Hemodynamic and Pathologic Characterization of the TASK-1-/- Mouse Does Not Demonstrate Pulmonary Hypertension

KCNK3 channel is important for the ventilatory response to hypoxia in rats

To clarify the contribution of KCNK3/TASK-1 channel chemoreflex in response to hypoxia and hypercapnia, we used a unique Kcnk3-deficient rat. We assessed ventilatory variables using plethysmography in Kcnk3-deficient and wild-type rats at rest in response to hypoxia (10% O2) and hypercapnia (4% CO2). Immunostaining for C-Fos, a marker of neuronal activity, was performed to identify the regions of the respiratory neuronal network involved in the observed response.Under basal conditions, we observed increased minute ventilation in Kcnk3-deficient rats, which was associated with increased c-Fos positive cells in the ventrolateral region of the medulla oblongata. Kcnk3-deficient rats show an increase in ventilatory response to hypoxia without changes in response to hypercapnia. In Kcnk3-deficient rats, linked to an increased hypoxia response, we observed a greater increase in c-Fos-positive cells in the first central relay of peripheral chemoreceptors and Raphe Obscurus. This study reports that KCNK3/TASK-1 deficiency in rats induces an inadequate peripheral chemoreflex, alternating respiratory rhythmogenesis, and hypoxic chemoreflex.

Physiological and pathophysiological roles of the KCNK3 potassium channel in the pulmonary circulation and the heart

Potassium channel subfamily K member 3 (KCNK3), encoded by the KCNK3 gene, is part of the two-pore domain potassium channel family, constitutively active at resting membrane potentials in excitable cells, including smooth muscle and cardiac cells. Several physiological and pharmacological mediators, such as intracellular signalling pathways, extracellular pH, hypoxia and anaesthetics, regulate KCNK3 channel function. Recent studies show that modulation of KCNK3 channel expression and function strongly influences pulmonary vascular cell and cardiomyocyte function. The altered activity of KCNK3 in pathological situations such as atrial fibrillation, pulmonary arterial hypertension and right ventricular dysfunction demonstrates the crucial role of KCNK3 in cardiovascular homeostasis. Furthermore, loss of function variants of KCNK3 have been identified in patients suffering from pulmonary arterial hypertension and atrial fibrillation. This review focuses on current knowledge of the role of the KCNK3 channel in pulmonary circulation and the heart, in healthy and pathological conditions.

The Latest in Animal Models of Pulmonary Hypertension and Right Ventricular Failure

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) describes heterogeneous population of patients with a mean pulmonary arterial pressure >20 mm Hg. Rarely, PH presents as a primary disorder but is more commonly part of a complex phenotype associated with comorbidities. Regardless of the cause, PH reduces life expectancy and impacts quality of life. The current clinical classification divides PH into 1 of 5 diagnostic groups to assign treatment. There are currently no pharmacological cures for any form of PH. Animal models are essential to help decipher the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease, to assign genotype-phenotype relationships to help identify new therapeutic targets, and for clinical translation to assess the mechanism of action and putative efficacy of new therapies. However, limitations inherent of all animal models of disease limit the ability of any single model to fully recapitulate complex human disease. Within the PH community, we are often critical of animal models due to the perceived low success upon clinical translation of new drugs. In this review, we describe the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of existing animal models developed to gain insight into the molecular and pathological mechanisms and test new therapeutics, focusing on adult forms of PH from groups 1 to 3. We also discuss areas of improvement for animal models with approaches combining several hits to better reflect the clinical situation and elevate their translational value.

Negative Influence by the Force: Mechanically Induced Hyperpolarization via K2P Background Potassium Channels

The two-pore domain K_2P subunits form background (leak) potassium channels, which are characterized by constitutive, although not necessarily constant activity, at all membrane potential values. Among the fifteen pore-forming K_2P subunits encoded by the KCNK genes, the three members of the TREK subfamily, TREK-1, TREK-2, and TRAAK are mechanosensitive ion channels. Mechanically induced opening of these channels generally results in outward K⁺ current under physiological conditions, with consequent hyperpolarization and inhibition of membrane potential-dependent cellular functions. In the past decade, great advances have been made in the investigation of the molecular determinants of mechanosensation, and members of the TREK subfamily have emerged among the best-understood examples of mammalian ion channels directly influenced by the tension of the phospholipid bilayer. In parallel, the crucial contribution of mechano-gated TREK channels to the regulation of membrane potential in several cell types has been reported. In this review, we summarize the general principles underlying the mechanical activation of K_2P channels, and focus on the physiological roles of mechanically induced hyperpolarization.

