Modulation of Hippocampal Circuits by Muscarinic and Nicotinic Receptors

Septohippocampal cholinergic system at the intersection of stress and cognition: Current trends and translational implications

Deficits in hippocampus-dependent memory processes are common across psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders such as depression, anxiety and Alzheimer's disease. Moreover, stress is a major environmental risk factor for these pathologies and it exerts detrimental effects on hippocampal functioning via the activation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The medial septum cholinergic neurons extensively innervate the hippocampus. Although, the cholinergic septohippocampal pathway (SHP) has long been implicated in learning and memory, its involvement in mediating the adaptive and maladaptive impact of stress on mnemonic processes remains less clear. Here, we discuss current research highlighting the contributions of cholinergic SHP in modulating memory encoding, consolidation and retrieval. Then, we present evidence supporting the view that neurobiological interactions between HPA axis stress response and cholinergic signalling impact hippocampal computations. Finally, we critically discuss potential challenges and opportunities to target cholinergic SHP as a therapeutic strategy to improve cognitive impairments in stress-related disorders. We argue that such efforts should consider recent conceptualisations on the dynamic nature of cholinergic signalling in modulating distinct subcomponents of memory and its interactions with cellular substrates that regulate the adaptive stress response.

Overnight neuronal plasticity and adaptation to emotional distress

Expressions such as 'sleep on it' refer to the resolution of distressing experiences across a night of sound sleep. Sleep is an active state during which the brain reorganizes the synaptic connections that form memories. This Perspective proposes a model of how sleep modifies emotional memory traces. Sleep-dependent reorganization occurs through neurophysiological events in neurochemical contexts that determine the fates of synapses to grow, to survive or to be pruned. We discuss how low levels of acetylcholine during non-rapid eye movement sleep and low levels of noradrenaline during rapid eye movement sleep provide a unique window of opportunity for plasticity in neuronal representations of emotional memories that resolves the associated distress. We integrate sleep-facilitated adaptation over three levels: experience and behaviour, neuronal circuits, and synaptic events. The model generates testable hypotheses for how failed sleep-dependent adaptation to emotional distress is key to mental disorders, notably disorders of anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress with the common aetiology of insomnia.

Efficient encoding of aversive location by CA3 long-range projections

Memorizing locations that are harmful or dangerous is a key capability of all organisms and requires an integration of affective and spatial information. In mammals, the dorsal hippocampus mainly processes spatial information, while the intermediate to ventral hippocampal divisions receive affective information via the amygdala. However, how spatial and aversive information is integrated is currently unknown. To address this question, we recorded the activity of hippocampal long-range CA3 axons at single-axon resolution in mice forming an aversive spatial memory. We show that intermediate CA3 to dorsal CA3 (i-dCA3) projections rapidly overrepresent areas preceding the location of an aversive stimulus due to a spatially selective addition of new place-coding axons followed by spatially non-specific stabilization. This sequence significantly improves the encoding of location by the i-dCA3 axon population. These results suggest that i-dCA3 axons transmit a precise, denoised, and stable signal indicating imminent danger to the dorsal hippocampus.

Increased excitability of dentate gyrus mossy cells occurs early in life in the Tg2576 model of Alzheimer's disease

INTRODUCTION

Hyperexcitability in Alzheimer's disease (AD) emerge early and contribute to disease progression. The dentate gyrus (DG) is implicated in hyperexcitability in AD. We hypothesized that mossy cells (MCs), regulators of DG excitability, contribute to early hyperexcitability in AD. Indeed, MCs generate hyperexcitability in epilepsy.

METHODS

Using the Tg2576 model and WT mice (∼1month-old), we compared MCs electrophysiologically, assessed c-Fos activity marker, Aβ expression and mice performance in a hippocampal-dependent memory task.

RESULTS

Tg2576 MCs exhibit increased spontaneous excitatory events and decreased inhibitory currents, increasing the charge transfer excitation/inhibition ratio. Tg2576 MC intrinsic excitability was enhanced, and showed higher c-Fos, intracellular Aβ expression, and axon sprouting. Granule cells only showed changes in synaptic properties, without intrinsic changes. The effects occurred before a memory task is affected.

DISCUSSION

Early electrophysiological and morphological alterations in Tg2576 MCs are consistent with enhanced excitability, suggesting an early role in DG hyperexcitability and AD pathophysiology.

HIGHLIGHTS

∘ MCs from 1 month-old Tg2576 mice had increased spontaneous excitatory synaptic input. ∘ Tg2576 MCs had reduced spontaneous inhibitory synaptic input. ∘ Several intrinsic properties were abnormal in Tg2576 MCs. ∘ Tg2576 GCs had enhanced synaptic excitation but no changes in intrinsic properties. ∘ Tg2576 MCs exhibited high c-Fos expression, soluble Aβ and axonal sprouting.

Cholinergic deficit induced memory retrieval impairment and hippocampal CaMKII-alpha deregulation is counteracted by sub-chronic agmatine treatment in mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease characterized by brain cholinergic dysfunction. Evidence suggests the impairment of memory retrieval phase in AD. It has been shown that CaMKII-α expressing neurons are selectively reduced in the hippocampus in AD brains. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of scopolamine on the memory retrieval phase and the hippocampal CaMKII-α signaling. In addition, the effect of sub-chronic administration of agmatine against scopolamine induced memory and possible hippocampal CaMKII-α deregulation was investigated in mice. Adult male NMRI mice were administered with agmatine at the doses of 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 mg/kg/i.p. or saline for 11 days. Acquisition and retrieval tests of passive avoidance task were performed on days 10 and 11, respectively (30 Min following agmatine treatment). Scopolamine (1 mg/kg/i.p.) was administered once, 30 Min before retrieval test. Upon completion of the behavioral tasks, the hippocampi were isolated for western blot analysis to detect the phosphorylated and total levels of CaMKII-α and beta actin proteins. The results showed that scopolamine induced memory retrieval deficit and decreased the phosphorylated level of hippocampal CaMKII-α. Sub-chronic agmatine treatment at the dose of 40 mg/kg prevented scopolamine induced memory retrieval deficit and restored the level of hippocampal phosphorylated CaMKII-α. This study suggests that hippocampal CaMKII-α might play a role in scopolamine induced amnesia and sub-chronic agmatine prevents the impairing effect of scopolamine on the retrieval phase of memory and the phosphorylation of hippocampal CaMKII-α protein.

Rivastigmine ameliorates botulinum-induced hippocampal damage and spatial memory impairment in male rats

Botulinum toxin (Botox) is widely used in beauty industry and its long-term consequences can be a matter of concern. The hippocampal cholinergic system plays a significant role in memory and learning that could be affected by Botulinum toxin. However, to date, the effect of Botox on memory system has been controversial. This survey aimed to examine the effects of Botox on spatial memory, and biochemical and histological parameters of the hippocampus in male rats by using Rivastigmine (R) as a cholinesterase inhibitor that is more selective for the central nervous system (CNS). Thirty-five male Wistar rats (200-250 g) were distributed into seven groups: Sham, Botox A (3, 6, and 15 IU intramascularly) and Botox A (3, 6, and 15 IU) plus Rivastigmine (1 mg/kg intraperitoneally). Spatial memory was assessed in the Morris Water Maze (MWM) 4 weeks later. Moreover, the hippocampal tissue was removed for histopathological and biochemical analyses. Botox significantly impaired memory performance in MWM by increasing escape latency and swim distance and decreasing the time spent in the target zone. Furthermore, in the Botox groups, the level of acetylcholine decreased, while the level of the acetylcholinesterase enzyme increased significantly in the hippocampus. Also, local lesions were observed in the form of degeneration and loss of pyramidal neurons, as well as a decrease in the volume and shrinkage of the cell body and an increase in microglia in the damaged area. Rivastigmine administration alleviated biochemical and histological parameters and partially ameliorated Botox-induced impairments. In summary, rivastigmine could be a suitable protective approach for side effects of Botox in the hippocampus.

