/13/2025] [Accepted: 03/26/2025] [Indexed: 04/05/2025]
Abstract
Melanoma, an aggressive form of skin cancer, presents significant therapeutic challenges due to its resistance to conventional treatments and propensity for metastasis. Exosomes, nanoscale vesicles secreted by a wide variety of cells, have emerged as promising tools for developing novel melanoma therapies. Exosome-based therapeutic approaches offer several advantages, including inherent biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and the ability to cross biological barriers. This review explores the therapeutic potential of exosomes in melanoma treatment, focusing on their multifaceted roles in modulating tumor cell behavior, enhancing anti-tumor immune responses, and serving as targeted drug delivery vehicles. We discuss various strategies employed to engineer exosomes for enhanced therapeutic efficacy, including loading them with chemotherapeutic agents, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and immunomodulatory molecules. Additionally, we highlight the potential of exosomes derived from diverse sources to enhance anti-cancer effects. Furthermore, we address the challenges and future directions in translating exosome-based therapies from bench to bedside, emphasizing the need for standardized isolation and manufacturing protocols, as well as rigorous preclinical and clinical evaluations to unlock the full therapeutic potential of exosomes in the fight against melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmit Das
- Department of Oncology and Maxillofacial Pathology, Neuron Institute of Applied Research, Amravati, Maharashtra, India
| | - Swarup Sonar
- Department of Oncology and Maxillofacial Pathology, Neuron Institute of Applied Research, Amravati, Maharashtra, India
| | - Rajib Dhar
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Subang Jaya, Selangor 47500, Malaysia
| | - Vetriselvan Subramaniyan
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Subang Jaya, Selangor 47500, Malaysia.
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2
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Nour MA, Rajabivahid M, Mehdi MSS, Tahmasebi S, Dashtgol SN, Dehghani-Ghorbi M, Vanan AG, Ghorbaninezhad F. A new era in melanoma immunotherapy: focus on DCs metabolic reprogramming. Cancer Cell Int 2025; 25:149. [PMID: 40234886 PMCID: PMC12001691 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-025-03781-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2025] [Indexed: 04/17/2025] Open
Abstract
Melanoma, being one of the most dangerous forms of skin cancer, is characterized by its aggressive and metastatic nature, with the potential to develop resistance to various treatments. This resistance makes the disease challenging to treat, emphasizing the need for new treatment strategies. Within the tumor microenvironment (TME), melanoma cells exploit metabolic shifts, particularly glycolysis, to create an immunosuppressive TME that prevents dendritic cells (DCs) from functioning properly. Essential metabolic alterations such as lactate and lipid accumulation, and lack of tryptophan disrupt DC maturation, antigen presentation, and T cell activation. In recent years, melanoma immunotherapy has increasingly focused on reprogramming the metabolism of DCs. This review paper aims to provide insights into the metabolic suppression of melanoma-associated DCs, allowing the design of therapeutic strategies based on metabolic interventions to promote or restore DC function. This contribution reviews the metabolic reprogramming of DCs as a new approach for melanoma immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Afrashteh Nour
- Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mansour Rajabivahid
- Department of Internal Medicine, Valiasr Hospital, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Marjan Sadat Seyed Mehdi
- Student Research Committee, Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Safa Tahmasebi
- Student Research Committee, Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sepideh Nasirzadeh Dashtgol
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Paramedical Sciences, Tehran Medical Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Dehghani-Ghorbi
- Hematology-Oncology Department, Imam Hossein Educational Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Ahmad Ghorbani Vanan
- Student Research Committee, Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Farid Ghorbaninezhad
- Student Research Committee, Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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3
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Venturi F, Magnaterra E, Scotti B, Ferracin M, Dika E. Predictive Factors for Sentinel Lymph Node Positivity in Melanoma Patients-The Role of Liquid Biopsy, MicroRNA and Gene Expression Profile Panels. Cancers (Basel) 2025; 17:1281. [PMID: 40282456 PMCID: PMC12025810 DOI: 10.3390/cancers17081281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2025] [Revised: 03/27/2025] [Accepted: 04/01/2025] [Indexed: 04/29/2025] Open