Involvement of CFTR in the pathogenesis of pulmonary arterial hypertension

INTRODUCTION

A reduction in pulmonary artery (PA) relaxation is a key event in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) pathogenesis. CFTR dysfunction in airway epithelial cells plays a central role in cystic fibrosis (CF); CFTR is also expressed in PAs and has been shown to control endothelium-independent relaxation.

AIM AND OBJECTIVES

We aimed to delineate the role of CFTR in PAH pathogenesis through observational and interventional experiments in human tissues and animal models.

METHODS AND RESULTS

RT-Q-PCR, confocal imaging and electron microscopy showed that CFTR expression was reduced in PAs from patients with idiopathic PAH (iPAH) and in rats with monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension (PH). Moreover, using myograph on human, pig and rat PAs, we demonstrated that CFTR activation induces PAs relaxation. CFTR-mediated PA relaxation was reduced in PAs from iPAH patients and rats with monocrotaline- or chronic hypoxia-induced PH. Long-term in vivo CFTR inhibition in rats significantly increased right ventricular systolic pressure, which was related to exaggerated pulmonary vascular cell proliferation in situ and vessel neomuscularization. Pathologic assessment of lungs from patients with severe CF (F508del-CFTR) revealed severe PA remodeling with intimal fibrosis and medial hypertrophy. Lungs from homozygous F508delCftr rats exhibited pulmonary vessel neomuscularization. The elevations in right ventricular systolic pressure and end diastolic pressure in monocrotaline-exposed rats with chronic CFTR inhibition were more prominent than those in vehicle-exposed rats.

CONCLUSIONS

CFTR expression is strongly decreased in PA smooth muscle and endothelial cells in human and animal models of PH. CFTR inhibition increases vascular cell proliferation and strongly reduces PA relaxation.

KCNK3 Mutation Causes Altered Immune Function in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Patients and Mouse Models

Loss of function KCNK3 mutation is one of the gene variants driving hereditary pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). KCNK3 is expressed in several cell and tissue types on both membrane and endoplasmic reticulum and potentially plays a role in multiple pathological process associated with PAH. However, the role of various stressors driving the susceptibility of KCNK3 mutation to PAH is unknown. Hence, we exposed kcnk3^fl/fl animals to hypoxia, metabolic diet and low dose lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and performed molecular characterization of their tissue. We also used tissue samples from KCNK3 patients (skin fibroblast derived inducible pluripotent stem cells, blood, lungs, peripheral blood mononuclear cells) and performed microarray, immunohistochemistry (IHC) and mass cytometry time of flight (CyTOF) experiments. Although a hypoxic insult did not alter vascular tone in kcnk3^fl/fl mice, RNASeq study of these lungs implied that inflammatory and metabolic factors were altered, and the follow-up diet study demonstrated a dysregulation of bone marrow cells in kcnk3^fl/fl mice. Finally, a low dose LPS study clearly showed that inflammation could be a possible second hit driving PAH in kcnk3^fl/fl mice. Multiplex, IHC and CyTOF immunophenotyping studies on human samples confirmed the mouse data and strongly indicated that cell mediated, and innate immune responses may drive PAH susceptibility in these patients. In conclusion, loss of function KCNK3 mutation alters various physiological processes from vascular tone to metabolic diet through inflammation. Our data suggests that altered circulating immune cells may drive PAH susceptibility in patients with KCNK3 mutation.

Potassium (K+) channels in the pulmonary vasculature: Implications in pulmonary hypertension Physiological, pathophysiological and pharmacological regulation

