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Geng S, Wu Y, Li L. Immune Homeostasis Maintenance Through Advanced Immune Therapeutics to Target Atherosclerosis. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2782:25-37. [PMID: 38622390 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3754-8_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis remains the leading cause of coronary heart disease (CHD) with enormous health and societal tolls. Traditional drug development approaches have been focused on small molecule-based compounds that aim to lower plasma lipids and reduce systemic inflammation, two primary causes of atherosclerosis. However, despite the widely available lipid-lowering and anti-inflammatory small compounds and biologic agents, CHD prevalence still remains high. Based on recent advances revealing disrupted immune homeostasis during atherosclerosis pathogenesis, novel strategies aimed at rejuvenating immune homeostasis with engineered immune leukocytes are being developed. This chapter aims to assess basic and translational efforts on these emerging strategies for the effective development of atherosclerosis treatment, as well as key challenges in this important translational field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Geng
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Yajun Wu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Liwu Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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2
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Ribeiro A, Liu F, Srebrzynski M, Rother S, Adamowicz K, Wadowska M, Steiger S, Anders HJ, Schmaderer C, Koziel J, Lech M. Uremic Toxin Indoxyl Sulfate Promotes Macrophage-Associated Low-Grade Inflammation and Epithelial Cell Senescence. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24098031. [PMID: 37175735 PMCID: PMC10179130 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24098031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the impact of the uremic toxin indoxyl sulfate on macrophages and tubular epithelial cells and its role in modulating the response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Indoxyl sulfate accumulates in the blood of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and is a predictor of overall and cardiovascular morbidity/mortality. To simulate the uremic condition, primary macrophages and tubular epithelial cells were incubated with indoxyl sulfate at low concentrations as well as concentrations found in uremic patients, both alone and upon LPS challenge. The results showed that indoxyl sulfate alone induced the release of reactive oxygen species and low-grade inflammation in macrophages. Moreover, combined with LPS (proinflammatory conditions), indoxyl sulfate significantly increased TNF-α, CCL2, and IL-10 release but did not significantly affect the polarization of macrophages. Pre-treatment with indoxyl sulfate following LPS challenge induced the expression of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr) and NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4) which generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). Further, experiments with tubular epithelial cells revealed that indoxyl sulfate might induce senescence in parenchymal cells and therefore participate in the progression of inflammaging. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that indoxyl sulfate provokes low-grade inflammation, modulates macrophage function, and enhances the inflammatory response associated with LPS. Finally, indoxyl sulfate signaling contributes to the senescence of tubular epithelial cells during injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Ribeiro
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Nephrologisches Zentrum, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80336 Munich, Germany
- Department of Nephrology, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Feiyue Liu
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Nephrologisches Zentrum, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Matthias Srebrzynski
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Nephrologisches Zentrum, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Simone Rother
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Nephrologisches Zentrum, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Karina Adamowicz
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 31-007 Krakow, Poland
| | - Marta Wadowska
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 31-007 Krakow, Poland
| | - Stefanie Steiger
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Nephrologisches Zentrum, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Hans-Joachim Anders
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Nephrologisches Zentrum, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Christoph Schmaderer
- Department of Nephrology, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Joanna Koziel
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 31-007 Krakow, Poland
| | - Maciej Lech
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Nephrologisches Zentrum, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80336 Munich, Germany
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3