The Induction of Long-Term Potentiation by Medial Septum Activation under Urethane Anesthesia Can Alter Gene Expression in the Hippocampus

We studied changes in the expression of early genes in hippocampal cells in response to stimulation of the dorsal medial septal area (dMSA), leading to long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. Rats under urethane anesthesia were implanted with stimulating electrodes in the ventral hippocampal commissure and dMSA and a recording electrode in the CA1 area of the hippocampus. We found that high-frequency stimulation (HFS) of the dMSA led to the induction of long-term potentiation in the synapses formed by the ventral hippocampal commissure on the hippocampal CA1 neurons. One hour after dMSA HFS, we collected the dorsal and ventral hippocampi on both the ipsilateral (damaged by the implanted electrode) and contralateral (intact) sides and analyzed the expression of genes by qPCR. The dMSA HFS led to an increase in the expression of bdnf and cyr61 in the ipsilateral hippocampi and egr1 in the ventral contralateral hippocampus. Thus, dMSA HFS under the conditions of degeneration of the cholinergic neurons in the medial septal area prevented the described increase in gene expression. The changes in cyr61 expression appeared to be dependent on the muscarinic M1 receptors. Our data suggest that the induction of long-term potentiation by dMSA activation enhances the expression of select early genes in the hippocampus.

Spinal cord injury leads to more neurodegeneration in the hippocampus of aged male rats compared to young rats

Although the disruptive effects of spinal cord injury (SCI) on the hippocampus have been confirmed in some animal studies, no study has investigated its retrograde manifestations in the hippocampus of aged subjects. Herein, we compared the aged rats with young ones 3 weeks after the induction of SCI (Groups: Sham.Young, SCI.Young, Sham.Aged, SCI.Aged). The locomotion, hippocampal apoptosis, hippocampal rhythms (Delta, Theta, Beta, Gamma) max frequency (Max.rf) and power, hippocampal neurogenesis, and hippocampal receptors (NMDA, GABA A, Muscarinic1/M1), which are important in the generation of rhythms and neurogenesis, were compared in aged rats in contrast to young rats. At the end of the third week, the number of apoptotic (Tunel⁺) cells in the hippocampus (CA1, DG) of SCI animals was significantly higher compared to the sham animals, and also, it was significantly higher in the SCI.Aged group compared to SCI.Young group. Moreover, the rate of neurogenesis (DCX⁺, BrdU⁺ cells) and expression of M1 and NMDA receptors were significantly lower in the SCI.Aged group compared to SCI.Young group. The power and Max.fr of all rhythms were significantly lower in SCI groups compared to sham groups. Despite the decrease in the power of rhythms in the SCI.Aged group compared to SCI.Young group, there was no significant difference between them, and in terms of Max.fr index, only the Max.fr of theta and beta rhythms were significantly lower in the SCI.Aged group compared to SCI.Young group. This study showed that SCI could cause more neurodegeneration in the hippocampus of aged animals compared to young animals.

Acetylcholine potentiates glutamate transmission from the habenula to the interpeduncular nucleus in losers of social conflict

Switching behaviors from aggression to submission in losers at the end of conspecific social fighting is essential to avoid serious injury or death. We have previously shown that the experience of defeat induces a loser-specific potentiation in the habenula (Hb)-interpeduncular nucleus (IPN) and show here that this is induced by acetylcholine. Calcium imaging and electrophysiological recording using acute brain slices from winners and losers of fighting behavior in zebrafish revealed that the ventral IPN (vIPN) dominates over the dorsal IPN in the neural response to Hb stimulation in losers. We also show that GluA1 α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunits on the postsynaptic membrane increased in the vIPN of losers. Furthermore, these loser-specific neural properties disappeared in the presence of an α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) antagonist and, conversely, were induced in brain slices of winners treated with α7 nAChR agonists. These data suggest that acetylcholine released from Hb terminals in the vIPN induces activation of α7 nAChR followed by an increase in postsynaptic membrane GluA1. This results in an increase in active synapses on postsynaptic neurons, resulting in the potentiation of neurotransmissions to the vIPN. This acetylcholine-induced neuromodulation could be the neural foundation for behavioral switching in losers. Our results could increase our understanding of the mechanisms of various mood disorders such as social anxiety disorder and social withdrawal.

Long-Lasting Impact of Sugar Intake on Neurotrophins and Neurotransmitters from Adolescence to Young Adulthood in Rat Frontal Cortex

The detrimental impact of fructose, a widely used sweetener in industrial foods, was previously evidenced on various brain regions. Although adolescents are among the highest consumers of sweet foods, whether brain alterations induced by the sugar intake during this age persist until young adulthood or are rescued returning to a healthy diet remains largely unexplored. To shed light on this issue, just weaned rats were fed with a fructose-rich or control diet for 3 weeks. At the end of the treatment, fructose-fed rats underwent a control diet for a further 3 weeks until young adulthood phase and compared with animals that received from the beginning the healthy control diet. We focused on the consequences induced by the sugar on the main neurotrophins and neurotransmitters in the frontal cortex, as its maturation continues until late adolescence, thus being the last brain region to achieve a full maturity. We observed that fructose intake induces inflammation and oxidative stress, alteration of mitochondrial function, and changes of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin receptors, synaptic proteins, acetylcholine, dopamine, and glutamate levels, as well as increased formation of the glycation end-products Nε-carboxymethyllysine (CML) and Nε-carboxyethyllysine (CEL). Importantly, many of these alterations (BDNF, CML, CEL, acetylcholinesterase activity, dysregulation of neurotransmitters levels) persisted after switching to the control diet, thus pointing out to the adolescence as a critical phase, in which extreme attention should be devoted to limit an excessive consumption of sweet foods that can affect brain physiology also in the long term.

Cholinergic regulation of object recognition memory

Object recognition memory refers to a basic memory mechanism to identify and recall various features of objects. This memory has been investigated by numerous studies in human, primates and rodents to elucidate the neuropsychological underpinnings in mammalian memory, as well as provide the diagnosis of dementia in some neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Since Alzheimer's disease at the early stage is reported to be accompanied with cholinergic cell loss and impairment in recognition memory, the central cholinergic system has been studied to investigate the neural mechanism underlying recognition memory. Previous studies have suggested an important role of cholinergic neurons in the acquisition of some variants of object recognition memory in rodents. Cholinergic neurons in the medial septum and ventral diagonal band of Broca that project mainly to the hippocampus and parahippocampal area are related to recognition memory for object location. Cholinergic projections from the nucleus basalis magnocellularis innervating the entire cortex are associated with recognition memory for object identification. Especially, the brain regions that receive cholinergic projections, such as the perirhinal cortex and prefrontal cortex, are involved in recognition memory for object-in-place memory and object recency. In addition, experimental studies using rodent models for Alzheimer's disease have reported that neurodegeneration within the central cholinergic system causes a deficit in object recognition memory. Elucidating how various types of object recognition memory are regulated by distinct cholinergic cell groups is necessary to clarify the neuronal mechanism for recognition memory and the development of therapeutic treatments for dementia.

Temporal dynamics of cholinergic activity in the septo-hippocampal system

Cholinergic projection neurons in the medial septum and diagonal band of Broca are the major source of cholinergic modulation of hippocampal circuit functions that support neural coding of location and running speed. Changes in cholinergic modulation are known to correlate with changes in brain states, cognitive functions, and behavior. However, whether cholinergic modulation can change fast enough to serve as a potential speed signal in hippocampal and parahippocampal cortices and whether the temporal dynamics in such a signal depend on the presence of visual cues remain unknown. In this study, we use a fiber-photometric approach to quantify the temporal dynamics of cholinergic activity in freely moving mice as a function of the animal's movement speed and visual cues. We show that the population activity of cholinergic neurons in the medial septum and diagonal band of Broca changes fast enough to be aligned well with changes in the animal's running speed and is strongly and linearly correlated to the logarithm of the animal's running speed. Intriguingly, the cholinergic modulation remains strongly and linearly correlated to the speed of the animal's neck movements during periods of stationary activity. Furthermore, we show that cholinergic modulation is unaltered during darkness. Lastly, we identify rearing, a stereotypic behavior where the mouse stands on its hindlimbs to scan the environment from an elevated perspective, is associated with higher cholinergic activity than expected from neck movements on the horizontal plane alone. Taken together, these data show that temporal dynamics in the cholinergic modulation of hippocampal circuits are fast enough to provide a potential running speed signal in real-time. Moreover, the data show that cholinergic modulation is primarily a function of the logarithm of the animal's movement speed, both during locomotion and during stationary activity, with no significant interaction with visual inputs. These data advance our understanding of temporal dynamics in cholinergic modulation of hippocampal circuits and their functions in the context of neural coding of location and running speed.