The large K⁺ channel functional diversity in the pulmonary vasculature results from the multitude of genes expressed encoding K⁺ channels, alternative RNA splicing, the post-transcriptional modifications, the presence of homomeric or heteromeric assemblies of the pore-forming α-subunits and the existence of accessory β-subunits modulating the functional properties of the channel. K⁺ channels can also be regulated at multiple levels by different factors controlling channel activity, trafficking, recycling and degradation. The activity of these channels is the primary determinant of membrane potential (Em) in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMC), providing an essential regulatory mechanism to dilate or contract pulmonary arteries (PA). K⁺ channels are also expressed in pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAEC) where they control resting Em, Ca²⁺ entry and the production of different vasoactive factors. The activity of K⁺ channels is also important in regulating the population and phenotype of PASMC in the pulmonary vasculature, since they are involved in cell apoptosis, survival and proliferation. Notably, K⁺ channels play a major role in the development of pulmonary hypertension (PH). Impaired K⁺ channel activity in PH results from: 1) loss of function mutations, 2) downregulation of its expression, which involves transcription factors and microRNAs, or 3) decreased channel current as a result of increased vasoactive factors (e.g., hypoxia, 5-HT, endothelin-1 or thromboxane), exposure to drugs with channel-blocking properties, or by a reduction in factors that positively regulate K⁺ channel activity (e.g., NO and prostacyclin). Restoring K⁺ channel expression, its intracellular trafficking and the channel activity is an attractive therapeutic strategy in PH.

The Experimental TASK-1 Potassium Channel Inhibitor A293 Can Be Employed for Rhythm Control of Persistent Atrial Fibrillation in a Translational Large Animal Model

BACKGROUND

Upregulation of the two-pore-domain potassium channel TASK-1 (hK2 P 3.1) was recently described in patients suffering from atrial fibrillation (AF) and resulted in shortening of the atrial action potential. In the human heart, TASK-1 channels facilitate repolarization and are specifically expressed in the atria. In the present study, we tested the antiarrhythmic effects of the experimental ion channel inhibitor A293 that is highly affine for TASK-1 in a porcine large animal model of persistent AF.

METHODS

Persistent AF was induced in German landrace pigs by right atrial burst stimulation via implanted pacemakers using a biofeedback algorithm over 14 days. Electrophysiological and echocardiographic investigations were performed before and after the pharmacological treatment period. A293 was intravenously administered once per day. After a treatment period of 14 days, atrial cardiomyocytes were isolated for patch clamp measurements of currents and atrial action potentials. Hemodynamic consequences of TASK-1 inhibition were measured upon acute A293 treatment.

RESULTS

In animals with persistent AF, the A293 treatment significantly reduced the AF burden (6.5% vs. 95%; P < 0.001). Intracardiac electrophysiological investigations showed that the atrial effective refractory period was prolonged in A293 treated study animals, whereas, the QRS width, QT interval, and ventricular effective refractory periods remained unchanged. A293 treatment reduced the upregulation of the TASK-1 current as well as the shortening of the action potential duration caused by AF. No central nervous side effects were observed. A mild but significant increase in pulmonary artery pressure was observed upon acute TASK-1 inhibition.

CONCLUSION

Pharmacological inhibition of atrial TASK-1 currents exerts in vivo antiarrhythmic effects that can be employed for rhythm control in a porcine model of persistent AF. Care has to be taken as TASK-1 inhibition may increase pulmonary artery pressure levels.

Vasoconstrictor Mechanisms in Chronic Hypoxia-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension: Role of Oxidant Signaling

Elevated resistance of pulmonary circulation after chronic hypoxia exposure leads to pulmonary hypertension. Contributing to this pathological process is enhanced pulmonary vasoconstriction through both calcium-dependent and calcium sensitization mechanisms. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), as a result of increased enzymatic production and/or decreased scavenging, participate in augmentation of pulmonary arterial constriction by potentiating calcium influx as well as activation of myofilament sensitization, therefore mediating the development of pulmonary hypertension. Here, we review the effects of chronic hypoxia on sources of ROS within the pulmonary vasculature including NADPH oxidases, mitochondria, uncoupled endothelial nitric oxide synthase, xanthine oxidase, monoamine oxidases and dysfunctional superoxide dismutases. We also summarize the ROS-induced functional alterations of various Ca2+ and K+ channels involved in regulating Ca2+ influx, and of Rho kinase that is responsible for myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity. A variety of antioxidants have been shown to have beneficial therapeutic effects in animal models of pulmonary hypertension, supporting the role of ROS in the development of pulmonary hypertension. A better understanding of the mechanisms by which ROS enhance vasoconstriction will be useful in evaluating the efficacy of antioxidants for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension.

