Nanoparticle Surface Functionalization: How to Improve Biocompatibility and Cellular Internalization

Triple-transformable dynamic surroundings for programmed transportation of bio-vulnerable mRNA payloads towards systemic treatment of intractable solid tumors

The surface physiochemical properties of nanomedicine play a crucial role in modulating biointerfacial reactions in sequential biological compartments, accordingly accomplishing the desired programmed delivery scenario to intracellular targets. PEGylation, which involves modifying the surface with a layer of poly(ethylene glycol), has been validated as an effective strategy for minimizing adverse biointerfacial interactions. However, it has also been observed to impede cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking activities. To address this dilemma, we propose a dynamic surface chemistry approach that actively prevents non-specific reactions in systemic circulation, while readily facilitating cellular uptake by converting into a highly cytomembrane-adhesive state. Moreover, the surface becomes more adhesive to endolysosomal membranes, enabling translocation into the cytosol. In this study, PEGylated mRNA delivery nanoparticulates were tethered with charge-reversible polymers to create dynamic surroundings through click chemistry. Importantly, the dynamic surroundings exhibited negative charges under physiological conditions (pH 7.4). This property prevented degradation by anionic nucleases and structural disassembly induced by endogenous charged biological species. Consequently, the nanoparticles exhibited appreciable stealth function, effectively managing the first pass effect, leading to prolonged blood retention and improved bioavailabilities at targeted cells. Furthermore, the dynamic surroundings shifted towards relatively positive charges in the tumor microenvironment (pH 6.8). As a result, the nanoparticles were more likely to be taken up by tumors due to their electrostatic affinities towards polyanionic cytomembranes. Eventually, the internalized mRNA nanomedicine transformed responsive to the surrounding microenvironment into highly positive charges within acidic endolysosomes (pH 5.0), exerting explosive disruptive potencies on the endolysosomal structures, thus facilitating translocation of mRNA from the digestive endolysosomes into the targeted cytosol. Notably, the dynamic surroundings also reduced the immunogenicity of naked mRNA due to their stealthy properties and rapid endolysosomal translocation functions. In summary, our proposed unique triple-transformable dynamic surface chemistry provided an intriguing delivery scenario that overcomes sequential biological barriers, contributing to efficient expression of the encapsulated mRNA at targeted tumors.

Targeting overexpressed surface proteins: A new strategy to manage the recalcitrant triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive and heterogeneous cancer that lacks all three molecular markers, Estrogen, Progesterone, and Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 (HER2). This unique characteristic of TNBC makes it more resistant to hormonal therapy; hence, chemotherapy and surgery are preferred. Active targeting with nanoparticles is more effective in managing TNBC than a passive approach. The surface of TNBC cells overexpresses several cell-specific proteins, which can be explored for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Immunohistochemical analysis has revealed that TNBC cells overexpress αVβ3 integrin, Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1 (ICAM-1), Glucose Transporter 5 (GLUT5), Transmembrane Glycoprotein Mucin 1 (MUC-1), and Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR). These surface proteins can be targeted using ligands, such as aptamers, antibodies, and sugar molecules. Targeting the surface proteins of TNBC with ligands helps harmonize treatment and improve patient compliance. In this review, we discuss the proteins expressed, which are limited to αVβ3 integrin proteins, ICAM-1, GLUT-5, MUC1, and EGFR, on the surface of TNBC, the challenges associated with the preclinical setup of breast cancer for targeted nanoformulations, internalization techniques and their challenges, suggestions to overcome the limitations of successful translation of nanoparticles, and the possibility of ligand-conjugated nanoparticles targeting these surface receptors for a better therapeutic outcome.

Nanomedicine in glaucoma treatment; Current challenges and future perspectives

Glaucoma presents a significant global health concern and affects millions of individuals worldwide and predicted a high increase in prevalence of about 111 million by 2040. The current standard treatment involves hypotensive eye drops; however, challenges such as patient adherence and limited drug bioavailability hinder the treatment effectiveness. Nanopharmaceuticals or nanomedicines offer promising solutions to overcome these obstacles. In this manuscript, we summarized the current limitations of conventional antiglaucoma treatment, role of nanomedicine in glaucoma treatment, rational design, factors effecting the performance of nanomedicine and different types of nanocarriers in designing of nanomedicine along with their applications in glaucoma treatment from recent literature. Current clinical challenges that hinder real-time application of antiglaucoma nanomedicine are highlighted. Lastly, future directions are identified for improving the therapeutic potential and translation of antiglaucoma nanomedicine into clinic.

Cuboids Prevail When Unraveling the Influence of Microchip Geometry on Macrophage Interactions and Metabolic Responses

Drug delivery advances rely on using nano- and microsized carriers to transfer therapeutic molecules, although challenges persist in increasing the availability of new and even approved pharmaceutical products. Particle shape, a critical determinant in how these carriers distribute within the body after administration, raises opportunities of using, for instance, micrometer-sized nonspherical particles for vascular targeting and thereby creating new prospects for precise drug delivery to specific targeted areas. The versatility of polycrystalline silicon microfabrication allows for significant variation in the size and shape of microchips, and so, in the current work, photolithography was employed to create differently shaped polysilicon microchips, including cuboids, cubes, bars, and cylinders, to explore the influence of particle shape on cellular interactions. These microchips with different shapes and lateral dimensions, accounting for surface areas in the range of ca. 15 to 120 μm2 and corresponding total volumes of 0.4 to 27 μm3, serve as ideal models for investigating their interactions with macrophages with diameters of ca. 20 μm. Side-scattering imaging flow cytometry was employed for studying the interaction of label-free prepared microchips with RAW 264.7 macrophages. Using a dose of 3 microchips per cell, results show that cuboids exhibit the highest cellular association (ca. 25%) and uptake (ca. 20%), suggesting their potential as efficient carriers for targeted drug delivery to macrophages. Conversely, similarly sized cylinders and bar-shaped microchips exhibit lower uptakes of about 8% and about 6%, respectively, indicating potential benefits in evading macrophage recognition. On average, 1-1.5 microchips were internalized, and ca. 1 microchip was surface-bound per cell, with cuboids showing the higher values overall. Macrophages respond to microchips by increasing their metabolic activity and releasing low levels of intracellular enzymes, indicating reduced toxicity. Interestingly, increasing the particle dose enhances macrophage metabolic activity without significantly affecting enzyme release.

Recent advances in photonic crystal-based chemical sensors

The increasing attention towards environmental quality, food safety, public security and medical diagnosis demands high requirements and standards for chemical sensors with merits of rapid response, high precision, long-term stability and reusability. In this case, a prominent innovation in sensory materials holds potential to realize new generations of chemical sensor technologies. Specifically, photonic crystals (PCs) as structured dielectric materials with spatially periodic ordered arrangements offer unique advantages in improving the sensing performance of chemical sensors. Consequently, the promising properties of PCs promote research on their implementation as an integral part of chemical sensors. This review highlights the integration of PCs into chemical sensors including a range of building blocks for the construction of PCs with versatile opal or opal inverse structural architectures and a delicate choice of surface functionality with associated sensing interfaces for target recognition and signal transduction. Subsequently, based on their synthesis and functionality, we focus on introducing the sensing principles of recent advances in PC-based chemical sensors, such as reflection spectra-based sensing, visual colorimetric sensing, fluorescence sensing, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS)-based sensing and other integrated sensing. Finally, the future prospects and challenges are discussed for the further improvement of PC-based chemical sensors.

Nanomaterials in Immunology: Bridging Innovative Approaches in Immune Modulation, Diagnostics, and Therapy

The intersection of immunology and nanotechnology has provided significant advancements in biomedical research and clinical applications over the years. Immunology aims to understand the immune system's defense mechanisms against pathogens. Nanotechnology has demonstrated its potential to manipulate immune responses, as nanomaterials' properties can be modified for the desired application. Research has shown that nanomaterials can be applied in diagnostics, therapy, and vaccine development. In diagnostics, nanomaterials can be used for biosensor development, accurately detecting biomarkers even at very low concentrations. Therapeutically, nanomaterials can act as efficient carriers for delivering drugs, antigens, or genetic material directly to targeted cells or tissues. This targeted delivery improves therapeutic efficacy and reduces the adverse effects on healthy cells and tissues. In vaccine development, nanoparticles can improve vaccine durability and extend immune responses by effectively delivering adjuvants and antigens to immune cells. Despite these advancements, challenges regarding the safety, biocompatibility, and scalability of nanomaterials for clinical applications are still present. This review will cover the fundamental interactions between nanomaterials and the immune system, their potential applications in immunology, and their safety and biocompatibility concerns.