Abstract
The identification of predictive factors for sentinel lymph node (SLN) positivity in melanoma patients is crucial for accurate staging, prognosis, and personalized therapeutic decisions. This review synthesizes recent advancements in molecular and clinicopathological predictors, with a particular focus on liquid biopsy and gene expression profiling (GEP) tools. Emerging evidence highlights the significant role of miRNAs in melanoma progression, metastatic potential, and lymphatic spread. Clinicopathological factors such as Breslow thickness, ulceration, and mitotic rate remain critical, while GEP provides additional precision by uncovering tumor-specific molecular pathways. By integrating these tools, clinicians can improve risk stratification, reduce unnecessary procedures, and personalize management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Venturi
- Oncologic Dermatology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (E.M.); (B.S.); (E.D.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Elisabetta Magnaterra
- Oncologic Dermatology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (E.M.); (B.S.); (E.D.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Biagio Scotti
- Oncologic Dermatology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (E.M.); (B.S.); (E.D.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Manuela Ferracin
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
- IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Emi Dika
- Oncologic Dermatology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (E.M.); (B.S.); (E.D.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
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4
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Orefice NS, Petrillo G, Pignataro C, Mascolo M, De Luca G, Verde S, Pentimalli F, Condorelli G, Quintavalle C. Extracellular vesicles and microRNAs in cancer progression. Adv Clin Chem 2025; 125:23-54. [PMID: 39988407 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acc.2024.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2025]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as critical mediators of intercellular communication in cancer. These membranous structures, secreted by normal and cancerous cells, carry a cargo of bioactive molecules including microRNAs (miRNAs) that modulate various cellular processes. miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that play pivotal roles in post-transcriptional gene regulation and have been implicated in cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. In cancer, tumor-derived EVs transport specific miRNAs to recipient cells, modulating tumorigenesis, growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Dysregulation of miRNA expression profiles within EVs contributes to the acquisition of cancer hallmarks that include increased proliferation, survival, and migration. EV miRNAs influence the tumor microenvironment, promoting immune evasion, remodeling the extracellular matrix, and establishing pre-metastatic niches. Understanding the complex interplay between EVs, miRNAs, and cancer holds significant promise for developing novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. This chapter provides insights into the role of EV-mediated miRNA signaling in cancer pathogenesis, highlighting its potential as a biomarker for cancer detection, prognosis, and treatment response assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola S Orefice
- Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States.
| | - Gianluca Petrillo
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Federico II University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Claudia Pignataro
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Federico II University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Martina Mascolo
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Federico II University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Giada De Luca
- Institute of Endotypes in Oncology, Metabolism and Immunology "G. Salvatore" (IEOMI) National Research Council (CNR), Naples, Italy
| | - Sara Verde
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy; Aka biotech S.r.l., Napoli, Italy
| | - Francesca Pentimalli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, LUM University "Giuseppe DeGennaro", Bari, Italy
| | - Gerolama Condorelli
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Federico II University of Naples, Naples, Italy; Institute of Endotypes in Oncology, Metabolism and Immunology "G. Salvatore" (IEOMI) National Research Council (CNR), Naples, Italy.