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Lajqi T, Köstlin-Gille N, Bauer R, Zarogiannis SG, Lajqi E, Ajeti V, Dietz S, Kranig SA, Rühle J, Demaj A, Hebel J, Bartosova M, Frommhold D, Hudalla H, Gille C. Training vs. Tolerance: The Yin/Yang of the Innate Immune System. Biomedicines 2023; 11:766. [PMID: 36979747 PMCID: PMC10045728 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11030766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
For almost nearly a century, memory functions have been attributed only to acquired immune cells. Lately, this paradigm has been challenged by an increasing number of studies revealing that innate immune cells are capable of exhibiting memory-like features resulting in increased responsiveness to subsequent challenges, a process known as trained immunity (known also as innate memory). In contrast, the refractory state of endotoxin tolerance has been defined as an immunosuppressive state of myeloid cells portrayed by a significant reduction in the inflammatory capacity. Both training as well tolerance as adaptive features are reported to be accompanied by epigenetic and metabolic alterations occurring in cells. While training conveys proper protection against secondary infections, the induction of endotoxin tolerance promotes repairing mechanisms in the cells. Consequently, the inappropriate induction of these adaptive cues may trigger maladaptive effects, promoting an increased susceptibility to secondary infections-tolerance, or contribute to the progression of the inflammatory disorder-trained immunity. This review aims at the discussion of these opposing manners of innate immune and non-immune cells, describing the molecular, metabolic and epigenetic mechanisms involved and interpreting the clinical implications in various inflammatory pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trim Lajqi
- Department of Neonatology, Heidelberg University Children’s Hospital, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Natascha Köstlin-Gille
- Department of Neonatology, Heidelberg University Children’s Hospital, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Neonatology, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Reinhard Bauer
- Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, Jena University Hospital, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sotirios G. Zarogiannis
- Department of Physiology, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, GR-41500 Larissa, Greece
| | - Esra Lajqi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Valdrina Ajeti
- Department of Pharmacy, Alma Mater Europaea—Campus College Rezonanca, XK-10000 Pristina, Kosovo
| | - Stefanie Dietz
- Department of Neonatology, Heidelberg University Children’s Hospital, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Neonatology, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Simon A. Kranig
- Department of Neonatology, Heidelberg University Children’s Hospital, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jessica Rühle
- Department of Neonatology, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ardian Demaj
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Tetovo, MK-1200 Tetova, North Macedonia
| | - Janine Hebel
- Department of Neonatology, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Maria Bartosova
- Center for Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine Heidelberg, University of Heidelberg, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David Frommhold
- Klinik für Kinderheilkunde und Jugendmedizin, D-87700 Memmingen, Germany
| | - Hannes Hudalla
- Department of Neonatology, Heidelberg University Children’s Hospital, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Gille
- Department of Neonatology, Heidelberg University Children’s Hospital, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Li R, Sano T, Mizokami A, Fukuda T, Shinjo T, Iwashita M, Yamashita A, Sanui T, Nakatsu Y, Sotomaru Y, Asano T, Kanematsu T, Nishimura F. miR-582-5p targets Skp1 and regulates NF-κB signaling-mediated inflammation. Arch Biochem Biophys 2023; 734:109501. [PMID: 36592647 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2022.109501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
A well-tuned inflammatory response is crucial for an effective immune process. Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) is a key mediator of inflammatory and innate immunity responses, and its dysregulation is closely associated with immune-related diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important inflammation modulators. However, miRNA-regulated mechanisms that implicate NF-κB activity are not fully understood. This study aimed to identify a potential miRNA that could modulate the dysregulated NF-κB signaling during inflammation. We identified miR-582-5p that was significantly downregulated in inflamed murine adipose tissues and RAW264.7 cells. S-phase kinase-associated protein 1 (SKP1), a core component of an E3 ubiquitin ligase that regulates the NF-κB pathway, was proposed as a biological target of miR-582-5p by using TargetScan. The binding of miR-582-5p to a 3'-untranslated region site on Skp1 was confirmed using a dual-luciferase reporter assay; in addition, transfection with a miR-582-5p mimic suppressed SKP1 expression in RAW264.7 cells. Importantly, exogenous miR-582-5p attenuated the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1 beta, and interleukin-6 through suppressing the degradation of the NF-κB inhibitor alpha, followed by the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Therefore, exogenously applied miR-582-5p can attenuate the NF-κB signaling pathway via targeting Skp1; this provides a prospective therapeutic strategy for treating inflammatory and immune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongzhi Li