Advancements in curcumin-loaded PLGA nanoparticle delivery systems: progressive strategies in cancer therapy

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide, and imposes a substantial socioeconomic burden with little impact especially on aggressive types of cancer. Conventional therapies have many serious side effects including generalised systemic toxicity which limits their long-term use. Tumour resistance and recurrence is another main problem associated with conventional therapy. Purified or extracted natural products have been investigated as cost-effective cancer chemoprotective agents with the potential to reverse or delaying carcinogenesis. Curcumin (CUR) as a natural polyphenolic component, exhibits many pharmacological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, activity against neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer, antidiabetic activities (type II diabetes), anticoagulant properties, wound healing effects in both preclinical and clinical studies. Despite these effective protective properties, CUR has several limitations, including poor aqueous solubility, low bioavailability, chemical instability, rapid metabolism and a short half-life time. To overcome the pharmaceutical problems associated with free CUR, novel nanomedicine strategies (including polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) such as poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs have been developed. These formulations have the potential to improve the therapeutic efficacy of curcuminoids. In this review, we comprehensively summarise and discuss recent in vitro and in vivo studies to explore the pharmaceutical significance and clinical benefits of PLGA-NPs delivery system to improve the efficacy of CUR in the treatment of cancer.

Surface-functionalised polymeric nanoparticles for breast cancer treatment: processes and advances

The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that of all the non-communicable diseases, cancer is considered the second cause of death worldwide. This has driven the big pharma companies to prioritise anticancer products in their pipeline. In addition, research has focused on exploration of new anticancer molecules and design of suitable dosage forms to achieve effective drug delivery to the tumour site. Nanotechnology is a valuable tool to build nano delivery systems with controlled and targeted drug release properties. Nanoparticles can be fabricated by robust, scalable and economic techniques using various polymers. Moreover, specific functional groups can be introduced to the surface of nanoparticles enabling targeting to a specific tissue; besides, they exhibit versatile drug release patterns according to the rate of polymer degradation. This review outlines the processes and advances in surface functionalisation of nanoparticles employed for treatment of breast cancer. The therapeutic molecules, the polymers used to fabricate nanoparticles, the techniques used to prepare the nanoparticles have been reviewed with a focus on the processes employed to functionalise these nanoparticles with suitable ligands to target different types of breast cancer.

Protein Aggregation on Metal Oxides Governs Catalytic Activity and Cellular Uptake

Engineering of catalytically active inorganic nanomaterials holds promising prospects for biomedicine. Catalytically active metal oxides show applications in enhancing wound healing but have also been employed to induce cell death in photodynamic or radiation therapy. Upon introduction into a biological system, nanomaterials are exposed to complex fluids, causing interaction and adsorption of ions and proteins. While protein corona formation on nanomaterials is acknowledged, its modulation of nanomaterial catalytic efficacy is less understood. In this study, proteomic analyses and nano-analytic methodologies quantify and characterize adsorbed proteins, correlating this protein layer with metal oxide catalytic activity in vitro and in vivo. The protein corona comprises up to 280 different proteins, constituting up to 38% by weight. Enhanced complement factors and other opsonins on nanocatalyst surfaces lead to their uptake into macrophages when applied topically, localizing >99% of the nanomaterials in tissue-resident macrophages. Initially, the formation of the protein corona significantly reduces the nanocatalysts' activity, but this activity can be partially recovered in endosomal conditions due to the proteolytic degradation of the corona. Overall, the research reveals the complex relationship between physisorbed proteins and the catalytic characteristics of specific metal oxide nanoparticles, providing design parameters for optimizing nanocatalysts in complex biological environments.

Cancer Nanovaccines: Nanomaterials and Clinical Perspectives

Cancer nanovaccines represent a promising frontier in cancer immunotherapy, utilizing nanotechnology to augment traditional vaccine efficacy. This review comprehensively examines the current state-of-the-art in cancer nanovaccine development, elucidating innovative strategies and technologies employed in their design. It explores both preclinical and clinical advancements, emphasizing key studies demonstrating their potential to elicit robust anti-tumor immune responses. The study encompasses various facets, including integrating biomaterial-based nanocarriers for antigen delivery, adjuvant selection, and the impact of nanoscale properties on vaccine performance. Detailed insights into the complex interplay between the tumor microenvironment and nanovaccine responses are provided, highlighting challenges and opportunities in optimizing therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, the study presents a thorough analysis of ongoing clinical trials, presenting a snapshot of the current clinical landscape. By curating the latest scientific findings and clinical developments, this study aims to serve as a comprehensive resource for researchers and clinicians engaged in advancing cancer immunotherapy. Integrating nanotechnology into vaccine design holds immense promise for revolutionizing cancer treatment paradigms, and this review provides a timely update on the evolving landscape of cancer nanovaccines.

Cellular origins and translational approaches to congenital diaphragmatic hernia

Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia (CDH) is a complex developmental abnormality characterized by abnormal lung development, a diaphragmatic defect and cardiac dysfunction. Despite significant advances in management of CDH, mortality and morbidity continue to be driven by pulmonary hypoplasia, pulmonary hypertension, and cardiac dysfunction. The etiology of CDH remains unknown, but CDH is presumed to be caused by a combination of genetic susceptibility and external/environmental factors. Current research employs multi-omics technologies to investigate the molecular profile and pathways inherent to CDH. The aim is to discover the underlying pathogenesis, new biomarkers and ultimately novel therapeutic targets. Stem cells and their cargo, non-coding RNAs and agents targeting inflammation and vascular remodeling have produced promising results in preclinical studies using animal models of CDH. Shortcomings in current therapies combined with an improved understanding of the pathogenesis in CDH have given rise to novel promising experimental treatments that are currently being evaluated in clinical trials. This review provides insight into current developments in translational research, ranging from the cellular origins of abnormal cardiopulmonary development in CDH and the identification of novel treatment targets in preclinical CDH models at the bench and their translation to clinical trials at the bedside.

Surface Engineering of Superparamagnetic Graphene Oxide Nanosheet as a Chemically Tunable Platform for Facial Biofuel Production by Lipase

In this research, we utilized an efficient approach to synthesize superparamagnetic graphene oxide (SPGO) rapidly in a one-pot method using microwave irradiation of graphene oxide (GO), urea, and Fe(III) ion. Tannic acid (TA) was introduced to the surface of SPGO through a straightforward and eco-friendly process. Methods were devised to furnish GO nanosheets and modify their surfaces with TA in an environmentally friendly manner. Two series of nanosheets, namely, SPGO/TA-COOH and SPGO/TA-IM, were engineered on the surface and used for immobilizing lipase enzyme. Through various analytical tools, the unique biocatalysts SPGO/TA-COOH/L and SPGO/TA-IM/L were confirmed. These biocatalysts exhibited enhanced stability at high temperatures and pH levels compared with free lipase. They also demonstrated prolonged storage stability and reusability over four months and seven cycles, respectively. Furthermore, the catalytic activity of immobilized lipase showed minimal impairment based on kinetic behavior analysis. The kinetic constants of SPGO/TA-IM/L were determined as Vmax = 0.24 mM min-1, Km = 0.224 mM, and kcat = 0.8 s-1. Additionally, the efficiency of biocatalysts for biodiesel production from palmitic acid was studied, focusing on various reaction parameters, such as temperature, alcohol to palmitic acid molar ratio, water content, and lipase quantity. The esterification reaction of palmitic acid with methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol was tested in the presence of SPGO/TA-COOH/L and SPGO/TA-IM/L, and the corresponding esters were obtained with a yield of 30.6-91.6%.