Implication of Potassium Channels in the Pathophysiology of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a rare and severe cardiopulmonary disease without curative treatments. PAH is a multifactorial disease that involves genetic predisposition, epigenetic factors, and environmental factors (drugs, toxins, viruses, hypoxia, and inflammation), which contribute to the initiation or development of irreversible remodeling of the pulmonary vessels. The recent identification of loss-of-function mutations in KCNK3 (KCNK3 or TASK-1) and ABCC8 (SUR1), or gain-of-function mutations in ABCC9 (SUR2), as well as polymorphisms in KCNA5 (Kv1.5), which encode two potassium (K⁺) channels and two K⁺ channel regulatory subunits, has revived the interest of ion channels in PAH. This review focuses on KCNK3, SUR1, SUR2, and Kv1.5 channels in pulmonary vasculature and discusses their pathophysiological contribution to and therapeutic potential in PAH.

Pharmacologic TWIK-Related Acid-Sensitive K+ Channel (TASK-1) Potassium Channel Inhibitor A293 Facilitates Acute Cardioversion of Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation in a Porcine Large Animal Model

Background The tandem of P domains in a weak inward rectifying K+ channel (TWIK)-related acid-sensitive K⁺ channel (TASK-1; hK_2P3.1) two-pore-domain potassium channel was recently shown to regulate the atrial action potential duration. In the human heart, TASK-1 channels are specifically expressed in the atria. Furthermore, upregulation of atrial TASK-1 currents was described in patients suffering from atrial fibrillation (AF). We therefore hypothesized that TASK-1 channels represent an ideal target for antiarrhythmic therapy of AF. In the present study, we tested the antiarrhythmic effects of the high-affinity TASK-1 inhibitor A293 on cardioversion in a porcine model of paroxysmal AF. Methods and Results Heterologously expressed human and porcine TASK-1 channels are blocked by A293 to a similar extent. Patch clamp measurements from isolated human and porcine atrial cardiomyocytes showed comparable TASK-1 currents. Computational modeling was used to investigate the conditions under which A293 would be antiarrhythmic. German landrace pigs underwent electrophysiological studies under general anesthesia. Paroxysmal AF was induced by right atrial burst stimulation. After induction of AF episodes, intravenous administration of A293 restored sinus rhythm within cardioversion times of 177±63 seconds. Intravenous administration of A293 resulted in significant prolongation of the atrial effective refractory period, measured at cycle lengths of 300, 400 and 500 ms, whereas the surface ECG parameters and the ventricular effective refractory period lengths remained unchanged. Conclusions Pharmacological inhibition of atrial TASK-1 currents exerts antiarrhythmic effects in vivo as well as in silico, resulting in acute cardioversion of paroxysmal AF. Taken together, these experiments indicate the therapeutic potential of A293 for AF treatment.

TASK-1 and TASK-3 channels modulate pressure overload-induced cardiac remodeling and dysfunction

Tandem pore domain acid-sensitive K⁺ (TASK) channels are present in cardiac tissue; however, their contribution to cardiac pathophysiology is not well understood. Here, we investigate the role of TASK-1 and TASK-3 in the pathogenesis of cardiac dysfunction using both human tissue and mouse models of genetic TASK channel loss of function. Compared with normal human cardiac tissue, TASK-1 gene expression is reduced in association with either cardiac hypertrophy alone or combined cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. In a pressure overload cardiomyopathy model, TASK-1 global knockout (TASK-1 KO) mice have both reduced cardiac hypertrophy and preserved cardiac function compared with wild-type mice. In contrast to the TASK-1 KO mouse pressure overload response, TASK-3 global knockout (TASK-3 KO) mice develop cardiac hypertrophy and a delayed onset of cardiac dysfunction compared with wild-type mice. The cardioprotective effects observed in TASK-1 KO mice are associated with pressure overload-induced augmentation of AKT phosphorylation and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) expression, with consequent augmentation of cardiac energetics and fatty acid oxidation. The protective effects of TASK-1 loss of function are associated with an enhancement of physiologic hypertrophic signaling and preserved metabolic functions. These findings may provide a rationale for TASK-1 channel inhibition in the treatment of cardiac dysfunction.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The role of tandem pore domain acid-sensitive K⁺ (TASK) channels in cardiac function is not well understood. This study demonstrates that TASK channel gene expression is associated with the onset of human cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. TASK-1 and TASK-3 strongly affect the development of pressure overload cardiomyopathies in genetic models of TASK-1 and TASK-3 loss of function. The effects of TASK-1 loss of function were associated with enhanced AKT phosphorylation and expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1 (PGC-1) transcription factor. These data suggest that TASK channels influence the development of cardiac hypertrophy and dysfunction in response to injury.