| | - Cristina Quintavalle
- Institute of Endotypes in Oncology, Metabolism and Immunology "G. Salvatore" (IEOMI) National Research Council (CNR), Naples, Italy
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5
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Huang J, Gao Z, Xuan J, Gao N, Wei C, Gu J. Metabolic insights into tumor lymph node metastasis in melanoma. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2024; 47:2099-2112. [PMID: 39704926 DOI: 10.1007/s13402-024-01027-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/08/2024] [Indexed: 12/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Although accounting for only a small amount of skin cancers, melanoma contributes prominently to skin cancer-related deaths, which are mostly caused by metastatic diseases, and lymphatic metastasis constitutes the main route. In this review, we concentrate on the metabolic mechanisms of tumor lymph node (LN) metastasis in melanoma. Two hypotheses of melanoma LN metastasis are introduced, which are the premetastatic niche (PMN) and parallel progression model. Dysregulation of oxidative stress, lactic acid concentration, fatty acid synthesis, amino acid metabolism, autophagy, and ferroptosis construct the metabolic mechanisms in LN metastasis of melanoma. Moreover, melanoma cells also promote LN metastasis by interacting with non-tumor cells through metabolic reprogramming in TIME. This review will deepen our understanding of the mechanism of lymph node metastasis in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Huang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, P. R. China
| | - Zixu Gao
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, P. R. China
| | - Jiangying Xuan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, P. R. China
| | - Ningyuan Gao
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, P. R. China
| | - Chuanyuan Wei
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, P. R. China.
| | - Jianying Gu
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, P. R. China.
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6
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Mayasin YP, Osinnikova MN, Kharisova CB, Kitaeva KV, Filin IY, Gorodilova AV, Kutovoi GI, Solovyeva VV, Golubev AI, Rizvanov AA. Extracellular Matrix as a Target in Melanoma Therapy: From Hypothesis to Clinical Trials. Cells 2024; 13:1917. [PMID: 39594665 PMCID: PMC11592585 DOI: 10.3390/cells13221917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2024] [Revised: 11/10/2024] [Accepted: 11/13/2024] [Indexed: 11/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is a malignant, highly metastatic neoplasm showing increasing morbidity and mortality. Tumor invasion and angiogenesis are based on remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Selective inhibition of functional components of cell-ECM interaction, such as hyaluronic acid (HA), matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and integrins, may inhibit tumor progression and enhance the efficacy of combination treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), chemotherapy, or immunotherapy. In this review, we combine the results of different approaches targeting extracellular matrix elements in melanoma in preclinical and clinical studies. The identified limitations of many approaches, including side effects, low selectivity, and toxicity, indicate the need for further studies to optimize therapy. Nevertheless, significant progress in expanding our understanding of tumor biology and the development of targeted therapies holds great promise for the early approaches developed several decades ago to inhibit metastasis through ECM targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuriy P. Mayasin
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
| | - Maria N. Osinnikova
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
| | - Chulpan B. Kharisova
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
| | - Kristina V. Kitaeva
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
| | - Ivan Y. Filin
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
| | - Anna V. Gorodilova
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
| | - Grigorii I. Kutovoi
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
| | - Valeriya V. Solovyeva
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
| | - Anatolii I. Golubev
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
| | - Albert A. Rizvanov
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (Y.P.M.); (M.N.O.); (C.B.K.); (K.V.K.); (I.Y.F.); (A.V.G.); (G.I.K.); (V.V.S.); (A.I.G.)
- Division of Medical and Biological Sciences, Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, 420111 Kazan, Russia
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7
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Amacker A, Peng CC, Jiang N, Sirivolu S, Higa N, Stachelek K, Reiser B, Kuhn P, Cobrinik D, Neviani P, Berry JL, Jovanovic-Talisman T, Xu L. Phenotypic Biomarkers of Aqueous Extracellular Vesicles from Retinoblastoma Eyes. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:11660. [PMID: 39519212 PMCID: PMC11545953 DOI: 10.3390/ijms252111660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2024] [Revised: 10/25/2024] [Accepted: 10/26/2024] [Indexed: 11/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent advancements in aqueous humor (AH) cell-free DNA (cfDNA) genomics have opened new avenues for ex vivo molecular profiling of retinoblastoma (RB), the most common pediatric intraocular malignancy, where biopsy is typically prohibited. While these insights offer a genetic blueprint of the tumor, they lack multi-omic molecular phenotyping, which is essential for understanding the functional state. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), naturally present in AH, are promising by offering time-resolved phenotypic information. We employed multiplex bead-based flow cytometry and Single Extracellular Vesicle Nanoscopy (SEVEN) to analyze EV phenotypes in AH from a cohort of five RB, with three uveal melanoma (UM) and two age-matched glaucoma (GLC) samples serving as controls. The studies identified CD133-enriched EVs uniquely in RB AH, absent in both GLC and UM AH. This was corroborated by further analysis of five RB cell lines, including two commercial (Y79, Weri) and three in-house developed lines, confirming CD133 enrichment and supporting its role as an RB-specific EV marker. Single-vesicle analysis demonstrated a strong association of CD133 with CD81 and CD63, with minimal CD9 presence. These results, validated through complementary techniques, position CD133 as a critical marker in RB-derived EVs, paving the way for enhanced multi-omic RB characterization and potential advancements in clinical diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Amacker
- The Vision Center, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; (A.A.); (C.-C.P.); (S.S.); (K.S.); (B.R.); (D.C.); (J.L.B.)