Precision Atomistic Structures of Actinium-/Radium-/Barium-Doped Lanthanide Nanoconstructs for Radiotherapeutic Applications

Lanthanide vanadate (LnVO4) nanoconstructs have generated considerable interest in radiotherapeutic applications as a medium for nanoscale-targeted drug delivery. For cancer treatment, LnVO4 nanoconstructs have shown promise in encapsulating and retaining radionuclides that emit alpha-particles. In this work, we examined the structure formation of LnVO4 nanoconstructs doped with actinium (Ac) and radium (Ra), both experimentally and using large-scale atomistic molecular dynamics simulations. LnVO4 nanoconstructs were synthesized via a precipitation method in aqueous media. The reaction conditions and elemental compositions were varied to control the structure, fluorescence properties, and size distribution of the LnVO4 nanoconstructs. LnVO4 nanoconstructs were characterized by X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and fluorescence spectroscopy. Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to obtain a fundamental understanding of the structure-property relationship between radionuclides and LnVO4 nanoconstructs at the atomic length scale. Molecular dynamics simulations with well-established force field (FF) parameters show that Ra atoms tend to distribute across the nanoconstructs' surface in a broader coordination shell, while the Ac atoms are arranged inside a smaller coordination shell within the nanocluster. The Ba atoms prefer to self-assemble around the surface. These theoretical/simulation predictions of the atomistic structures and an understanding of the relationship between radionuclides and LnVO4 nanoconstructs at the atomic scale are important because they provide design principles for the future development of nanoconstructs for targeted radionuclide delivery.

Evaluation of miR-155 silencing using a molecular beacon in human lung adenocarcinoma cell line

Lung cancer (LC) is a leading cause of global cancer-related deaths, highlighting the development of innovative methods for biomarker detection improving the early diagnostics. microRNAs (miRs) alterations are known to be involved in the initiation and progression of human cancers and can act as biomarkers for diagnostics and treatment. Herein, we develop the application of molecular beacon (MB) technology to monitor miR-155-3p expression in human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells without complementary DNA synthesis, amplification, or expensive reagents. Furthermore, we produced gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for delivering antisense oligonucleotides into A549 cells to reduce miR-155-3p expression, which was subsequently detectable using the MB. The MB was designed and structural characterized by Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)-melting, Circular Dichroism (CD), Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and fluorometric experiments, and then the hybridization conditions were optimized for an in vitro approach involving the detection of miR-155-3p in total RNA extracted from A549 cell line. The expression profile of miR-155-3p was obtained by RT-qPCR. The results demonstrated that MB was properly designed and showed efficacy in targeting miR-155-3p. Furthermore, a limit of detection down to nanomolar concentration was achieved and the specificity of the biosensor was proved. Moreover, the self-assembly of ASOs with AuNPs exhibited exceptional target specificity, effectively silencing miR-155-3p. Notably, compared to lipid-based transfection agent, AuNPs displayed superior silencing efficiency. We highlighted the ability of MB to detect changes in the target gene expression after gene silencing. Overall, this innovative approach represents a promising tool for detecting various biomarkers at the same time, with potential applications in clinical settings.

Rational Design of Pectin-Chitosan Polyelectrolyte Nanoparticles for Enhanced Temozolomide Delivery in Brain Tumor Therapy

Conventional chemotherapeutic approaches currently used for brain tumor treatment have low efficiency in targeted drug delivery and often have non-target toxicity. Development of stable and effective drug delivery vehicles for the most incurable diseases is one of the urgent biomedical challenges. We have developed polymer nanoparticles (NPs) with improved temozolomide (TMZ) delivery for promising brain tumor therapy, performing a rational design of polyelectrolyte complexes of oppositely charged polysaccharides of cationic chitosan and anionic pectin. The NPs' diameter (30 to 330 nm) and zeta-potential (-29 to 73 mV) varied according to the initial mass ratios of the biopolymers. The evaluation of nanomechanical parameters of native NPs demonstrated changes in Young's modulus from 58 to 234 kPa and adhesion from -0.3 to -3.57 pN. Possible mechanisms of NPs' formation preliminary based on ionic interactions between ionogenic functional groups were proposed by IR spectroscopy and dynamic rheology. The study of the parameters and kinetics of TMZ sorption made it possible to identify compounds that most effectively immobilize and release the active substance in model liquids that simulate the internal environment of the body. A polyelectrolyte carrier based on an equal ratio of pectin-chitosan (0.1% by weight) was selected as the most effective for the delivery of TMZ among a series of obtained NPs, which indicates a promising approach to the treatment of brain tumors.

Unveiling Nanoparticles: Recent Approaches in Studying the Internalization Pattern of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Mono- and Multicellular Biological Structures

Nanoparticle (NP)-based solutions for oncotherapy promise an improved efficiency of the anticancer response, as well as higher comfort for the patient. The current advancements in cancer treatment based on nanotechnology exploit the ability of these systems to pass biological barriers to target the tumor cell, as well as tumor cell organelles. In particular, iron oxide NPs are being clinically employed in oncological management due to this ability. When designing an efficient anti-cancer therapy based on NPs, it is important to know and to modulate the phenomena which take place during the interaction of the NPs with the tumor cells, as well as the normal tissues. In this regard, our review is focused on highlighting different approaches to studying the internalization patterns of iron oxide NPs in simple and complex 2D and 3D in vitro cell models, as well as in living tissues, in order to investigate the functionality of an NP-based treatment.

Nanoengineering Solutions for Cancer Therapy: Bridging the Gap between Clinical Practice and Translational Research

Nanoengineering has emerged as a progressive method in cancer treatment, offering precise and targeted delivery of therapeutic agents while concurrently reducing overall toxicity. This scholarly article delves into the innovative strategies and advancements in nanoengineering that bridge the gap between clinical practice and research in the field of cancer treatment. Various nanoengineered platforms such as nanoparticles, liposomes, and dendrimers are scrutinized for their capacity to encapsulate drugs, augment drug efficacy, and enhance pharmacokinetics. Moreover, the article investigates research breakthroughs that drive the progression and enhancement of nanoengineered remedies, encompassing the identification of biomarkers, establishment of preclinical models, and advancement of biomaterials, all of which are imperative for translating laboratory findings into practical medical interventions. Furthermore, the integration of nanotechnology with imaging modalities, which amplify cancer detection, treatment monitoring, and response assessment, is thoroughly examined. Finally, the obstacles and prospective directions in nanoengineering, including regulatory challenges and issues related to scalability, are examined. This underscores the significance of fostering collaboration among various entities in order to efficiently translate nanoengineered interventions into enhanced cancer therapies and patient management.

Nanomaterial-Based Strategies for Attenuating T-Cell-Mediated Immunodepression in Stroke Patients: Advancing Research Perspectives

This review article discusses the potential of nanomaterials in targeted therapy and immunomodulation for stroke-induced immunosuppression. Although nanomaterials have been extensively studied in various biomedical applications, their specific use in studying and addressing immunosuppression after stroke remains limited. Stroke-induced neuroinflammation is characterized by T-cell-mediated immunodepression, which leads to increased morbidity and mortality. Key observations related to immunodepression after stroke, including lymphopenia, T-cell dysfunction, regulatory T-cell imbalance, and cytokine dysregulation, are discussed. Nanomaterials, such as liposomes, micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, and dendrimers, offer advantages in the precise delivery of drugs to T cells, enabling enhanced targeting and controlled release of immunomodulatory agents. These nanomaterials have the potential to modulate T-cell function, promote neuroregeneration, and restore immune responses, providing new avenues for stroke treatment. However, challenges related to biocompatibility, stability, scalability, and clinical translation need to be addressed. Future research efforts should focus on comprehensive studies to validate the efficacy and safety of nanomaterial-based interventions targeting T cells in stroke-induced immunosuppression. Collaborative interdisciplinary approaches are necessary to advance the field and translate these innovative strategies into clinical practice, ultimately improving stroke outcomes and patient care.

In Situ Generation of Nanoparticles on and within Polymeric Materials

It is well-established that the structural, morphological and performance characteristics of nanoscale materials critically depend upon the dispersion state of the nanofillers that is, in turn, largely determined by the preparation protocol. In this report, we review synthetic strategies that capitalise on the in situ generation of nanoparticles on and within polymeric materials, an approach that relies on the chemical transformation of suitable precursors to functional nanoparticles synchronous with the build-up of the nanohybrid systems. This approach is distinctively different compared to standard preparation methods that exploit the dispersion of preformed nanoparticles within the macromolecular host and presents advantages in terms of time and cost effectiveness, environmental friendliness and the uniformity of the resulting composites. Notably, the in situ-generated nanoparticles tend to nucleate and grow on the active sites of the macromolecular chains, showing strong adhesion on the polymeric host. So far, this strategy has been explored in fabrics and membranes comprising metallic nanoparticles (silver, gold, platinum, copper, etc.) in relation to their antimicrobial and antifouling applications, while proof-of-concept demonstrations for carbon- and silica-based nanoparticles as well as titanium oxide-, layered double hydroxide-, hectorite-, lignin- and hydroxyapatite-based nanocomposites have been reported. The nanocomposites thus prepared are ideal candidates for a broad spectrum of applications such as water purification, environmental remediation, antimicrobial treatment, mechanical reinforcement, optical devices, etc.