Redox Regulation of Ion Channels and Receptors in Pulmonary Hypertension

Significance: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is characterized by elevated vascular resistance due to vasoconstriction and remodeling of the normally low-pressure pulmonary vasculature. Redox stress contributes to the pathophysiology of this disease by altering the regulation and activity of membrane receptors, K+ channels, and intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis. Recent Advances: Antioxidant therapies have had limited success in treating PH, leading to a growing appreciation that reductive stress, in addition to oxidative stress, plays a role in metabolic and cell signaling dysfunction in pulmonary vascular cells. Reactive oxygen species generation from mitochondria and NADPH oxidases has substantial effects on K+ conductance and membrane potential, and both receptor-operated and store-operated Ca2+ entry. Critical Issues: Some specific redox changes resulting from oxidation, S-nitrosylation, and S-glutathionylation are known to modulate membrane receptor and ion channel activity in PH. However, many sites of regulation that have been elucidated in nonpulmonary cell types have not been tested in the pulmonary vasculature, and context-specific molecular mechanisms are lacking. Future Directions: Here, we review what is known about redox regulation of membrane receptors and ion channels in PH. Further investigation of the mechanisms involved is needed to better understand the etiology of PH and develop better targeted treatment strategies.

Potassium channels in vascular smooth muscle: a pathophysiological and pharmacological perspective

Potassium (K⁺ ) ion channel activity is an important determinant of vascular tone by regulating cell membrane potential (MP). Activation of K⁺ channels leads to membrane hyperpolarization and subsequently vasodilatation, while inhibition of the channels causes membrane depolarization and then vasoconstriction. So far five distinct types of K⁺ channels have been identified in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs): Ca⁺² -activated K⁺ channels (BK_{C a} ), voltage-dependent K⁺ channels (K_V ), ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels (K_ATP ), inward rectifier K⁺ channels (K_ir ), and tandem two-pore K⁺ channels (K₂ P). The activity and expression of vascular K⁺ channels are changed during major vascular diseases such as hypertension, pulmonary hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, and diabetes mellitus. The defective function of K⁺ channels is commonly associated with impaired vascular responses and is likely to become as a result of changes in K⁺ channels during vascular diseases. Increased K⁺ channel function and expression may also help to compensate for increased abnormal vascular tone. There are many pharmacological and genotypic studies which were carried out on the subtypes of K⁺ channels expressed in variable amounts in different vascular beds. Modulation of K⁺ channel activity by molecular approaches and selective drug development may be a novel treatment modality for vascular dysfunction in the future. This review presents the basic properties, physiological functions, pathophysiological, and pharmacological roles of the five major classes of K⁺ channels that have been determined in VSMCs.

Twik-2-/- mouse demonstrates pulmonary vascular heterogeneity in intracellular pathways for vasocontractility

We have previously shown Twik-2-/- mice develop pulmonary hypertension and vascular remodeling. We hypothesized that distal pulmonary arteries (D-PAs) of the Twik-2-/- mice are hypercontractile under physiological venous conditions due to altered electrophysiologic properties between the conduit and resistance vessels in the pulmonary vascular bed. We measured resting membrane potential and intracellular calcium through Fura-2 in freshly digested pulmonary artery smooth muscles (PASMCs) from both the right main (RM-PA) and D-PA (distal) regions of pulmonary artery from WT and Twik-2-/- mice. Whole segments of RM-PAs and D-PAs from 20 to 24-week-old wildtype (WT) and Twik-2-/- mice were also pressurized between two glass micropipettes and bathed in buffer with either arterial or venous conditions. Abluminally-applied phenylephrine (PE) and U46619 were added to the buffer at log increments and vessel diameter was measured. All values were expressed as averages with ±SEM. Vasoconstrictor responses did not differ between WT and Twik-2-/- RM-PAs under arterial conditions. Under venous conditions, Twik-2-/- RM-PAs showed an increased sensitivity to PE with a lower EC50 (P = 0.02). Under venous conditions, Twik-2-/- D-PAs showed an increase maximal vasoconstrictor response to both phenylephrine and U46619 compared to the WT mice (P < 0.05). Isolated PASMCs from Twik-2 -/- D-PA were depolarized and had higher intracellular calcium levels compared to PASMCs from RM-PA of both WT and Twik-2-/- mice. These studies suggest that hypercontractile responses and electrophysiologic properties unique to the anatomic location of the D-PAs may contribute to pulmonary hypertensive vasculopathy.