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Chen-Ching Peng
- The Vision Center, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; (A.A.); (C.-C.P.); (S.S.); (K.S.); (B.R.); (D.C.); (J.L.B.)
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Nan Jiang
- Department of Cancer Biology and Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; (N.J.); (T.J.-T.)
| | - Shreya Sirivolu
- The Vision Center, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; (A.A.); (C.-C.P.); (S.S.); (K.S.); (B.R.); (D.C.); (J.L.B.)
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Nikki Higa
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, Convergent Science Institute in Cancer, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (N.H.); (P.K.)
| | - Kevin Stachelek
- The Vision Center, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; (A.A.); (C.-C.P.); (S.S.); (K.S.); (B.R.); (D.C.); (J.L.B.)
- The Saban Research Institute, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
| | - Bibiana Reiser
- The Vision Center, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; (A.A.); (C.-C.P.); (S.S.); (K.S.); (B.R.); (D.C.); (J.L.B.)
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Peter Kuhn
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, Convergent Science Institute in Cancer, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (N.H.); (P.K.)
| | - David Cobrinik
- The Vision Center, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; (A.A.); (C.-C.P.); (S.S.); (K.S.); (B.R.); (D.C.); (J.L.B.)
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- The Saban Research Institute, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Paolo Neviani
- The Extracellular Vesicle Core, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA;
| | - Jesse L. Berry
- The Vision Center, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; (A.A.); (C.-C.P.); (S.S.); (K.S.); (B.R.); (D.C.); (J.L.B.)
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- The Saban Research Institute, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Tijana Jovanovic-Talisman
- Department of Cancer Biology and Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; (N.J.); (T.J.-T.)
| | - Liya Xu
- The Vision Center, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; (A.A.); (C.-C.P.); (S.S.); (K.S.); (B.R.); (D.C.); (J.L.B.)