Sulfated Chitosan-Modified CuS Nanocluster: A Versatile Nanoformulation for Simultaneous Antibacterial and Bone Regenerative Therapy in Periodontitis

Periodontitis, a prevalent chronic inflammatory disease worldwide, is triggered by periodontopathogenic bacteria, resulting in the progressive destruction of periodontal tissue, particularly the alveolar bone. To effectively address periodontitis, this study proposed a nanoformulation known as CuS@MSN-SCS. This formulation involves coating citrate-grafted copper sulfide (CuS) nanoparticles with mesoporous silica (MSNs), followed by surface modification using amino groups and sulfated chitosan (SCS) through electrostatic interactions. The objective of this formulation is to achieve efficient bacteria removal by inducing ROS signaling pathways mediated by Cu2+ ions. Additionally, it aims to promote alveolar bone regeneration through Cu2+-induced pro-angiogenesis and SCS-mediated bone regeneration. As anticipated, by regulating the surface charges, the negatively charged CuS nanoparticles capped with sodium citrate were successfully coated with MSNs, and the subsequent introduction of amine groups using (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane was followed by the incorporation of SCS through electrostatic interactions, resulting in the formation of CuS@MSN-SCS. The developed nanoformulation was verified to not only significantly exacerbate the oxidative stress of Fusobacterium nucleatum, thereby suppressing bacteria growth and biofilm formation in vitro, but also effectively alleviate the inflammatory response and promote alveolar bone regeneration without evident biotoxicity in an in vivo rat periodontitis model. These findings contribute to the therapeutic effect on periodontitis. Overall, this study successfully developed a nanoformulation for combating bacteria and facilitating alveolar bone regeneration, demonstrating the promising potential for clinical treatment of periodontitis.

Navigating Skin Delivery Horizon: An Innovative Approach in Pioneering Surface Modification of Ultradeformable Vesicles

In the dynamic landscape of pharmaceutical advancements, the strategic application of active pharmaceutical ingredients to the skin through topical and transdermal routes has emerged as a compelling avenue for therapeutic interventions. This non-invasive approach has garnered considerable attention in recent decades, with numerous attempts yielding approaches and demonstrating substantial clinical potential. However, the formidable barrier function of the skin, mainly the confinement of drugs on the upper layers of the stratum corneum, poses a substantial hurdle, impeding successful drug delivery via this route. Ultradeformable vesicles/carriers (UDVs), positioned within the expansive realm of nanomedicine, have emerged as a promising tool for developing advanced dermal and transdermal therapies. The current review focuses on improving the passive dermal and transdermal targeting capacity by integrating functionalization groups by strategic surface modification of drug-loaded UDV nanocarriers. The present review discusses the details of case studies of different surface-modified UDVs with their bonding strategies and covers the recent patents and clinical trials. The design of surface modifications holds promise for overcoming existing challenges in drug delivery by marking a significant leap forward in the field of pharmaceutical sciences.

Self-Assembled Fluorinated Nanoparticles as Sensitive and Biocompatible Theranostic Platforms for 19F MRI

Theranostics is a novel paradigm integrating therapy and diagnostics, thereby providing new prospects for overcoming the limitations of traditional treatments. In this context, perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are the most widely used tracers in preclinical fluorine-19 magnetic resonance (19F MR), primarily for their high fluorine content. However, PFCs are extremely hydrophobic, and their solutions often display reduced biocompatibility, relative instability, and subpar 19F MR relaxation times. This study aims to explore the potential of micellar 19F MR imaging (MRI) tracers, synthesized by polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA), as alternative theranostic agents for simultaneous imaging and release of the non-steroidal antileprotic drug clofazimine. In vitro, under physiological conditions, these micelles demonstrate sustained drug release. In vivo, throughout the drug release process, they provide a highly specific and sensitive 19F MRI signal. Even after extended exposure, these fluoropolymer tracers show biocompatibility, as confirmed by the histological analysis. Moreover, the characteristics of these polymers can be broadly adjusted by design to meet the wide range of criteria for preclinical and clinical settings. Therefore, micellar 19F MRI tracers display physicochemical properties suitable for in vivo imaging, such as relaxation times and non-toxicity, and high performance as drug carriers, highlighting their potential as both diagnostic and therapeutic tools.

Bioinspired and Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles for Medical Applications: A Green Perspective

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) possess unmatched chemical, biological, and physical properties that make them unique compounds as antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, and anticancer agents. With the increasing drug resistance, AgNPs serve as promising entities for targeted drug therapy against several bacterial, fungal, and viral components. In addition, AgNPs also serve as successful anticancer agents against several cancers, including breast, prostate, and lung cancers. Several works in recent years have been done towards the development of AgNPs by using plant extracts like flowers, leaves, bark, root, stem, and whole plant parts. The green method of AgNP synthesis thus has several advantages over chemical and physical methods, especially the low cost of synthesis, no toxic byproducts, eco-friendly production pathways, can be easily regenerated, and the bio-reducing potential of plant derived nanoparticles. Furthermore, AgNPs are biocompatible and do not harm normally functioning human or host cells. This review provides an exhaustive overview and potential of green synthesized AgNPs that can be used as antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, and anticancer agents. After a brief introduction, we discussed the recent studies on the development of AgNPs from different plant extracts, including leaf parts, seeds, flowers, stems, bark, root, and whole plants. In the following section, we highlighted the different therapeutic actions of AgNPs against various bacteria, fungi, viruses, and cancers, including breast, prostate, and lung cancers. We then highlighted the general mechanism of action of AgNPs. The advantages of the green synthesis method over chemical and physical methods were then discussed in the article. Finally, we concluded the review by providing future perspectives on this promising field in nanotechnology.

Autophagy and mitophagy as potential therapeutic targets in diabetic heart condition: Harnessing the power of nanotheranostics

Autophagy and mitophagy pose unresolved challenges in understanding the pathology of diabetic heart condition (DHC), which encompasses a complex range of cardiovascular issues linked to diabetes and associated cardiomyopathies. Despite significant progress in reducing mortality rates from cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), heart failure remains a major cause of increased morbidity among diabetic patients. These cellular processes are essential for maintaining cellular balance and removing damaged or dysfunctional components, and their involvement in the development of diabetic heart disease makes them attractive targets for diagnosis and treatment. While a variety of conventional diagnostic and therapeutic strategies are available, DHC continues to present a significant challenge. Point-of-care diagnostics, supported by nanobiosensing techniques, offer a promising alternative for these complex scenarios. Although conventional medications have been widely used in DHC patients, they raise several concerns regarding various physiological aspects. Modern medicine places great emphasis on the application of nanotechnology to target autophagy and mitophagy in DHC, offering a promising approach to deliver drugs beyond the limitations of traditional therapies. This article aims to explore the potential connections between autophagy, mitophagy and DHC, while also discussing the promise of nanotechnology-based theranostic interventions that specifically target these molecular pathways.

Reactive oxygen species-responsive nano-platform with dual-targeting and fluorescent lipid-specific imaging capabilities for the management of atherosclerotic plaques

Atherosclerosis (AS), a pathological cause of cardiovascular disease, results from endothelial injury, local progressive inflammation, and excessive lipid accumulation. AS plaques rich in foam cells are prone to rupture and form thrombus, which can cause life-threatening complications. Therefore, the assessment of atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability and early intervention are crucial in reducing the mortality rates associated with cardiovascular disease. In this work, A fluorescent probe FC-TPA was synthesized, which switches the fluorescence state between protonated and non-protonated, reducing background fluorescence and enhancing imaging signal-to-noise ratio. On this basis, FC-TPA is loaded into cyclodextrin (CD) modified with phosphatidylserine targeting peptide (PTP) and coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) to construct the intelligent responsive diagnostic nanoplatform (HA@PCFT). HA@PCFT effectively targets atherosclerotic plaques, utilizing dual targeting mechanisms. HA binds strongly to CD44, while PTP binds to phosphatidylserine, enabling nanoparticle aggregation at the lesion site. ROS acts as a smart release switch for probes. Both in vitro and in vivo evaluations confirm impressive lipid-specific fluorescence imaging capabilities of HA@PCFT nanoparticles (NPs). The detection of lipid load in atherosclerotic plaque by fluorescence imaging will aid in assessing the vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaque. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Currently, numerous fluorescent probes have been developed for lipid imaging. However, some challenges including inadequate water solubility, nonspecific distribution patterns, and fluorescence background interference, have greatly limited their further applications in vivo. To overcome these limitations, a fluorescent molecule has been designed and synthesized, thoroughly investigating its photophysical properties through both theoretical and experimental approaches. Interestingly, this fluorescent molecule exhibits the reversible fluorescence switching capabilities, mediated by hydrogen bonds, which effectively mitigate background fluorescence interference. Additionally, the fluorescent molecules has been successfully loaded into nanocarriers functionalized with the active targeting abilities, which has significantly improved the solubility of the fluorescent molecules and reduced their nonspecific distribution in vivo for an efficient target imaging in atherosclerosis. This study provides a valuable reference for evaluating the performance of such fluorescent dyes, and offers a promising perspective on the design of the target delivery systems for atherosclerosis.