Older adults' episodic memory is related to a neurophysiological marker of brain cholinergic activity

Episodic memory is vulnerable to aging and may be influenced by age-related decline in the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. We probed this relation using a novel, minimally invasive transcranial magnetic stimulation marker of brain acetylcholine: short-latency afferent inhibition (SAI). We used neuropsychological testing to construct a composite score of episodic memory in N = 19 community-dwelling older adults, and stratified older adults into Higher- (N = 9) versus Lower-memory (N = 10) groups before SAI. The Higher-memory group showed significantly stronger SAI than the Lower-memory group, indicating an association between higher brain acetylcholine levels and better episodic memory. The two memory groups were equivalent in the potential confounds of age, education, mood, subjective sleep quality, and executive function. These data converge with others to suggest that episodic memory is related to acetylcholine in older adults. This relation should be further investigated, especially with pharmacology and neuroimaging.

A synaptic signal for novelty processing in the hippocampus

Episodic memory formation and recall are complementary processes that rely on opposing neuronal computations in the hippocampus. How this conflict is resolved in hippocampal circuits is unclear. To address this question, we obtained in vivo whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from dentate gyrus granule cells in head-fixed mice trained to explore and distinguish between familiar and novel virtual environments. We find that granule cells consistently show a small transient depolarisation upon transition to a novel environment. This synaptic novelty signal is sensitive to local application of atropine, indicating that it depends on metabotropic acetylcholine receptors. A computational model suggests that the synaptic response to novelty may bias granule cell population activity, which can drive downstream attractor networks to a new state, favouring the switch from recall to new memory formation when faced with novelty. Such a novelty-driven switch may enable flexible encoding of new memories while preserving stable retrieval of familiar ones.

Memory formation and recall are complementary processes within the hippocampus. Here the authors demonstrate a synaptic signal of novelty in the hippocampus and provide a computational framework for how such a novelty-driven switch may enable flexible encoding of new memories while preserving stable retrieval of familiar ones.

The cholinergic system modulates negative BOLD responses in the prefrontal cortex once electrical perforant pathway stimulation triggers neuronal afterdischarges in the hippocampus

Repeated high-frequency pulse-burst stimulations of the rat perforant pathway elicited positive BOLD responses in the right hippocampus, septum and prefrontal cortex. However, when the first stimulation period also triggered neuronal afterdischarges in the hippocampus, then a delayed negative BOLD response in the prefrontal cortex was generated. While neuronal activity and cerebral blood volume (CBV) increased in the hippocampus during the period of hippocampal neuronal afterdischarges (h-nAD), CBV decreased in the prefrontal cortex, although neuronal activity did not decrease. Only after termination of h-nAD did CBV in the prefrontal cortex increase again. Thus, h-nAD triggered neuronal activity in the prefrontal cortex that counteracted the usual neuronal activity-related functional hyperemia. This process was significantly enhanced by pilocarpine, a mACh receptor agonist, and completely blocked when pilocarpine was co-administered with scopolamine, a mACh receptor antagonist. Scopolamine did not prevent the formation of the negative BOLD response, thus mACh receptors modulate the strength of the negative BOLD response.

Long-lasting Postnatal Sensory Deprivation Alters Dendritic Morphology of Pyramidal Neurons in the Rat Hippocampus: Behavioral Correlates

The role of normal sensory inputs in the development of sensory cortices is well known, however, their impacts on the hippocampus, an integrator of sensory modalities with important roles in cognitive functions, has received much less attention. Here, we applied a long-term sensory deprivation paradigm by trimming the rats' whiskers bilaterally, from postnatal day 3 to 59. Female sensory-deprived (SD) rats showed more on-wall rearing and visits to the center of the open-field box, shorter periods of grooming, less defecation and less anxiety-like behaviors in the elevated plus-maze compared to controls, who had their intact whiskers brushed. Passive avoidance memory retention was sex-dependently impaired in the female SD rats. In the radial arm maze, however, reference spatial memory was impaired only in the male SD rats. Nonetheless, working memory errors increased in both sexes of SD rats. Besides depletion of CA1 and CA3 pyramidal neurons in SD rats, Sholl analysis of Golgi-Cox stained neurons revealed that prolonged sensory deprivation has retracted the arborization of CA1 basal dendrites in SD group, while solely female SD rats had diminished CA1 apical dendrites. Sholl analysis of CA3 neurons in SD animals also disclosed significantly more branched apical dendrites in males and basal dendrites in females. Sensory deprivation also led to a considerable spine loss and variation of different spine types in a sex-dependent manner. Our findings suggest that experience-dependent structural plasticity is capable of spreading far beyond the manipulated sensory zones and the inevitable functional alterations can be expressed in a multifactorial sex-dependent manner.

Intrahippocampal Adeno-Associated Virus-Mediated Overexpression of Nerve Growth Factor Reverses 192IgG-Saporin-Induced Impairments of Hippocampal Plasticity and Behavior

One of the aspects of Alzheimer disease is loss of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain, which leads to development of cognitive impairment. Here, we used a model of cholinergic deficit caused by immunotoxin 192IgG-saporin to study possible beneficial effects of adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated overexpression of nerve growth factor (NGF) in the hippocampus of rats with cholinergic deficit. Suspension of recombinant AAV carrying control cassette or cassette with NGF was injected into both hippocampi of control rats or rats with cholinergic deficit induced by intraseptal injection of 192IgG-saporin. Analysis of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) immunostaining showed that NGF overexpression in the hippocampus did not prevent strong loss of ChAT-positive neurons in the septal area caused by the immunotoxin. Induction of cholinergic deficit in the hippocampus led to impairments in Y-maze and beam-walking test but did not affect behavioral indices in the T-maze, open field test, and inhibitory avoidance training. NGF overexpression in the rats with cholinergic deficit restored normal animal behavior in Y-maze and beam-walking test. Recording of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials in vivo in the hippocampal CA1 area showed that induction of cholinergic deficit decreased magnitude of long-term potentiation (LTP) and prevented a decrease in paired-pulse ratio after LTP induction, and NGF overexpression reversed these negative changes in hippocampal synaptic characteristics. The beneficial effect of NGF was not associated with compensatory changes in the number of cells that express NGF receptors TrkA and NGFR in the hippocampus and medial septal area. NGF overexpression also did not prevent a 192IgG-saporin-induced decrease in the activity of acetylcholine esterase in the hippocampus. We conclude that NGF overexpression in the hippocampus under conditions of cholinergic deficit induces beneficial effects which are not related to maintenance of cholinergic function.

Septal cholinergic input to CA2 hippocampal region controls social novelty discrimination via nicotinic receptor-mediated disinhibition

Acetylcholine (ACh), released in the hippocampus from fibers originating in the medial septum/diagonal band of Broca (MSDB) complex, is crucial for learning and memory. The CA2 region of the hippocampus has received increasing attention in the context of social memory. However, the contribution of ACh to this process remains unclear. Here, we show that in mice, ACh controls social memory. Specifically, MSDB cholinergic neurons inhibition impairs social novelty discrimination, meaning the propensity of a mouse to interact with a novel rather than a familiar conspecific. This effect is mimicked by a selective antagonist of nicotinic AChRs delivered in CA2. Ex vivo recordings from hippocampal slices provide insight into the underlying mechanism, as activation of nAChRs by nicotine increases the excitatory drive to CA2 principal cells via disinhibition. In line with this observation, optogenetic activation of cholinergic neurons in MSDB increases the firing of CA2 principal cells in vivo. These results point to nAChRs as essential players in social novelty discrimination by controlling inhibition in the CA2 region.