- Department of Periodontology, Division of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Tomomi Sano
- Department of Cell Biology, Aging Science, and Pharmacology, Division of Oral Biological Sciences, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
| | - Akiko Mizokami
- Oral, Brain and Total Health Science, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Takao Fukuda
- Department of Periodontology, Division of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Takanori Shinjo
- Department of Periodontology, Division of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Misaki Iwashita
- Department of Periodontology, Division of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Akiko Yamashita
- Department of Periodontology, Division of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Terukazu Sanui
- Department of Periodontology, Division of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yusuke Nakatsu
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Yusuke Sotomaru
- Natural Science Center for Basic Research and Development, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Tomoichiro Asano
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Takashi Kanematsu
- Department of Cell Biology, Aging Science, and Pharmacology, Division of Oral Biological Sciences, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Fusanori Nishimura
- Department of Periodontology, Division of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Laudanski K. Quo Vadis Anesthesiologist? The Value Proposition of Future Anesthesiologists Lies in Preserving or Restoring Presurgical Health after Surgical Insult. J Clin Med 2022; 11:1135. [PMID: 35207406 PMCID: PMC8879076 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11041135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This Special Issue of the Journal of Clinical Medicine is devoted to anesthesia and perioperative care [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Laudanski
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; ; Tel.: +1-215-662-8000
- Leonard Davis Institute for Healthcare Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Naler LB, Hsieh YP, Geng S, Zhou Z, Li L, Lu C. Epigenomic and transcriptomic analyses reveal differences between low-grade inflammation and severe exhaustion in LPS-challenged murine monocytes. Commun Biol 2022; 5:102. [PMID: 35091696 PMCID: PMC8799722 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03035-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging studies suggest that monocytes can be trained by bacterial endotoxin to adopt distinct memory states ranging from low-grade inflammation to immune exhaustion. While low-grade inflammation may contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic diseases, exhausted monocytes with pathogenic and immune-suppressive characteristics may underlie the pathogenesis of polymicrobial sepsis including COVID-19. However, detailed processes by which the dynamic adaption of monocytes occur remain poorly understood. Here we exposed murine bone-marrow derived monocytes to chronic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation at low-dose or high-dose, as well as a PBS control. The cells were profiled for genome-wide H3K27ac modification and gene expression. The gene expression of TRAM-deficient and IRAK-M-deficient monocytes with LPS exposure was also analyzed. We discover that low-grade inflammation preferentially utilizes the TRAM-dependent pathway of TLR4 signaling, and induces the expression of interferon response genes. In contrast, high dose LPS uniquely upregulates exhaustion signatures with metabolic and proliferative pathways. The extensive differences in the epigenomic landscape between low-dose and high-dose conditions suggest the importance of epigenetic regulations in driving differential responses. Our data provide potential targets for future mechanistic or therapeutic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynette B Naler
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Yuan-Pang Hsieh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Shuo Geng
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Zirui Zhou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Liwu Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Chang Lu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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Geng S, Pradhan K, Li L. Signal-Strength and History-Dependent Innate Immune Memory Dynamics in Health and Disease. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2022; 276:23-41. [PMID: 34085119 DOI: 10.1007/164_2021_485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Innate immunity exhibits memory characteristics, reflected not only in selective recognition of external microbial or internal damage signals, but more importantly in history and signal-strength dependent reprogramming of innate leukocytes characterized by priming, tolerance, and exhaustion. Key innate immune cells such as monocytes and neutrophils can finely discern and attune to the duration and intensity of external signals through rewiring of internal signaling circuitries, giving rise to a vast array of discreet memory phenotypes critically relevant to managing tissue homeostasis as well as diverse repertoires of inflammatory conditions. This review will highlight recent advances in this rapidly expanding field of innate immune programming and memory, as well as its translational implication in the pathophysiology of selected inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Geng