Efficacy and Safety of Dual Paclitaxel and Sirolimus Nanoparticle-Coated Balloon

We evaluated a novel dual active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) drug-coated balloon (DCB), which consists of a coating of nanoparticles encapsulating low-dose paclitaxel (PTX) in combination with sirolimus in a synergistic ratio. Compared to the PTX DCB, the dual API DCB demonstrated similar inhibition of cell proliferation in vitro but at a significantly lower total drug dose (over 13 times lower than sirolimus nanoparticles). Animal experiments demonstrated that the dual API DCB is more effective in inhibiting intimal cell proliferation with insignificant downstream embolic effects and myocardial damage compared to the PTX DCB. These findings indicate that dual API DCBs have a high potential to demonstrate improved clinical outcomes and a greater safety profile than the PTX DCBs.

Advances in the application of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs and SPIONs) in three-dimensional cell culture systems

BACKGROUND

The field of tissue engineering has remarkably progressed through the integration of nanotechnology and the widespread use of magnetic nanoparticles. These nanoparticles have resulted in innovative methods for three-dimensional (3D) cell culture platforms, including the generation of spheroids, organoids, and tissue-mimetic cultures, where they play a pivotal role. Notably, iron oxide nanoparticles and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles have emerged as indispensable tools for non-contact manipulation of cells within these 3D environments. The variety and modification of the physical and chemical properties of magnetic nanoparticles have profound impacts on cellular mechanisms, metabolic processes, and overall biological function. This review article focuses on the applications of magnetic nanoparticles, elucidating their advantages and potential pitfalls when integrated into 3D cell culture systems. This review aims to shed light on the transformative potential of magnetic nanoparticles in terms of tissue engineering and their capacity to improve the cultivation and manipulation of cells in 3D environments.

Green synthesis of ZnO-TiO2/RGO nanocomposites using Senna surattensis extract: a novel approach for enhanced anticancer efficacy and biocompatibility

The purpose of the present study is to enhance the anticancer and biocompatibility performance of TiO2 NPs, ZnO NPs, ZnO-TiO2 (NCs), and ZnO-TiO2/reduced graphene oxide (RGO) NCs against two types of human cancer (HCT116) and normal (HUVCE) cells. A novel procedure for synthesizing ZnO-TiO2/RGO NCs has been developed using Senna surattensis extract. The improved physicochemical properties of the obtained samples were investigated using different techniques such as XRD, TEM, SEM, XPS, FTIR, DLS and UV-visible spectroscopy. XRD results showed that the addition of ZnO and RGO sheets affects the crystal structure and phase of TiO2 NPs. SEM and TEM images displayed that the TiO2 NPs and ZnO NPs were small with uniform spherical morphology in the prepared ZnO-TiO2/RGO NCs. Besides, it is shown that ZnO-TiO2 NCs anchored onto the surface of RGO sheets with a particle size of 14.80 ± 0.5 nm. XPS data confirmed the surface chemical composition and oxidation states of ZnO-TiO2/RGO NCs. Functional groups of prepared NPs and NCs were determined using FTIR spectroscopy. DLS data confirmed that the addition of ZnO and RGO sheets improves the negative surface charge of the prepared pure TiO2 NPs (-22.51 mV), ZnO NPs (-18.27 mV), ZnO-TiO2 NCs (-30.20 mV), and ZnO-TiO2/RGO NCs (-33.77 mV). Optical analysis exhibited that the bandgap energies of TiO2 NPs (3.30 eV), ZnO NPs (3.33 eV), ZnO-TiO2 NCs (3.03 eV), and ZnO-TiO2/RGO NCs (2.78 eV) were further enhanced by adding ZnO NPs and RGO sheets. This indicates that the synthesized samples can be applied to cancer therapy and environmental remediation. The biological data demonstrated that the produced ZnO-TiO2/RGO NCs show a more cytotoxic effect on HCT116 cells compared to pure TiO2 NPs and ZnO-TiO2 NCs. On the other hand, these NCs displayed the lowest level of toxicity towards normal HUVCE cells. These results indicate that the ZnO-TiO2/RGO NCs have strong toxicity against HCT116 cells and are compatible with normal cells. Our results show that the plant extract enhanced the physicochemical properties of NPs and NCs compared with the traditional chemical methods for synthesis. This study could open new avenues for developing more effective and targeted cancer treatments.

Folate Receptor Targeting Mn(II) Complex Encapsulated Porous Silica Nanoparticle as an MRI Contrast Agent for Early-State Detection of Cancer

Cancer is recognized as one of the major causes of mortality, however, early-stage detection can increase the survival chance greatly. It is recognized that folate receptors are gradually overexpressed in the cellular membrane with the progress of cancer from stage 1 to stage 4. Utilizing the fact, herein, developed a porous silica nanoparticle system C1@SiO2-FA-NP; A) impregnated with thermodynamically stable Mn(II) complex (1) molecules within the core of the nanoparticle, and B) surface functionalized with folate units. It exhibited a high longitudinal relaxivity value r1 = 21.45 mM-1s-1 that substantially increased to r1 = 40.97 mM-1s-1 in the presence of 0.67 mM concentration of BSA under the physiological condition. The in vitro fluorescent images after surface conjugation of C1@SiO2-FA-NP with FITC (fluorescein isothiocyanate) buttressed the inclusion of the nanoparticle exclusively within the cancerous HeLa cells than that of healthy HEK293 cells. The importance of the surface-bound folate unit in the nanoparticle is further established by comparing the fluorescent images of HeLa cells in the absence of the group. Finally, the applicability of C1@SiO2-FA-NP as the T1-weighted MRI contrast agent for early-stage cancer diagnosis is established within C57BL/6 mice after infecting the mice with HeLa cells.

Therapeutic potentials of FexMoyS-PEG nanoparticles in colorectal cancer: a multimodal approach via ROS-ferroptosis-glycolysis regulation

Improving cancer therapy by targeting the adverse tumor microenvironment (TME) rather than the cancer cells presents a novel and potentially effective strategy. In this study, we introduced FexMoyS nanoparticles (NPs), which act as sequential bioreactors to manipulate the TME. FexMoyS NPs were synthesized using thermal decomposition and modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG). Their morphology, chemical composition, and photothermal properties were characterized. The capability to produce ROS and deplete GSH was evaluated. Effects on CRC cells, including cell viability, apoptosis, and glycolysis, were tested through various in vitro assays. In vivo efficacy was determined using CRC-bearing mouse models and patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models. The impact on the MAPK signaling pathway and tumor metabolism was also examined. The FexMoyS NPs showed efficient catalytic activity, leading to increased ROS production and GSH depletion, inducing ferroptosis, and suppressing glycolysis in CRC cells. In vivo, the NPs significantly inhibited tumor growth, particularly when combined with NIR light therapy, indicating a synergistic effect of photothermal therapy and chemodynamic therapy. Biosafety assessments revealed no significant toxicity in treated mice. RNA sequencing suggested that the NPs impact metabolism and potentially immune processes within CRC cells. FexMoyS NPs present a promising multifaceted approach for CRC treatment, effectively targeting tumor cells while maintaining biosafety. The nanoparticles exhibit potential for clinical translation, offering a new avenue for cancer therapy.