Neuromodulation of Hippocampal-Prefrontal Cortical Synaptic Plasticity and Functional Connectivity: Implications for Neuropsychiatric Disorders

The hippocampus-prefrontal cortex (HPC-PFC) pathway plays a fundamental role in executive and emotional functions. Neurophysiological studies have begun to unveil the dynamics of HPC-PFC interaction in both immediate demands and long-term adaptations. Disruptions in HPC-PFC functional connectivity can contribute to neuropsychiatric symptoms observed in mental illnesses and neurological conditions, such as schizophrenia, depression, anxiety disorders, and Alzheimer's disease. Given the role in functional and dysfunctional physiology, it is crucial to understand the mechanisms that modulate the dynamics of HPC-PFC communication. Two of the main mechanisms that regulate HPC-PFC interactions are synaptic plasticity and modulatory neurotransmission. Synaptic plasticity can be investigated inducing long-term potentiation or long-term depression, while spontaneous functional connectivity can be inferred by statistical dependencies between the local field potentials of both regions. In turn, several neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, noradrenaline, and endocannabinoids, can regulate the fine-tuning of HPC-PFC connectivity. Despite experimental evidence, the effects of neuromodulation on HPC-PFC neuronal dynamics from cellular to behavioral levels are not fully understood. The current literature lacks a review that focuses on the main neurotransmitter interactions with HPC-PFC activity. Here we reviewed studies showing the effects of the main neurotransmitter systems in long- and short-term HPC-PFC synaptic plasticity. We also looked for the neuromodulatory effects on HPC-PFC oscillatory coordination. Finally, we review the implications of HPC-PFC disruption in synaptic plasticity and functional connectivity on cognition and neuropsychiatric disorders. The comprehensive overview of these impairments could help better understand the role of neuromodulation in HPC-PFC communication and generate insights into the etiology and physiopathology of clinical conditions.

Acetylcholine-gated current translates wake neuronal firing rate information into a spike timing-based code in Non-REM sleep, stabilizing neural network dynamics during memory consolidation

Sleep is critical for memory consolidation, although the exact mechanisms mediating this process are unknown. Combining reduced network models and analysis of in vivo recordings, we tested the hypothesis that neuromodulatory changes in acetylcholine (ACh) levels during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep mediate stabilization of network-wide firing patterns, with temporal order of neurons’ firing dependent on their mean firing rate during wake. In both reduced models and in vivo recordings from mouse hippocampus, we find that the relative order of firing among neurons during NREM sleep reflects their relative firing rates during prior wake. Our modeling results show that this remapping of wake-associated, firing frequency-based representations is based on NREM-associated changes in neuronal excitability mediated by ACh-gated potassium current. We also show that learning-dependent reordering of sequential firing during NREM sleep, together with spike timing-dependent plasticity (STDP), reconfigures neuronal firing rates across the network. This rescaling of firing rates has been reported in multiple brain circuits across periods of sleep. Our model and experimental data both suggest that this effect is amplified in neural circuits following learning. Together our data suggest that sleep may bias neural networks from firing rate-based towards phase-based information encoding to consolidate memories.

We show that neuromodulatory changes during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep generate stable spike timing relationships between neurons, the ordering of which reflects the neurons’ relative firing rates during wake. Learning-dependent ordering of firing in the hippocampus during NREM, acting in tandem with spike timing-dependent plasticity, reconfigures neuronal firing rates across the hippocampal network. This “rescaling” of neuronal firing rates has recently been reported in multiple brain circuits across periods of sleep. Together, our results suggest that the brain is remapping frequency-biased representations of information formed during wake into timing biased-representations during NREM sleep.

Acetylcholine prioritises direct synaptic inputs from entorhinal cortex to CA1 by differential modulation of feedforward inhibitory circuits

Acetylcholine release in the hippocampus plays a central role in the formation of new memory representations. An influential but largely untested theory proposes that memory formation requires acetylcholine to enhance responses in CA1 to new sensory information from entorhinal cortex whilst depressing inputs from previously encoded representations in CA3. Here, we show that excitatory inputs from entorhinal cortex and CA3 are depressed equally by synaptic release of acetylcholine in CA1. However, feedforward inhibition from entorhinal cortex exhibits greater depression than CA3 resulting in a selective enhancement of excitatory-inhibitory balance and CA1 activation by entorhinal inputs. Entorhinal and CA3 pathways engage different feedforward interneuron subpopulations and cholinergic modulation of presynaptic function is mediated differentially by muscarinic M3 and M4 receptors, respectively. Thus, our data support a role and mechanisms for acetylcholine to prioritise novel information inputs to CA1 during memory formation.

Blockade of TRPC Channels Limits Cholinergic-Driven Hyperexcitability and Seizure Susceptibility After Traumatic Brain Injury

We investigated the contribution of excitatory transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) cation channels to posttraumatic hyperexcitability in the brain 7 days following controlled cortical impact model of traumatic brain injury (TBI) to the parietal cortex in male adult mice. We investigated if TRPC1/TRPC4/TRPC5 channel expression is upregulated in excitatory neurons after TBI in contribution to epileptogenic hyperexcitability in key hippocampal and cortical circuits that have substantial cholinergic innervation. This was tested by measuring TRPC1/TRPC4/TRPC5 protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) expression, assays of cholinergic function, neuronal Ca²⁺ imaging in brain slices, and seizure susceptibility after TBI. We found region-specific increases in expression of TRPC1, TRPC4, and TRPC5 subunits in the hippocampus and cortex following TBI. The dentate gyrus, CA3 region, and cortex all exhibited robust upregulation of TRPC4 mRNA and protein. TBI increased cFos activity in dentate gyrus granule cells (DGGCs) and layer 5 pyramidal neurons both at the time of TBI and 7 days post-TBI. DGGCs displayed greater magnitude and duration of acetylcholine-induced rises in intracellular Ca²⁺ in brain slices from mice subjected to TBI. The TBI mice also exhibited greater seizure susceptibility in response to pentylenetetrazol-induced kindling. Blockade of TRPC4/TRPC5 channels with M084 reduced neuronal hyperexcitation and impeded epileptogenic progression of kindling. We observed that the time-dependent upregulation of TRPC4/TRPC5-containing channels alters cholinergic responses and activity of principal neurons acting to increase proexcitatory sensitivity. The underlying mechanism includes acutely decreased acetylcholinesterase function, resulting in greater G_q/11-coupled muscarinic receptor activation of TRPC channels. Overall, our evidence suggests that TBI-induced plasticity of TRPC channels strongly contributes to overt hyperexcitability and primes the hippocampus and cortex for seizures.

Effects of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Radiation on Neurotransmitters in the Brain

With the rapid development of electronic information in the past 30 years, technical achievements based on electromagnetism have been widely used in various fields pertaining to human production and life. Consequently, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) has become a substantial new pollution source in modern civilization. The biological effects of EMR have attracted considerable attention worldwide. The possible interaction of EMR with human organs, especially the brain, is currently where the most attention is focused. Many studies have shown that the nervous system is an important target organ system sensitive to EMR. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have focused on the neurobiological effects of EMR, including the metabolism and transport of neurotransmitters. As messengers of synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters play critical roles in cognitive and emotional behavior. Here, the effects of EMR on the metabolism and receptors of neurotransmitters in the brain are summarized.

Cholinergic modulation of dentate gyrus processing through dynamic reconfiguration of inhibitory circuits

The dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus plays a key role in memory formation, and it is known to be modulated by septal projections. By performing electrophysiology and optogenetics, we evaluated the role of cholinergic modulation in the processing of afferent inputs in the DG. We show that mature granule cells (GCs), but not adult-born immature neurons, have increased responses to afferent perforant path stimuli upon cholinergic modulation. This is due to a highly precise reconfiguration of inhibitory circuits, differentially affecting Parvalbumin and Somatostatin interneurons, resulting in a nicotinic-dependent perisomatic disinhibition of GCs. This circuit reorganization provides a mechanism by which mature GCs could escape the strong inhibition they receive, creating a window of opportunity for plasticity. Indeed, coincident activation of perforant path inputs with optogenetic release of acetylcholine produces a long-term potentiated response in GCs, essential for memory formation.