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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8
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Hüser L, Chhabra Y, Gololobova O, Wang V, Liu G, Dixit A, Rocha MR, Harper EI, Fane ME, Marino-Bravante GE, Zabransky DJ, Cai KQ, Utikal J, Slusher BS, Walston J, Lipson EJ, Witwer KW, Weeraratna AT. Aged fibroblast-derived extracellular vesicles promote angiogenesis in melanoma. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114721. [PMID: 39255061 PMCID: PMC11835374 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 09/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Advancing age is a negative prognostic factor for cutaneous melanoma. However, the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) within the melanoma tumor microenvironment (TME) has remained unexplored in the context of aging. While the size and morphology of the EVs isolated from young vs. aged fibroblasts remained unaltered, the contents of the protein cargo were changed. Aging reduced the expression of the tetraspanin CD9 in both the dermal fibroblasts and released EVs. CD9 is a crucial regulator of EV cargo sorting. Modulating the CD9 expression in fibroblasts was sufficient to alter its levels in EVs. Mass spectrometry analysis of EVs released by CD9 knockdown (KD) vs. control cells revealed a significant increase in angiopoietin-like protein 2 (ANGPTL2), an angiogenesis promoter. Analysis of primary endothelial cells confirmed increased sprouting under CD9 KD conditions. Together, our data indicate that aged EVs play an important role in promoting a tumor-permissive microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Hüser
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany; DKFZ Hector Cancer Institute at the University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Yash Chhabra
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Research Program Cancer Signaling and Microenvironment, Fox Chase Institute for Cancer Research, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Olesia Gololobova
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Vania Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Guanshu Liu
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Agrani Dixit
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Murilo Ramos Rocha
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Elizabeth I Harper
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mitchell E Fane
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Research Program Cancer Signaling and Microenvironment, Fox Chase Institute for Cancer Research, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Gloria E Marino-Bravante
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Daniel J Zabransky
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kathy Q Cai
- Research Program Cancer Signaling and Microenvironment, Fox Chase Institute for Cancer Research, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jochen Utikal
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany; DKFZ Hector Cancer Institute at the University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Barbara S Slusher
- Johns Hopkins Drug Discovery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeremy Walston
- Department of Medicine - Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology - Hematologic Malignancies, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Evan J Lipson
- Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Bloomberg Kimmel Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kenneth W Witwer
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ashani T Weeraratna
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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9
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García-Silva S, Peinado H. Mechanisms of lymph node metastasis: An extracellular vesicle perspective. Eur J Cell Biol 2024; 103:151447. [PMID: 39116620 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2024.151447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
In several solid tumors such as breast cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer or melanoma, tumor draining lymph nodes are the earliest tissues where colonization by tumor cells is detected. Lymph nodes act as sentinels of metastatic dissemination, the deadliest phase of tumor progression. Besides hematogenous dissemination, lymphatic spread of tumor cells has been demonstrated, adding more complexity to the mechanisms involved in metastasis. A network of blood and lymphatic vessels surrounds tumors providing routes for tumor soluble factors to mediate regional and long-distance effects. Additionally, extracellular vesicles (EVs), particularly small EVs/exosomes, have been shown to circulate through the blood and lymph, favoring the formation of pre-metastatic niches in the tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLNs) and distant organs. In this review, we present an overview of the relevance of lymph node metastasis, the structural and immune changes occurring in TDLNs during tumor progression, and how extracellular vesicles contribute to modulating some of these alterations while promoting the formation of lymph node pre-metastatic niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana García-Silva
- Microenvironment and Metastasis Laboratory, Molecular Oncology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Center (CNIO), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Héctor Peinado
- Microenvironment and Metastasis Laboratory, Molecular Oncology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Center (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
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10