Antibacterial efficacy, mode of action, and safety of a novel nano-antibiotic against antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli strains

Globally rising antibiotic-resistant (AR) and multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterial infections are of public health concern due to treatment failure with current antibiotics. Enterobacteria, particularly Escherichia coli, cause infections of surgical wound, bloodstream, and urinary tract, including pneumonia and sepsis. Herein, we tested in vitro antibacterial efficacy, mode of action (MoA), and safety of novel amino-functionalized silver nanoparticles (NH2-AgNP) against the AR bacteria. Two AR E. coli strains (i.e., ampicillin- and kanamycin-resistant E. coli), including a susceptible strain of E. coli DH5α, were tested for susceptibility to NH2-AgNP using Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion and standard growth assays. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) was used to determine cell debris and relative conductance was used as a measure of cell leakage, and results were confirmed with transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Multiple oxidative stress assays were used for in vitro safety evaluation of NH2-AgNP in human lung epithelial cells. Results showed that ampicillin and kanamycin did not inhibit growth in either AR bacterial strain with doses up to 160 μg/mL tested. NH2-AgNP exhibited broad-spectrum bactericidal activity, inhibiting the growth of all three bacterial strains at doses ≥1 μg/mL. DLS and TEM revealed cell debris formation and cell leakage upon NH2-AgNP treatment, suggesting two possible MoAs: electrostatic interactions followed by cell wall damage. Safety evaluation revealed NH2-AgNP as noncytotoxic and antioxidative to human lung epithelial cells. Taken together, these results suggest that NH2-AgNP may serve as an effective and safer bactericidal therapy against AR bacterial infections compared to common antibiotics.

Inorganic nanoparticle-cored dendrimers for biomedical applications: A review

Hybrid nanostructures exhibit a synergistic combination of features derived from their individual components, showcasing novel characteristics resulting from their distinctive structure and chemical/physical properties. Surface modifiers play a pivotal role in shaping INPs' primary attributes, influencing their physicochemical properties, stability, and functional applications. Among these modifiers, dendrimers have gained attention as highly effective multifunctional agents for INPs, owing to their unique structural qualities, dendritic effects, and physicochemical properties. Dendrimers can be seamlessly integrated with diverse inorganic nanostructures, including metal NPs, carbon nanostructures, silica NPs, and QDs. Two viable approaches to achieving this integration involve either growing or grafting dendrimers, resulting in inorganic nanostructure-cored dendrimers. The initial step involves functionalizing the nanostructures' surface, followed by the generation of dendrimers through stepwise growth or attachment of pre-synthesized dendrimer branches. This hybridization imparts superior qualities to the resulting structure, including biocompatibility, solubility, high cargo loading capacity, and substantial functionalization potential. Combining the unique properties of dendrimers with those of the inorganic nanostructure cores creates a multifunctional system suitable for diverse applications such as theranostics, bio-sensing, component isolation, chemotherapy, and cargo-carrying applications. This review summarizes the recent developments, with a specific focus on the last five years, within the realm of dendrimers. It delves into their role as modifiers of INPs and explores the potential applications of INP-cored dendrimers in the biomedical applications.

Direct Assembly of Bioactive Nanoparticles Constructed from Polyphenol-Nanoengineered Albumin

Albumin nanoparticles are widely used in biomedicine due to their safety, low immunogenicity, and prolonged circulation. However, incorporating therapeutic molecules into these carriers faces challenges due to limited binding sites, restricting drug conjugation efficiency. We introduce a universal nanocarrier platform (X-UNP) using polyphenol-based engineering to incorporate phenolic moieties into albumin nanoparticles. Integration of catechol or galloyl groups significantly enhances drug binding and broadens the drug conjugation possibilities. Our study presents a library of X-UNP nanoparticles with improved drug-loading efficiency, achieving up to 96% across 10 clinically used drugs, surpassing conventional methods. Notably, ibuprofen-UNP nanoparticles exhibit a 5-fold increase in half-life compared with free ibuprofen, enhancing in vivo analgesic and anti-inflammatory effectiveness. This research establishes a versatile platform for protein-based nanosized materials accommodating various therapeutic agents in biotechnological applications.

Tumor versus Tumor Cell Targeting in Metal-Based Nanoparticles for Cancer Theranostics

The application of metal-based nanoparticles (mNPs) in cancer therapy and diagnostics (theranostics) has been a hot research topic since the early days of nanotechnology, becoming even more relevant in recent years. However, the clinical translation of this technology has been notably poor, with one of the main reasons being a lack of understanding of the disease and conceptual errors in the design of mNPs. Strikingly, throughout the reported studies to date on in vivo experiments, the concepts of "tumor targeting" and "tumor cell targeting" are often intertwined, particularly in the context of active targeting. These misconceptions may lead to design flaws, resulting in failed theranostic strategies. In the context of mNPs, tumor targeting can be described as the process by which mNPs reach the tumor mass (as a tissue), while tumor cell targeting refers to the specific interaction of mNPs with tumor cells once they have reached the tumor tissue. In this review, we conduct a critical analysis of key challenges that must be addressed for the successful targeting of either tumor tissue or cancer cells within the tumor tissue. Additionally, we explore essential features necessary for the smart design of theranostic mNPs, where 'smart design' refers to the process involving advanced consideration of the physicochemical features of the mNPs, targeting motifs, and physiological barriers that must be overcome for successful tumor targeting and/or tumor cell targeting.

Current development of theragnostic nanoparticles for women's cancer treatment

In the biomedical industry, nanoparticles (NPs-exclusively small particles with size ranging from 1-100 nanometres) are recently employed as powerful tools due to their huge potential in sophisticated and enhanced cancer theragnostic (i.e. therapeutics and diagnostics). Cancer is a life-threatening disease caused by carcinogenic agents and mutation in cells, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and harming the body's normal functioning while affecting several factors like low levels of reactive oxygen species, hyperactive antiapoptotic mRNA expression, reduced proapoptotic mRNA expression, damaged DNA repair, and so on. NPs are extensively used in early cancer diagnosis and are functionalized to target receptors overexpressing cancer cells for effective cancer treatment. This review focuses explicitly on how NPs alone and combined with imaging techniques and advanced treatment techniques have been researched against 'women's cancer' such as breast, ovarian, and cervical cancer which are substantially occurring in women. NPs, in combination with numerous imaging techniques (like PET, SPECT, MRI, etc) have been widely explored for cancer imaging and understanding tumor characteristics. Moreover, NPs in combination with various advanced cancer therapeutics (like magnetic hyperthermia, pH responsiveness, photothermal therapy, etc), have been stated to be more targeted and effective therapeutic strategies with negligible side effects. Furthermore, this review will further help to improve treatment outcomes and patient quality of life based on the theragnostic application-based studies of NPs in women's cancer treatment.

Nanozyme as a rising star for metabolic disease management

Nanozyme, characterized by outstanding and inherent enzyme-mimicking properties, have emerged as highly promising alternatives to natural enzymes owning to their exceptional attributes such as regulation of oxidative stress, convenient storage, adjustable catalytic activities, remarkable stability, and effortless scalability for large-scale production. Given the potent regulatory function of nanozymes on oxidative stress and coupled with the fact that reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a vital role in the occurrence and exacerbation of metabolic diseases, nanozyme offer a unique perspective for therapy through multifunctional activities, achieving essential results in the treatment of metabolic diseases by directly scavenging excess ROS or regulating pathologically related molecules. The rational design strategies, nanozyme-enabled therapeutic mechanisms at the cellular level, and the therapies of nanozyme for several typical metabolic diseases and underlying mechanisms are discussed, mainly including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, diabetic wound healing, and others. Finally, the pharmacokinetics, safety analysis, challenges, and outlooks for the application of nanozyme are also presented. This review will provide some instructive perspectives on nanozyme and promote the development of enzyme-mimicking strategies in metabolic disease therapy.

Surface Bio-engineered Polymeric Nanoparticles

Surface bio-engineering of polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) has emerged as a cornerstone in contemporary biomedical research, presenting a transformative avenue that can revolutionize diagnostics, therapies, and drug delivery systems. The approach involves integrating bioactive elements on the surfaces of PNPs, aiming to provide them with functionalities to enable precise, targeted, and favorable interactions with biological components within cellular environments. However, the full potential of surface bio-engineered PNPs in biomedicine is hampered by obstacles, including precise control over surface modifications, stability in biological environments, and lasting targeted interactions with cells or tissues. Concerns like scalability, reproducibility, and long-term safety also impede translation to clinical practice. In this review, these challenges in the context of recent breakthroughs in developing surface-biofunctionalized PNPs for various applications, from biosensing and bioimaging to targeted delivery of therapeutics are discussed. Particular attention is given to bonding mechanisms that underlie the attachment of bioactive moieties to PNP surfaces. The stability and efficacy of surface-bioengineered PNPs are critically reviewed in disease detection, diagnostics, and treatment, both in vitro and in vivo settings. Insights into existing challenges and limitations impeding progress are provided, and a forward-looking discussion on the field's future is presented. The paper concludes with recommendations to accelerate the clinical translation of surface bio-engineered PNPs.