Cholinergic Modulation of Dendritic Signaling in Hippocampal GABAergic Inhibitory Interneurons

Dendrites represent the "reception hub" of the neuron as they collect thousands of different inputs and send a coherent response to the cell body. A considerable portion of these signals, especially in vivo, arises from neuromodulatory sources, which affect dendritic computations and cellular activity. In this context, acetylcholine (ACh) exerts a coordinating role of different brain structures, contributing to goal-driven behaviors and sleep-wake cycles. Specifically, cholinergic neurons from the medial septum-diagonal band of Broca complex send numerous projections to glutamatergic principal cells and GABAergic inhibitory neurons in the hippocampus, differentially entraining them during network oscillations. Interneurons display abundant expression of cholinergic receptors and marked responses to stimulation by ACh. Nonetheless, the precise localization of ACh inputs is largely unknown, and evidence for cholinergic modulation of interneuronal dendritic signaling remains elusive. In this article, we review evidence that suggests modulatory effects of ACh on dendritic computations in three hippocampal interneuron subtypes: fast-spiking parvalbumin-positive (PV⁺) cells, somatostatin-expressing (SOM⁺) oriens lacunosum moleculare cells and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-expressing (VIP⁺) interneuron-selective interneurons. We consider the distribution of cholinergic receptors on these interneurons, including information about their specific somatodendritic location, and discuss how the action of these receptors can modulate dendritic Ca²⁺ signaling and activity of interneurons. The implications of ACh-dependent Ca²⁺ signaling for dendritic plasticity are also discussed. We propose that cholinergic modulation can shape the dendritic integration and plasticity in interneurons in a cell type-specific manner, and the elucidation of these mechanisms will be required to understand the contribution of each cell type to large-scale network activity.

Post-stroke epileptogenesis is associated with altered intrinsic properties of hippocampal pyramidal neurons leading to increased theta resonance

Brain insults like stroke, trauma or infections often lead to blood-brain barrier-dysfunction (BBBd) frequently resulting into epileptogenesis. Affected patients suffer from seizures and cognitive comorbidities that are potentially linked to altered network oscillations. It has been shown that a hippocampal BBBd in rats leads to in vivo seizures and increased power at theta (3-8 Hz), an important type of network oscillations. However, the underlying cellular mechanisms remain poorly understood. At membrane potentials close to the threshold for action potentials (APs) a subpopulation of CA1 pyramidal cells (PCs) displays intrinsic resonant properties due to an interplay of the muscarine-sensitive K⁺-current (I_M) and the persistent Na⁺-current (I_NaP). Such resonant neurons are more excitable and generate more APs when stimulated at theta frequencies, being strong candidates for contributing to hippocampal theta oscillations during epileptogenesis. We tested this hypothesis by characterizing changes in intrinsic properties of hippocampal PCs one week after post-stroke epileptogenesis, a model associated with BBBd, using slice electrophysiology and computer modeling. We find a higher proportion of resonant neurons in BBBd compared to sham animals (47 vs. 29%), accompanied by an increase in their excitability. In contrast, BBBd non-resonant neurons showed a reduced excitability, presented with lower impedance and more positive AP threshold. We identify an increase in I_M combined with either a reduction in I_NaP or an increase in I_Leak as possible mechanisms underlying the observed changes. Our results support the hypothesis that a higher proportion of more excitable resonant neurons in the hippocampus contributes to increased theta oscillations and an increased likelihood of seizures in a model of post-stroke epileptogenesis.

Presynaptic Inhibitory Effects of Acetylcholine in the Hippocampus: A 40-Year Evolution of a Serendipitous Finding

Cholinergic regulation of hippocampal circuit activity has been an active area of neurophysiological research for decades. The prominent cholinergic innervation of intrinsic hippocampal circuitry, potent effects of cholinomimetic drugs, and behavioral responses to cholinergic modulation of hippocampal circuitry have driven investigators to discover diverse cellular actions of acetylcholine in distinct sites within hippocampal circuitry. Further research has illuminated how these actions organize circuit activity to optimize encoding of new information, promote consolidation, and coordinate this with recall of prior memories. The development of the hippocampal slice preparation was a major advance that accelerated knowledge of how hippocampal circuits functioned and how acetylcholine modulated these circuits. Using this preparation in the early 1980s, we made a serendipitous finding of a novel presynaptic inhibitory effect of acetylcholine on Schaffer collaterals, the projections from CA3 pyramidal neurons to dendrites of CA1 pyramidal cells. We characterized this effect at cellular and pharmacological levels, published the findings in the first volume of the Journal of Neuroscience, and proceeded to pursue other scientific directions. We were surprised and thrilled to see that, nearly 40 years later, the paper is still being cited and downloaded because the data became an integral piece of the foundation of the science of cholinergic regulation of hippocampal function in learning and memory. This Progressions article is a story of how single laboratory findings evolve through time to be confirmed, challenged, and reinterpreted by other laboratories to eventually become part of the basis of fundamental concepts related to important brain functions.

Cholinergic Signaling, Neural Excitability, and Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a common brain disorder characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures with neuronal hyperexcitability. Apart from the classical imbalance between excitatory glutamatergic transmission and inhibitory γ-aminobutyric acidergic transmission, cumulative evidence suggest that cholinergic signaling is crucially involved in the modulation of neural excitability and epilepsy. In this review, we briefly describe the distribution of cholinergic neurons, muscarinic, and nicotinic receptors in the central nervous system and their relationship with neural excitability. Then, we summarize the findings from experimental and clinical research on the role of cholinergic signaling in epilepsy. Furthermore, we provide some perspectives on future investigation to reveal the precise role of the cholinergic system in epilepsy.

Hippocampal neurodegeneration and rhythms mirror each other during acute spinal cord injury in male rats

Spinal Cord Injury (SCI), triggers neurodegenerative changes in the spinal cord, and simultaneously alters oscillatory manifestations of motor cortex. However, these disturbances may not be limited to motor areas and other parts such as hippocampus, which is vital in the neurogenesis and cognitive function, may be affected in the neurogenic and oscillatory manners. Addressing this remarkable complication of SCI, we evaluated the hippocampal neurogenesis and rhythms through acute phase of SCI. In the present study, we used 40 male rats (Sham.W1 = 10, SCI.W1 = 10, Sham.W2 = 10, SCI.W2 = 10), and findings revealed that contusive SCI declines hippocampal rhythms (Delta, Theta, Beta, Gamma) power and max-frequency. Also, there was a significant decrease in the DCX + and BrdU + cells of the dentate gyrus; correlated significantly with rhythms power decline. Considering the TUNEL assay analysis, there were significantly greater apoptotic cells, in the CA1, CA3, and DG regions of injured animals. Furthermore, according to the western blotting analysis, the expression of receptors (NMDA, GABAA, Muscarinic1), which are essential in the neurogenesis and generation of rhythms significantly attenuated following SCI. Our study demonstrated that acute SCI, alters the power and max-frequency of hippocampal rhythms parallel with changes in the hippocampal neurogenesis, apoptosis, and receptors expression.