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Ważny Ł, Whiteside TL, Pietrowska M. Oncoviral Infections and Small Extracellular Vesicles. Viruses 2024; 16:1291. [PMID: 39205265 PMCID: PMC11359865 DOI: 10.3390/v16081291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2024] [Revised: 08/05/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Small extracellular vesicles (sEV) are small membrane-bound nanovesicles with a size range below 200 nm that are released by all types of cells. sEV carry a diverse cargo of proteins, lipids, glycans, and nucleic acids that mimic the content of producer cells. sEV mediate intercellular communication and play a key role in a broad variety of physiological and pathological conditions. Recently, numerous reports have emerged examining the role of sEV in viral infections. A significant number of similarities in the sEV biogenesis pathways and the replication cycles of viruses suggest that sEV might influence the course of viral infections in diverse ways. Besides directly modulating virus propagation by transporting the viral cargo (complete virions, proteins, RNA, and DNA), sEV can also modify the host antiviral response and increase the susceptibility of cells to infection. The network of mutual interactions is particularly complex in the case of oncogenic viruses, deserving special consideration because of its significance in cancer progression. This review summarizes the current knowledge of interactions between sEV and oncogenic viruses, focusing on sEV abilities to modulate the carcinogenic properties of oncoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Ważny
- Maria Sklodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology, 44-102 Gliwice, Poland;
| | - Theresa L. Whiteside
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15232, USA;
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Monika Pietrowska
- Maria Sklodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology, 44-102 Gliwice, Poland;
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11
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Coutant K, Magne B, Ferland K, Fuentes-Rodriguez A, Chancy O, Mitchell A, Germain L, Landreville S. Melanocytes in regenerative medicine applications and disease modeling. J Transl Med 2024; 22:336. [PMID: 38589876 PMCID: PMC11003097 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-024-05113-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Melanocytes are dendritic cells localized in skin, eyes, hair follicles, ears, heart and central nervous system. They are characterized by the presence of melanosomes enriched in melanin which are responsible for skin, eye and hair pigmentation. They also have different functions in photoprotection, immunity and sound perception. Melanocyte dysfunction can cause pigmentary disorders, hearing and vision impairments or increased cancer susceptibility. This review focuses on the role of melanocytes in homeostasis and disease, before discussing their potential in regenerative medicine applications, such as for disease modeling, drug testing or therapy development using stem cell technologies, tissue engineering and extracellular vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Coutant
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology-Cervico-Facial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Centre de recherche en organogénèse expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Université Laval Cancer Research Center, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Brice Magne
- Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Centre de recherche en organogénèse expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Karel Ferland
- Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Centre de recherche en organogénèse expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Aurélie Fuentes-Rodriguez
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology-Cervico-Facial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Centre de recherche en organogénèse expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Université Laval Cancer Research Center, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Olivier Chancy
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology-Cervico-Facial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Centre de recherche en organogénèse expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Université Laval Cancer Research Center, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Andrew Mitchell
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology-Cervico-Facial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Centre de recherche en organogénèse expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Université Laval Cancer Research Center, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Lucie Germain
- Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC, Canada.
- Centre de recherche en organogénèse expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC, Canada.
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada.
| | - Solange Landreville
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology-Cervico-Facial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada.
- Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC, Canada.
- Centre de recherche en organogénèse expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC, Canada.
- Université Laval Cancer Research Center, Quebec City, QC, Canada.
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12
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Flemming JP, Wermuth PJ, Mahoney MG. Extracellular Vesicles in the Skin Microenvironment: Emerging Roles as Biomarkers and Therapeutic Tools in Dermatologic Health and Disease. J Invest Dermatol 2024; 144:225-233. [PMID: 37877931 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2023.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
The recent discovery of extracellular vesicles (EVs) carrying cargo consisting of various bioactive macromolecules that can modulate the phenotype of recipient target cells has revealed an important new mechanism through which cells can signal their neighbors and regulate their microenvironment. Because EV cargo and composition correlate with the physiologic state of their cell of origin, investigations into the role of EVs in disease pathogenesis and progression have become an area of intense study. The physiologic and pathologic effects of EVs on their microenvironment are incredibly diverse and include the modulation of molecular pathways involved in angiogenesis, inflammation, wound healing, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, proliferation, and immune escape. This review examines recent studies on the role of EVs in diseases of the skin and on how differences in EV composition and cargo can alter cell states and the surrounding microenvironment. We also discuss the potential clinical applications of EVs in skin disease diagnosis and management. We examine their value as an easily isolated source of biomarkers to predict disease prognosis or to monitor patient response to treatment. Given the ability of EVs to modulate disease-specific signaling pathways, we also assess their potential to serve as novel personalized precision therapeutic tools for dermatological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph P Flemming