Microinjection With Nanoparticles to Deliver Drugs in Prenatal Lung Explants - A Pilot Study for Prenatal Therapy in Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia

BACKGROUND

Fetoscopic endoluminal tracheal occlusion (FETO) improves the survival rate in fetuses with severe congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH). We hypothesize that prenatal therapies into the trachea during FETO can further improve outcomes. Here, we present an ex vivo microinjection technique with rat lung explants to study prenatal therapy with nanoparticles.

METHODS

We used microsurgery to isolate lungs from rats on embryonic day 18. We injected chitosan nanoparticles loaded with fluorescein (FITC) into the trachea of the lung explants. We compared the difference in biodistribution of two types of nanoparticles, functionalized IgG-conjugated nanoparticles (IgG-nanoparticles) and bare nanoparticles after 24 h culture with immunofluorescence (IF). We used IF to mark lung epithelial cells with E-cadherin and to investigate an apoptosis (Active-caspase 3) and inflammatory marker (Interleukin, IL-6) and compared its abundance between the two experimental groups and control lung explants.

RESULTS

We detected the presence of nanoparticles in the lung explants, and the relative number of nanoparticles to cells was 2.49 fold higher in IgG-nanoparticles than bare nanoparticles (p < 0.001). Active caspase-3 protein abundance was similar in the control, bare nanoparticles (1.20 fold higher), and IgG-nanoparticles (1.34 fold higher) groups (p = 0.34). Similarly, IL-6 protein abundance was not different in the control, bare nanoparticles (1.13 fold higher), and IgG-nanoparticles (1.12 fold higher) groups (p = 0.33).

CONCLUSIONS

Functionalized nanoparticles had a higher presence in lung cells and this did not result in more apoptosis or inflammation. Our proof-of-principle study will guide future research with therapies to improve lung development prenatally.

LEVELS OF EVIDENCE

N/A TYPE OF STUDY: Animal and laboratory study.

211At on gold nanoparticles for targeted radionuclide therapy application

Targeted alpha therapy (TAT) is a methodology that is being developed as a promising cancer treatment using the α-particle decay of radionuclides. This technique involves the use of heavy radioactive elements being placed near the cancer target area to cause maximum damage to the cancer cells while minimizing the damage to healthy cells. Using gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as carriers, a more effective therapy methodology may be realized. AuNPs can be good candidates for transporting these radionuclides to the vicinity of the cancer cells since they can be labeled not just with the radionuclides, but also a host of other proteins and ligands to target these cells and serve as additional treatment options. Research has shown that astatine and iodine are capable of adsorbing onto the surface of gold, creating a covalent bond that is quite stable for use in experiments. However, there are still many challenges that lie ahead in this area, whether they be theoretical, experimental, and even in real-life applications. This review will cover some of the major developments, as well as the current state of technology, and the problems that need to be tackled as this research topic moves along to maturity. The hope is that with more workers joining the field, we can make a positive impact on society, in addition to bringing improvement and more knowledge to science.

Recent Advances in Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials for Healthcare Monitoring

The development of advanced technologies for the fabrication of functional nanomaterials, nanostructures, and devices has facilitated the development of biosensors for analyses. Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, with unique hierarchical structures, a high surface area, and the ability to be functionalized for target detection at the surface, exhibit high potential for biosensing applications. The electronic properties, mechanical flexibility, and optical, electrochemical, and physical properties of 2D nanomaterials can be easily modulated, enabling the construction of biosensing platforms for the detection of various analytes with targeted recognition, sensitivity, and selectivity. This review provides an overview of the recent advances in 2D nanomaterials and nanostructures used for biosensor and wearable-sensor development for healthcare and health-monitoring applications. Finally, the advantages of 2D-nanomaterial-based devices and several challenges in their optimal operation have been discussed to facilitate the development of smart high-performance biosensors in the future.

Sustainable Approaches in Green Synthesis of Silica Nanoparticles Using Extracts of Chlorella and Its Application

Silica nanoparticles, also known as SiO2 nanoparticles, have wider applications in biomedical, building, water treatment, agriculture, and food industries. It is used as an anticaking agent in the food industry, used to remove heavy metals from water, and used in cement-based materials. SiO2 nanoparticles synthesized by physical and chemical methods require high energy and use of toxic chemicals which is quite expensive, have a greater impact causing health-related issues, and have environmental side effects. Hence, there is a need to synthesize nanoparticles in an eco-friendly way. The biological or green synthesis method uses microbes, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants for synthesizing nanoparticles. Algae contain natural biochemicals that act as reducing agents. These biomolecules are non-toxic as they are naturally occurring compounds and can be used to fabricate nanoparticles by avoiding the use of toxic chemicals in an eco-friendly method. In this study, silica nanoparticles were synthesized by green synthesis methods using microalgae extract. Further, the green synthesized silica nanoparticles were characterized using ultra violet-visible (UV-VIS) spectroscopy, Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX). The antimicrobial activity of the silica nanoparticles against E. coli was studied. This study revealed that the nanoparticles can be synthesized using green synthesis methods with low cost, less toxic chemicals, eco-friendly, and have antimicrobial activity against E. coli.

In Vitro Toxicological Insights from the Biomedical Applications of Iron Carbide Nanoparticles in Tumor Theranostics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

(1) Background: Despite the encouraging indications regarding the suitability (biocompatibility) of iron carbide nanoparticles (ICNPs) in various biomedical applications, the published evidence of their biosafety is dispersed and relatively sparse. The present review synthesizes the existing nanotoxicological data from in vitro studies relevant to the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. (2) Methods: A systematic review was performed in electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Wiley Online Library) on December 2023, searching for toxicity assessments of ICNPs of different sizes, coatings, and surface modifications investigated in immortalized human and murine cell lines. The risk of bias in the studies was assessed using the ToxRTool for in vitro studies. (3) Results: Among the selected studies (n = 22), cell viability emerged as the most frequently assessed cellular-level toxicity endpoint. The results of the meta-analysis showed that cell models treated with ICNPs had a reduced cell viability (SMD = -2.531; 95% CI: -2.959 to -2.109) compared to untreated samples. A subgroup analysis was performed due to the high magnitude of heterogeneity (I2 = 77.1%), revealing that ICNP concentration and conjugated ligands are the factors that largely influence toxicity (p < 0.001). (4) Conclusions: A dose-dependent cytotoxicity of ICNP exposure was observed, regardless of the health status of the cell, tested organism, and NP size. Inconsistent reporting of ICNP physicochemical properties was noted, which hinders comparability among the studies. A comprehensive exploration of the available in vivo studies is required in future research to assess the safety of ICNPs' use in bioimaging and cancer treatment.

Nanomaterials-Based Targeting of Long Non-Coding RNAs in Cancer: A Cutting-Edge Review of Current Trends

This review article spotlights the burgeoning potential of using nanotherapeutic strategies to target long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in cancer cells. This updated discourse underlines the prominent role of lncRNAs in instigating cancer, facilitating its progression, and metastasis, validating lncRNAs' potential for being effective diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. The manuscript offers an in-depth examination of different strategies presently employed to modulate lncRNA expression and function for therapeutic purposes. Among these strategies, Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs), RNA interference (RNAi) technologies, and the innovative clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-based gene editing tools garner noteworthy mention. A significant section of the review is dedicated to nanocarriers and their crucial role in drug delivery. These nanocarriers' efficiency in targeting lncRNAs in varied types of cancers is elaborated upon, validating the importance of targeted therapy. The manuscript culminates by reaffirming the promising prospects of targeting lncRNAs to enhance the accuracy of cancer diagnosis and improve treatment efficacy. Consequently, new paths are opened to more research and innovation in employing nanotherapeutic approaches against lncRNAs in cancer cells. Thus, this comprehensive manuscript serves as a valuable resource that underscores the vital role of lncRNAs and the various nano-strategies for targeting them in cancer treatment. Future research should also focus on unraveling the complex regulatory networks involving lncRNAs and identifying fundamental functional interactions to refine therapeutic strategies targeting lncRNAs in cancer.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Selectively Targeting Melanoma Cells In Vitro by Inducing DNA Damage via H2AX Phosphorylation and Hindering Proliferation through ERK Dephosphorylation

This study investigates the distinctive characteristics of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (mNPs) and their potential application in cancer therapy, focusing on melanoma. Three types of mNPs, pre-validated for safety, underwent molecular analysis to uncover the activated signaling pathways in melanoma cells. Using the Western blot technique, the study revealed that mNPs induce cytotoxicity, hinder proliferation through ERK1/2 dephosphorylation, and prompt proapoptotic effects, including DNA damage by inducing H2AX phosphorylation. Additionally, in vitro magnetic hyperthermia notably enhanced cellular damage in melanoma cells. Moreover, the quantification of intracellular iron levels through Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis unveils the precise dosage required to induce cellular damage effectively. These compelling findings not only shed light on the therapeutic potential of mNPs in melanoma treatment but also open exciting avenues for future research, heralding a new era in the development of targeted and effective cancer therapies. Indeed, by discerning the effective dose, our approach becomes instrumental in optimizing the therapeutic utilization of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles, enabling the induction of precisely targeted and controlled cellular responses.