Scopolamine Impairs Spatial Information Recorded With "Miniscope" Calcium Imaging in Hippocampal Place Cells

The hippocampus and associated cholinergic inputs have important roles in spatial memory in rodents. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) are involved in the communication of cholinergic signals and regulate spatial memory. They have been found to impact the memory encoding process, but the effect on memory retrieval is controversial. Previous studies report that scopolamine (a non-selective antagonist of mAChR) induces cognitive deficits on animals, resulting in impaired memory encoding, but the effect on memory retrieval is less certain. We tested the effects of blocking mAChRs on hippocampal network activity and neural ensembles that had previously encoded spatial information. The activity of hundreds of neurons in mouse hippocampal CA1 was recorded using calcium imaging with a miniaturised fluorescent microscope and properties of place cells and neuronal ensemble behaviour in a linear track environment were observed. We found that the decoding accuracy and the stability of spatial representation revealed by hippocampal neural ensemble were significantly reduced after the administration of scopolamine. Several other parameters, including neural firing rate, total number of active neurons, place cell number and spatial information content were affected. Similar results were also observed in a simulated hippocampal network model. This study enhances the understanding of the function of mAChRs on spatial memory impairment.

Mecamylamine inhibits seizure-like activity in CA1-CA3 hippocampus through antagonism to nicotinic receptors

Cholinergic modulation of hippocampal network function is implicated in multiple behavioral and cognitive states. Activation of nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors affects neuronal excitability, synaptic transmission and rhythmic oscillations in the hippocampus. In this work, we studied the ability of the cholinergic system to sustain hippocampal epileptiform activity independently from glutamate and GABA transmission. Simultaneous CA3 and CA1 field potential recordings were obtained during the perfusion of hippocampal slices with the aCSF containing AMPA, NMDA and GABA receptor antagonists. Under these conditions, spontaneous epileptiform discharges synchronous between CA3 and CA1 were recorded. Epileptiform discharges were blocked by addition of the calcium-channel blocker Cd²⁺ and disappeared in CA1 after a surgical cut between CA3 and CA1. Cholinergic antagonist mecamylamine abolished CA3-CA1 synchronous epileptiform discharges, while antagonists of α7 and α4β2 nAChRs, MLA and DhβE, had no effect. Our results suggest that activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors can sustain CA3-CA1 synchronous epileptiform activity independently from AMPA, NMDA and GABA transmission. In addition, mecamylamine, but not α7 and α4β2 nAChRs antagonists, reduced bicuculline-induced seizure-like activity. The ability of mecamylamine to decrease hippocampal network synchronization might be associated with its therapeutic effects in a wide variety of CNS disorders including addiction, depression and anxiety.

The evolving view of replay and its functions in wake and sleep

The term hippocampal replay originally referred to the temporally compressed reinstantiation, during rest, of sequential neural activity observed during prior active wake. Since its description in the 1990s, hippocampal replay has often been viewed as the key mechanism by which a memory trace is repeatedly rehearsed at high speeds during sleep and gradually transferred to neocortical circuits. However, the methods used to measure the occurrence of replay remain debated, and it is now clear that the underlying neural events are considerably more complicated than the traditional narratives had suggested. “Replay-like” activity happens during wake, can play out in reverse order, may represent trajectories never taken by the animal, and may have additional functions beyond memory consolidation, from learning values and solving the problem of credit assignment to decision-making and planning. Still, we know little about the role of replay in cognition, and to what extent it differs between wake and sleep. This may soon change, however, because decades-long efforts to explain replay in terms of reinforcement learning (RL) have started to yield testable predictions and possible explanations for a diverse set of observations. Here, we (1) survey the diverse features of replay, focusing especially on the latest findings; (2) discuss recent attempts at unifying disparate experimental results and putatively different cognitive functions under the banner of RL; (3) discuss methodological issues and theoretical biases that impede progress or may warrant a partial revaluation of the current literature, and finally; (4) highlight areas of considerable uncertainty and promising avenues of inquiry.

Early changes in synaptic and intrinsic properties of dentate gyrus granule cells in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease neuropathology and atypical effects of the cholinergic antagonist atropine

It has been reported that hyperexcitability occurs in a subset of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and hyperexcitability could contribute to the disease. Several studies have suggested that the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) may be an important area where hyperexcitability occurs. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that the principal DG cell type, granule cells (GCs), would exhibit changes at the single-cell level which would be consistent with hyperexcitability and might help explain it. We used the Tg2576 mouse, where it has been shown that hyperexcitability is robust at 2-3 months of age. GCs from 2 to 3-month-old Tg2576 mice were compared to age-matched wild type (WT) mice. Effects of muscarinic cholinergic antagonism were tested because previously we found that Tg2576 mice exhibited hyperexcitability in vivo that was reduced by the muscarinic cholinergic antagonist atropine, counter to the dogma that in AD one needs to boost cholinergic function. The results showed that GCs from Tg2576 mice exhibited increased frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic potentials/currents (sEPSP/Cs) and reduced frequency of spontaneous inhibitory synaptic events (sIPSCs) relative to WT, increasing the excitation:inhibition (E:I) ratio. There was an inward NMDA receptor-dependent current that we defined here as a novel synaptic current (nsC) in Tg2576 mice because it was very weak in WT mice. Intrinsic properties were distinct in Tg2576 GCs relative to WT. In summary, GCs of the Tg2576 mouse exhibit early electrophysiological alterations that are consistent with increased synaptic excitation, reduced inhibition, and muscarinic cholinergic dysregulation. The data support previous suggestions that the DG contributes to hyperexcitability and there is cholinergic dysfunction early in life in AD mouse models.

Huntingtin Levels are Elevated in Hippocampal Post-Mortem Samples of Alzheimer's Disease Brain

BACKGROUND

We have recently identified Huntingtin (Htt), the pathogenic protein in Huntington's disease, as a mediator of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology in an amyloid precursor protein (APP) knock-in mouse model of AD. That finding prompted us to examine if Htt is accumulated in the brains of AD patients and in which cell type Htt is present in the AD brain.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether location and levels of Htt are affected in hippocampus and frontal cortex in AD.

METHODS

Brains from AD patients (n=11) and controls (n=11) were stained for Htt using immunohistochemistry and signal intensity of Htt was quantified and localized in subregions and neurons. Confocal microscopy was used to characterize neuronal Htt localisation and its relationship with tau tangles and astrocytes.

RESULTS

Htt levels were increased in neuronal cells in the granular layer of the dentate gyrus, in CA1 and CA3 in hippocampus and in layer III of the frontal cortex. Htt was found in the soma, perinuclear space, thin neurites and nucleus of pyramidal neurons. Htt was present in neurons containing tau tangles but did not colocalize with astrocytes.

CONCLUSION

Htt accumulates in pyramidal neuron-rich areas including hippocampal subregions associated with memory and frontal cortex layer III. The accumulation of Htt in AD shows distinct cellular and morphological patterns and is not present in astrocytes. Clearly, further research is warranted to elucidate the role of Htt as a mediator of AD pathology and the potential use of Htt as a target in future therapeutic strategies.

Disruption of circadian timing increases synaptic inhibition and reduces cholinergic responsiveness in the dentate gyrus

We investigated synaptic mechanisms in the hippocampus that could explain how loss of circadian timing leads to impairments in spatial and recognition memory. Experiments were performed in hippocampal slices from Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus) because, unlike mice and rats, their circadian rhythms are easily eliminated without modifications to their genome and without surgical manipulations, thereby leaving neuronal circuits intact. Recordings of excitatory postsynaptic field potentials and population spikes in area CA1 and dentate gyrus granule cells revealed no effect of circadian arrhythmia on basic functions of synaptic circuitry, including long-term potentiation. However, dentate granule cells from circadian-arrhythmic animals maintained a more depolarized resting membrane potential than cells from circadian-intact animals; a significantly greater proportion of these cells depolarized in response to the cholinergic agonist carbachol (10 μM), and did so by increasing their membrane potential three-fold greater than cells from the control (entrained) group. Dentate granule cells from arrhythmic animals also exhibited higher levels of tonic inhibition, as measured by the frequency of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. Carbachol also decreased stimulus-evoked synaptic excitation in dentate granule cells from both intact and arrhythmic animals as expected, but reduced stimulus-evoked synaptic inhibition only in cells from control hamsters. These findings show that loss of circadian timing is accompanied by greater tonic inhibition, and increased synaptic inhibition in response to muscarinic receptor activation in dentate granule cells. Increased inhibition would likely attenuate excitation in dentate-CA3 microcircuits, which in turn might explain the spatial memory deficits previously observed in circadian-arrhythmic hamsters.