- Department of Dermatology & Cutaneous Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
| | - Peter J Wermuth
- Department of Dermatology & Cutaneous Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
| | - Mỹ G Mahoney
- Department of Dermatology & Cutaneous Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Cancer Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; Department of Otolaryngology - Head & Neck Surgery, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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13
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Fyfe J, Dye D, Razak NBA, Metharom P, Falasca M. Immune evasion on the nanoscale: Small extracellular vesicles in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma immunity. Semin Cancer Biol 2023; 96:36-47. [PMID: 37748738 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2023.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a type of cancer alarmingly expanding in our modern societies that is still proving to be very challenging to counteract. This disease constitutes a quintessential example of the multiple interactions existing between the tumour and its surrounding microenvironment. In particular, PDAC is characterized by a very immunosuppressive environment that favours cancer growth and makes this cancer type very resistant to immunotherapy. The primary tumour releases many factors that influence both the microenvironment and the immune landscape. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), recently identified as indispensable entities ensuring cell-to-cell communication in both physiological and pathological processes, seem to play a pivotal function in ensuring the delivery of these factors to the tumour-surrounding tissues. In this review, we summarize the present understanding on the crosstalk among tumour cells and the cellular immune microenvironment emphasizing the pro-malignant role played by extracellular vesicles. We also discuss how a greater knowledge of the roles of EVs in tumour immune escape could be translated into clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Fyfe
- Metabolic Signalling Group, Curtin Medical School, Curtin Health and Innovation Research Institute [1], Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Danielle Dye
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin Health and Innovation Research Institute [1], Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Norbaini Binti Abdol Razak
- Platelet Research Laboratory, Curtin Medical School, Curtin Health and Innovation Research Institute [1], Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Pat Metharom
- Platelet Research Laboratory, Curtin Medical School, Curtin Health and Innovation Research Institute [1], Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Marco Falasca
- Metabolic Signalling Group, Curtin Medical School, Curtin Health and Innovation Research Institute [1], Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia; University of Parma, Department of Medicine and Surgery, Via Volturno 39, 43125 Parma, Italy.
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14
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Pike S, Peng CC, Neviani P, Berry JL, Xu L. CD63/81 Small Extracellular Vesicles in the Aqueous Humor are Retinoblastoma Associated. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2023; 64:5. [PMID: 37410475 PMCID: PMC10337798 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.64.10.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Although biopsy is contraindicated in retinoblastoma (RB), the aqueous humor (AH) is a robust liquid biopsy source of molecular tumor information, facilitating biomarker discovery. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), promising biomarker candidates across multiple cancers, were recently identified in RB AH, but relationships between sEVs and RB clinical features are unknown. Methods We analyzed sEVs in 37 AH samples from 18 RB eyes of varying International Intraocular Retinoblastoma Classification (IIRC) groups and explored clinical correlations. Ten samples were collected at diagnosis (DX) and 27 during treatment (Tx). Unprocessed AH underwent Single Particle-Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor (SP-IRIS) analysis for fluorescent particle count and tetraspanin immunophenotyping; counts were subsequentially converted to percentages for analysis. Results Comparing DX and Tx samples, a higher percentage of CD63/81+ sEVs was found in DX AH (16.3 ± 11.6% vs. 5.49 ± 3.67% P = 0.0009), with a more homogenous mono-CD63+ sEV population seen in Tx AH (43.5 ± 14.7% vs. 28.8 ± 9.38%, P = 0.0073). Among DX samples, CD63/81+ sEVs were most abundant in group E eyes (n = 2) compared to group D (n = 6) by count (2.75 × 105 ± 3.40 × 105 vs. 5.95 × 103 ± 8.16 × 103, P = 0.0006), and to group A + B (n = 2) by count (2.75 × 105 ± 3.40 × 105 vs. 2.73 × 102 ± 2.59 × 102, P = 0.0096) and percentage (32.1 ± 7.98% vs. 7.79 ± 0.02%, P = 0.0187). Conclusions CD63/81+ sEVs enrich AH from RB eyes before treatment and those with more significant tumor burden, suggesting they are tumor-derived. Future research into their cargo may reveal mechanisms of cellular communication via sEVs in RB and novel biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Pike
- The Vision Center, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Chen-Ching Peng
- The Vision Center, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Paolo Neviani
- Extracellular Vesicle Core, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Jesse L. Berry
- The Vision Center, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States
- The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Liya Xu
- The Vision Center, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States
- The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States
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