Biosynthesis and antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles usingBuchanania obovatafruit extract and the eutectic-based ionic liquid

The fruit extract ofBuchanania obovataand the eutectic-based ionic liquid were utilized, in an eco-friendly, inexpensive, simple method, for synthesizing zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs). The influence of the reducing, capping and stabilizing agents, in both mediums, on the structure, optical, and morphological properties of ZnO NPs was extensively investigated. The surface plasmon resonance peaks were observed at 340 nm and 320 nm for the fruit-based and the eutectic-based ionic liquid mediums, respectively, indicating the formation of ZnO NPs. XRD results confirmed the wurtzite structure of the ZnO NPs, exhibiting hexagonal phases in the diffraction patterns. The SEM and TEM images display that the biosynthesized ZnO NPs exhibit crystalline and hexagonal shape, with an average size of 40 nm for the fruit-based and 25 nm for the eutectic-based ionic liquid. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area analysis, revealed a value ∼13 m2g-1for ZnO NPs synthesized using the fruit extract and ∼29 m2g-1for those synthesized using the eutectic-based ionic liquid. The antibacterial activity of the biosynthesized ZnO NPs was assessed against clinically isolated Gram-negative (E. coli) and Gram-positive (S. aureus) bacterial strains using the inhibition zone method. The ZnO NPs produced from the eutectic-based ionic liquids confirmed superior antibacterial activity against bothS. aureusandE. colicompared to those mediated by the utilized fruit extract. At a concentration of 1000, the eutectic-based ionic liquid mediated ZnO NPs displayed a maximum inhibition zone of 16 mm againstS. aureus, while againstE. coli, a maximum inhibition zone of 15 mm was observed using the fruit extract mediated ZnO NPs. The results of this study showed that the biosynthesized ZnO NPs can be utilized as an efficient substitute to the frequently used chemical drugs and covering drug resistance matters resulted from continual usage of chemical drugs by users.

Advances in Making Cancer Mouse Models More Accessible and Informative through Non-Germline Genetic Engineering

Genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) allow for modeling of spontaneous tumorigenesis within its native microenvironment in mice and have provided invaluable insights into mechanisms of tumorigenesis and therapeutic strategies to treat human disease. However, as their generation requires germline manipulation and extensive animal breeding that is time-, labor-, and cost-intensive, traditional GEMMs are not accessible to most researchers, and fail to model the full breadth of cancer-associated genetic alterations and therapeutic targets. Recent advances in genome-editing technologies and their implementation in somatic tissues of mice have ushered in a new class of mouse models: non-germline GEMMs (nGEMMs). nGEMM approaches can be leveraged to generate somatic tumors de novo harboring virtually any individual or group of genetic alterations found in human cancer in a mouse through simple procedures that do not require breeding, greatly increasing the accessibility and speed and scale on which GEMMs can be produced. Here we describe the technologies and delivery systems used to create nGEMMs and highlight new biological insights derived from these models that have rapidly informed functional cancer genomics, precision medicine, and immune oncology.

Bridging Smart Nanosystems with Clinically Relevant Models and Advanced Imaging for Precision Drug Delivery

Intracellular delivery of nano-drug-carriers (NDC) to specific cells, diseased regions, or solid tumors has entered the era of precision medicine that requires systematic knowledge of nano-biological interactions from multidisciplinary perspectives. To this end, this review first provides an overview of membrane-disruption methods such as electroporation, sonoporation, photoporation, microfluidic delivery, and microinjection with the merits of high-throughput and enhanced efficiency for in vitro NDC delivery. The impact of NDC characteristics including particle size, shape, charge, hydrophobicity, and elasticity on cellular uptake are elaborated and several types of NDC systems aiming for hierarchical targeting and delivery in vivo are reviewed. Emerging in vitro or ex vivo human/animal-derived pathophysiological models are further explored and highly recommended for use in NDC studies since they might mimic in vivo delivery features and fill the translational gaps from animals to humans. The exploration of modern microscopy techniques for precise nanoparticle (NP) tracking at the cellular, organ, and organismal levels informs the tailored development of NDCs for in vivo application and clinical translation. Overall, the review integrates the latest insights into smart nanosystem engineering, physiological models, imaging-based validation tools, all directed towards enhancing the precise and efficient intracellular delivery of NDCs.

The Translation of Nanomedicines in the Contexts of Spinal Cord Injury and Repair

PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEW

Manipulating or re-engineering the damaged human spinal cord to achieve neuro-recovery is one of the foremost challenges of modern science. Addressing the restricted permission of neural cells and topographically organised neural tissue for self-renewal and spontaneous regeneration, respectively, is not straightforward, as exemplified by rare instances of translational success. This review assembles an understanding of advances in nanomedicine for spinal cord injury (SCI) and related clinical indications of relevance to attempts to design, engineer, and target nanotechnologies to multiple molecular networks.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent research provides a new understanding of the health benefits and regulatory landscape of nanomedicines based on a background of advances in mRNA-based nanocarrier vaccines and quantum dot-based optical imaging. In relation to spinal cord pathology, the extant literature details promising advances in nanoneuropharmacology and regenerative medicine that inform the present understanding of the nanoparticle (NP) biocompatibility-neurotoxicity relationship. In this review, the conceptual bases of nanotechnology and nanomaterial chemistry covering organic and inorganic particles of sizes generally less than 100 nm in diameter will be addressed. Regarding the centrally active nanotechnologies selected for this review, attention is paid to NP physico-chemistry, functionalisation, delivery, biocompatibility, biodistribution, toxicology, and key molecular targets and biological effects intrinsic to and beyond the spinal cord parenchyma.

SUMMARY

The advance of nanotechnologies for the treatment of refractory spinal cord pathologies requires an in-depth understanding of neurobiological and topographical principles and a consideration of additional complexities involving the research's translational and regulatory landscapes.

Controlled node growth on the surface of polymersomes

Incorporating nucleobases into synthetic polymers has proven to be a versatile method for controlling self-assembly. The formation of strong directional hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleobases provides a driving force that permits access to complex particle morphologies. Here, nucleobase pairing was used to direct the formation and lengthening of nodes on the outer surface of vesicles formed from polymers (polymersomes) functionalised with adenine in their membrane-forming domains. Insertion of a self-assembling short diblock copolymer containing thymine into the polymersome membranes caused an increase in steric crowding at the hydrophilic/hydrophobic interface, which was relieved by initial node formation and subsequent growth. Nano-objects were imaged by (cryo-)TEM, which permitted quantification of node coverage and length. The ability to control node growth on the surface of polymersomes provides a new platform to develop higher-order nanomaterials with tailorable properties.

The Nanozyme Revolution: Enhancing the Performance of Medical Biosensing Platforms

Nanozymes represent a class of nanosized materials that exhibit innate catalytic properties similar to biological enzymes. The unique features of these materials have positioned them as promising candidates for applications in clinical sensing devices, specifically those employed at the point-of-care. They notably have found use as a means to amplify signals in nanosensor-based platforms and thereby improve sensor detection limits. Recent developments in the understanding of the fundamental chemistries underpinning these materials have enabled the development of highly effective nanozymes capable of sensing clinically relevant biomarkers at detection limits that compete with "gold-standard" techniques. However, there remain considerable hurdles that need to be overcome before these nanozyme-based sensors can be utilized in a platform ready for clinical use. An overview of the current understandings of nanozymes for disease diagnostics and biosensing applications and the unmet challenges that must be considered prior to their translation in clinical diagnostic tests is provided.