Acting Before; A Combined Strategy to Counteract the Onset and Progression of Dementia

Brain aging and aging-related neurodegenerative disorders are posing a significant challenge for health systems worldwide. To date, most of the therapeutic efforts aimed at counteracting dementiarelated behavioral and cognitive impairment have been focused on addressing putative determinants of the disease, such as β-amyloid or tau. In contrast, relatively little attention has been paid to pharmacological interventions aimed at restoring or promoting the synaptic plasticity of the aging brain. The review will explore and discuss the most recent molecular, structural/functional, and behavioral evidence that supports the use of non-pharmacological approaches as well as cognitive-enhancing drugs to counteract brain aging and early-stage dementia.

Cholinergic Dysfunction Involvement in Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion-Induced Impairment of Medial Septum-dCA1 Neurocircuit in Rats

Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) is considered a preclinical condition of mild cognitive impairment and thought to precede dementia. However, as the principal cholinergic source of hippocampus, whether the septo-hippocampal neurocircuit was impaired after CCH is still unknown. In this study, we established the CCH rat model by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (2VO). Under anesthesia, the medial septum (MS) of rats was stimulated to evoke the field excitatory post-synaptic potential (fEPSP) in the pyramidal cell layer of dCA1. Consequently, we observed decreased amplitude of fEPSP and increased paired-pulse ratio (PPR) after 8-week CCH. After tail pinch, we also found decreased peak frequency and shortened duration of hippocampal theta rhythm in 2VO rats, indicating the dysfunction of septo-hippocampal neurocircuit. Besides, by intracerebroventricularly injecting GABAergic inhibitor (bicuculline) and cholinergic inhibitors (scopolamine and mecamylamine), we found that CCH impaired both the pre-synaptic cholinergic release and the post-synaptic nAChR function in MS-dCA1 circuits. These results gave an insight into the role of CCH in the impairment of cholinergic MS-dCA1 neurocircuits. These findings may provide a new idea about the CCH-induced neurodegenerative changes.

A Computational Model of the Cholinergic Modulation of CA1 Pyramidal Cell Activity

Dysfunction in cholinergic modulation has been linked to a variety of cognitive disorders including Alzheimer's disease. The important role of this neurotransmitter has been explored in a variety of experiments, yet many questions remain unanswered about the contribution of cholinergic modulation to healthy hippocampal function. To address this question, we have developed a model of CA1 pyramidal neuron that takes into consideration muscarinic receptor activation in response to changes in extracellular concentration of acetylcholine and its effects on cellular excitability and downstream intracellular calcium dynamics. This model incorporates a variety of molecular agents to accurately simulate several processes heretofore ignored in computational modeling of CA1 pyramidal neurons. These processes include the inhibition of ionic channels by phospholipid depletion along with the release of calcium from intracellular stores (i.e., the endoplasmic reticulum). This paper describes the model and the methods used to calibrate its behavior to match experimental results. The result of this work is a compartmental model with calibrated mechanisms for simulating the intracellular calcium dynamics of CA1 pyramidal cells with a focus on those related to release from calcium stores in the endoplasmic reticulum. From this model we also make various predictions for how the inhibitory and excitatory responses to cholinergic modulation vary with agonist concentration. This model expands the capabilities of CA1 pyramidal cell models through the explicit modeling of molecular interactions involved in healthy cognitive function and disease. Through this expanded model we come closer to simulating these diseases and gaining the knowledge required to develop novel treatments.

Muscarinic Regulation of Spike Timing Dependent Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus

Long-term changes in synaptic transmission between neurons in the brain are considered the cellular basis of learning and memory. Over the last few decades, many studies have revealed that the precise order and timing of activity between pre- and post-synaptic cells ("spike-timing-dependent plasticity; STDP") is crucial for the sign and magnitude of long-term changes at many central synapses. Acetylcholine (ACh) via the recruitment of diverse muscarinic receptors is known to influence STDP in a variety of ways, enabling flexibility and adaptability in brain network activity during complex behaviors. In this review, we will summarize and discuss different mechanistic aspects of muscarinic modulation of timing-dependent plasticity at both excitatory and inhibitory synapses in the hippocampus to shape learning and memory.

Impaired theta phase coupling underlies frontotemporal dysconnectivity in schizophrenia

Frontotemporal dysconnectivity is a key pathology in schizophrenia. The specific nature of this dysconnectivity is unknown, but animal models imply dysfunctional theta phase coupling between hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). We tested this hypothesis by examining neural dynamics in 18 participants with a schizophrenia diagnosis, both medicated and unmedicated; and 26 age, sex and IQ matched control subjects. All participants completed two tasks known to elicit hippocampal-prefrontal theta coupling: a spatial memory task (during magnetoencephalography) and a memory integration task. In addition, an overlapping group of 33 schizophrenia and 29 control subjects underwent PET to measure the availability of GABAARs expressing the α5 subunit (concentrated on hippocampal somatostatin interneurons). We demonstrate-in the spatial memory task, during memory recall-that theta power increases in left medial temporal lobe (mTL) are impaired in schizophrenia, as is theta phase coupling between mPFC and mTL. Importantly, the latter cannot be explained by theta power changes, head movement, antipsychotics, cannabis use, or IQ, and is not found in other frequency bands. Moreover, mPFC-mTL theta coupling correlated strongly with performance in controls, but not in subjects with schizophrenia, who were mildly impaired at the spatial memory task and no better than chance on the memory integration task. Finally, mTL regions showing reduced phase coupling in schizophrenia magnetoencephalography participants overlapped substantially with areas of diminished α5-GABAAR availability in the wider schizophrenia PET sample. These results indicate that mPFC-mTL dysconnectivity in schizophrenia is due to a loss of theta phase coupling, and imply α5-GABAARs (and the cells that express them) have a role in this process.

Cholinergic and Adenosinergic Modulation of Synaptic Release

In this review we will discuss the effect of two neuromodulatory transmitters, acetylcholine (ACh) and adenosine, on the synaptic release probability and short-term synaptic plasticity. ACh and adenosine differ fundamentally in the way they are released into the extracellular space. ACh is released mostly from synaptic terminals and axonal bouton of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain (BF). Its mode of action on synaptic release probability is complex because it activate both ligand-gated ion channels, so-called nicotinic ACh receptors and G-protein coupled muscarinic ACh receptors. In contrast, adenosine is released from both neurons and glia via nucleoside transporters or diffusion over the cell membrane in a non-vesicular, non-synaptic fashion; its receptors are exclusively G-protein coupled receptors. We show that ACh and adenosine effects are highly specific for an identified synaptic connection and depend mostly on the presynaptic but also on the postsynaptic receptor type and discuss the functional implications of these differences.

Up and Down States and Memory Consolidation Across Somatosensory, Entorhinal, and Hippocampal Cortices

In the course of a day, brain states fluctuate, from conscious awake information-acquiring states to sleep states, during which previously acquired information is further processed and stored as memories. One hypothesis is that memories are consolidated and stored during "offline" states such as sleep, a process thought to involve transfer of information from the hippocampus to other cortical areas. Up and Down states (UDS), patterns of activity that occur under anesthesia and sleep states, are likely to play a role in this process, although the nature of this role remains unclear. Here we review what is currently known about these mechanisms in three anatomically distinct but interconnected cortical areas: somatosensory cortex, entorhinal cortex, and the hippocampus. In doing so, we consider the role of this activity in the coordination of "replay" during sleep states, particularly during hippocampal sharp-wave ripples. We conclude that understanding the generation and propagation of UDS may provide key insights into the cortico-hippocampal dialogue linking archi- and neocortical areas during memory formation.