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Kisha Pradhan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Liwu Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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Geng S, Zhang Y, Yi Z, Lu R, Li L. Resolving monocytes generated through TRAM deletion attenuate atherosclerosis. JCI Insight 2021; 6:e149651. [PMID: 34499622 PMCID: PMC8564896 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.149651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Polarization of low-grade inflammatory monocytes facilitates the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. However, underlying mechanisms as well as approaches for resolving monocyte polarization conducive to the regression of atherosclerosis are not well established. In this report, we demonstrate that TRIF-related adaptor molecule (TRAM) mediated monocyte polarization in vivo and in vitro. TRAM controlled monocyte polarization through activating Src family kinase c-SRC, which not only induces STAT1/STAT5-regulated inflammatory mediators CCR2 and SIRP-α but also suppresses PPARγ-regulated resolving mediator CD200R. Enhanced PPARγ and Pex5 due to TRAM deficiency facilitated peroxisome homeostasis and reduction of cellular reactive oxygen species, further contributing to the establishment of a resolving monocyte phenotype. TRAM-deficient monocytes propagated the resolving phenotype to neighboring monocytes through CD200R-mediated intercellular communication. At the translational level, we show that TRAM-deficient mice were resistant to high-fat diet-induced pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. We further document that intravenous transfusion of TRAM-deficient resolving monocytes into atherosclerotic mice potently reduced the progression of atherosclerosis. Together, our data reveal that targeting TRAM may facilitate the effective generation of resolving monocytes conducive for the treatment of atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Geng
- Department of Biological Sciences and
| | - Yao Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences and
| | - Ziyue Yi
- Graduate Program of Genetics, Biotechnology and Computational Biology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Ran Lu
- Department of Biological Sciences and
| | - Liwu Li
- Department of Biological Sciences and
- Graduate Program of Genetics, Biotechnology and Computational Biology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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Pradhan K, Geng S, Zhang Y, Lin RC, Li L. TRAM-Related TLR4 Pathway Antagonized by IRAK-M Mediates the Expression of Adhesion/Coactivating Molecules on Low-Grade Inflammatory Monocytes. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2021; 206:2980-2988. [PMID: 34031144 PMCID: PMC8278277 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Low-grade inflammatory monocytes critically contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis. The elevated expression of coactivating molecule CD40 as well as key adhesion molecule CD11a is a critical signature of inflammatory monocytes from both human patients with coronary artery diseases as well as in animal models of atherosclerosis. In this study, we report that subclinical superlow-dose LPS, a key risk factor for low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis, can potently trigger the induction of CD40 and CD11a on low-grade inflammatory monocytes. Subclinical endotoxin-derived monocytes demonstrate immune-enhancing effects and suppress the generation of regulatory CD8+CD122+ T cells, which further exacerbate the inflammatory environment conducive for chronic diseases. Mechanistically, subclinical endotoxemia activates TRAM-mediated signaling processes, leading to the activation of MAPK and STAT5, which is responsible for the expression of CD40 and CD11a. We also demonstrate that TRAM-mediated monocyte polarization can be suppressed by IRAK-M. IRAK-M-deficient monocytes have increased expression of TRAM, elevated induction of CD40 and CD11a by subclinical-dose endotoxin, and are more potent in suppressing the CD8 regulatory T cells. Mice with IRAK-M deficiency generate an increased population of inflammatory monocytes and a reduced population of CD8 T regulatory cells. In contrast, mice with TRAM deficiency exhibit a significantly reduced inflammatory monocyte population and an elevated CD8 T regulatory cell population. Together, our data reveal a competing intracellular circuitry involving TRAM and IRAK-M that modulate the polarization of low-grade inflammatory monocytes with an immune-enhancing function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kisha Pradhan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA
| | - Shuo Geng
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA
| | - Yao Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA
| | - Rui-Ci Lin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA
| | - Liwu Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA
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