The Unexplored Territory of Neural Models: Potential Guides for Exploring the Function of Metabotropic Neuromodulation

The space of possible neural models is enormous and under-explored. Single cell computational neuroscience models account for a range of dynamical properties of membrane potential, but typically do not address network function. In contrast, most models focused on network function address the dimensions of excitatory weight matrices and firing thresholds without addressing the complexities of metabotropic receptor effects on intrinsic properties. There are many under-explored dimensions of neural parameter space, and the field needs a framework for representing what has been explored and what has not. Possible frameworks include maps of parameter spaces, or efforts to categorize the fundamental elements and molecules of neural circuit function. Here we review dimensions that are under-explored in network models that include the metabotropic modulation of synaptic plasticity and presynaptic inhibition, spike frequency adaptation due to calcium-dependent potassium currents, and afterdepolarization due to calcium-sensitive non-specific cation currents and hyperpolarization activated cation currents. Neuroscience research should more effectively explore possible functional models incorporating under-explored dimensions of neural function.

Diverse Spatiotemporal Scales of Cholinergic Signaling in the Neocortex

ACh is a signaling molecule in the mammalian CNS, with well-documented influence over cognition and behavior. However, the nature of cholinergic signaling in the brain remains controversial, with ongoing debates focused on the spatial and temporal resolution of ACh activity. Generally, opposing views have embraced a dichotomy between transmission as slow and volume-mediated versus fast and synaptic. Here, we provide the perspective that ACh, like most other neurotransmitters, exhibits both fast and slow modes that are strongly determined by the anatomy of cholinergic fibers, the distribution and the signaling mechanisms of receptor subtypes, and the dynamics of ACh hydrolysis. Current methodological approaches remain limited in their ability to provide detailed analyses of these underlying factors. However, we believe that the continued development of novel technologies in combination with a more nuanced view of cholinergic activity will open critical new avenues to a better understanding of ACh in the brain.Dual Perspectives Companion Paper: Forebrain Cholinergic Signaling: Wired and Phasic, Not Tonic, and Causing Behavior, by Martin Sarter and Cindy Lustig.

Muscarinic modulation of M and h currents in gerbil spherical bushy cells

Descending cholinergic fibers innervate the cochlear nucleus. Spherical bushy cells, principal neurons of the anterior part of the ventral cochlear nucleus, are depolarized by cholinergic agonists on two different time scales. A fast and transient response is mediated by alpha-7 homomeric nicotinic receptors while a slow and long-lasting response is mediated by muscarinic receptors. Spherical bushy cells were shown to express M3 receptors, but the receptor subtypes involved in the slow muscarinic response were not physiologically identified yet. Whole-cell patch clamp recordings combined with pharmacology and immunohistochemistry were performed to identify the muscarinic receptor subtypes and the effector currents involved. Spherical bushy cells also expressed both M1 and M2 receptors. The M1 signal was stronger and mainly somatic while the M2 signal was localized in the neuropil and on the soma of bushy cells. Physiologically, the M-current was observed for the gerbil spherical bushy cells and was inhibited by oxotremorine-M application. Surprisingly, long application of carbachol showed only a transient depolarization. Even though no muscarinic depolarization could be detected, the input resistance increased suggesting a decrease in the cell conductance that matched with the closure of M-channels. The hyperpolarization-activated currents were also affected by muscarinic activation and counteracted the effect of the inactivation of M-current on the membrane potential. We hypothesize that this double muscarinic action might allow adaptation of effects during long durations of cholinergic activation.

Activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors induces potentiation and synchronization within in vitro hippocampal networks

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are known to play a role in cognitive functions of the hippocampus, such as memory consolidation. Given that they conduct Ca²⁺ and are capable of regulating the release of glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) within the hippocampus, thereby shifting the excitatory-inhibitory ratio, we hypothesized that the activation of nAChRs will result in the potentiation of hippocampal networks and alter synchronization. We used nicotine as a tool to investigate the impact of activation of nAChRs on neuronal network dynamics in primary embryonic rat hippocampal cultures prepared from timed-pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats. We perturbed cultured hippocampal networks with increasing concentrations of bath-applied nicotine and performed network extracellular recordings of action potentials using a microelectrode array. We found that nicotine modulated network dynamics in a concentration-dependent manner; it enhanced firing of action potentials as well as facilitated bursting activity. In addition, we used pharmacological agents to determine the contributions of discrete nAChR subtypes to the observed network dynamics. We found that β4-containing nAChRs are necessary for the observed increases in spiking, bursting, and synchrony, while the activation of α7 nAChRs augments nicotine-mediated network potentiation but is not necessary for its manifestation. We also observed that antagonists of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) and group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) partially blocked the effects of nicotine. Furthermore, nicotine exposure promoted autophosphorylation of Ca²⁺ /calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) and serine 831 phosphorylation of the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) subunit GluA1. These results suggest that nicotinic receptors induce potentiation and synchronization of hippocampal networks and glutamatergic synaptic transmission. Findings from this work highlight the impact of cholinergic signaling in generating network-wide potentiation in the form of enhanced spiking and bursting dynamics that coincide with molecular correlates of memory such as increased phosphorylation of CaMKII and GluA1. OPEN SCIENCE BADGES: This article has received a badge for *Open Materials* because it provided all relevant information to reproduce the study in the manuscript. More information about the Open Practices badges can be found at https://cos.io/our-services/open-science-badges/.

Neuromodulators and Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity in Learning and Memory: A Steered-Glutamatergic Perspective

The molecular pathways underlying the induction and maintenance of long-term synaptic plasticity have been extensively investigated revealing various mechanisms by which neurons control their synaptic strength. The dynamic nature of neuronal connections combined with plasticity-mediated long-lasting structural and functional alterations provide valuable insights into neuronal encoding processes as molecular substrates of not only learning and memory but potentially other sensory, motor and behavioural functions that reflect previous experience. However, one key element receiving little attention in the study of synaptic plasticity is the role of neuromodulators, which are known to orchestrate neuronal activity on brain-wide, network and synaptic scales. We aim to review current evidence on the mechanisms by which certain modulators, namely dopamine, acetylcholine, noradrenaline and serotonin, control synaptic plasticity induction through corresponding metabotropic receptors in a pathway-specific manner. Lastly, we propose that neuromodulators control plasticity outcomes through steering glutamatergic transmission, thereby gating its induction and maintenance.

Corticolimbic analysis of microRNAs and protein expressions in scopolamine-induced memory loss under stress

The aim of the present study was to assess thealterations of corticolimbic microRNAs and protein expressions in the effect of scopolamine with or without stress on passive-avoidance memory in male Wistar rats. The expressions of miR-1, miR-10 and miR-26 and also the levels of p-CREB, CREB, C-FOS and BDNF in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the hippocampus and the amygdala were evaluated using RT-qPCR and Western blotting techniques. The data showed that the administration of a muscarinic receptor antagonist, scopolamine or the exposure to 30 min stress significantly induced memory loss. Interestingly, the injection of an ineffective dose of scopolamine (0.5 mg/kg) alongside with exposure to an ineffective time of stress (10 min) impaired memory formation, suggesting a potentiative effect of stress on scopolamine response. Our results showed that memory formation was associated with the down-regulated expression of miR-1, miR-10 and miR-26 in the PFC and the hippocampus, but not the amygdala. The relative expression increase of miR-1 and miR-10 in the PFC and the hippocampus was shown in memory loss induced by scopolamine administration or 30-min stress. The PFC level of miR-10 and also hippocampal level of miR-1 and miR-10 were significantly up-regulated, while amygdala miR-1 and miR-26 were down-regulated in scopolamine-induced memory loss under stress. Memory formation increased BDNF, C-FOS and p-CREB/CREB in the PFC, the hippocampus and the amygdala. In contrast, the PFC, hippocampal and amygdala protein expressions were significantly decreased in memory loss induced by scopolamine administration (2 mg/kg), stress exposure (for 30 min) or scopolamine (0.5 mg/kg) plus stress (10 min). One of the most significant findings to emerge from this study is that the stress exposure potentiated the amnesic effect of scopolamine may via affecting the expressions of miRs and proteins in the PFC, the hippocampus and the amygdala. It is possible to hypothesis that corticolimbic signaling pathways play a critical role in relationship between stress and Alzheimer's disease.