Executive functions in developmental dyslexia

Parental stress, quality of life, and behavioral alterations in children with dyslexia

INTRODUCTION

Dyslexia is a learning disorder that, in addition to affecting reading skills, has a significant impact on emotional, social, and family well-being. Despite advances in understanding the disorder, its influence on parental stress and children's quality of life remains an underexplored area.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to analyze differences in parental stress, quality of life, and behavioral profiles between children with dyslexia and those with typical development, as well as to assess possible relationships between these factors.

METHOD

A total of 100 children (50 diagnosed with dyslexia and 50 with typical development), aged between 8 and 10 years, participated in the study along with their caregivers. Variables were measured using the PSI-SF (parental stress), Kiddo-KINDL (quality of life), and BASC-3 (behavior) instruments, complemented by descriptive statistical analyses, t-tests, and a mediation model.

RESULTS

Caregivers of children with dyslexia exhibited significantly higher levels of stress (p < .001) across all evaluated dimensions, with pronounced effects in the subscales of emotional distress and perceived difficulties in the child. Children with dyslexia showed reduced quality of life, particularly in areas such as self-esteem and social relationships, with statistically significant differences (p < .001). Additionally, they exhibited more behavioral problems, especially in aggression and anxiety. However, mediation analyses did not identify problematic behaviors as direct mediators between dyslexia diagnosis and parental stress.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight how dyslexia affects both children and their families, exerting a multidimensional impact. This study underscores the importance of continued research into the interactions between emotional, social, and family factors to optimize support for this population.

Annual Research Review: Exposure to environmental chemicals and psychosocial stress and the development of children's learning difficulties

Although awareness of the role of environmental exposures in children's cognitive development is increasing, learning difficulties have not yet been a major focus of environmental health science. Learning difficulties disproportionately affect children living in economic disadvantage, yielding an 'achievement gap.' Studies examining the neurobiology of reading and math have mostly included economically advantaged youth, leaving a great deal unknown about the neural underpinnings of reading and math difficulties in youth living in disadvantaged contexts. Critically, due to environmental injustice, these youth are disproportionately exposed to environmental neurotoxicants. Herein, we review literature supporting a theoretical framework of environmentally associated phenotypes of learning difficulties. We propose that prenatal exposure to neurotoxicants and early-life exposure to psychosocial stressors increases risk for learning difficulties via effects on neural circuits that support cognitive processes which, in addition to literacy and numeracy, are integral to acquiring and performing academic skills. We describe models in which (1) prenatal exposure to air pollution has a main effect on learning via brain structure and function or associated domain-general cognitive processes and (2) a joint 'two-hit' pathway in which prenatal air pollution exposure followed by early life stress-when combined and sequential-increases risk for learning difficulties also via effects on brain structure, function, and/or associated cognitive processes. We review a select literature documenting effects of exposure to pollutants and early life stress on relevant neural circuits and associated cognitive processes in animal models and parallel findings in human epidemiologic studies. We advocate for team science in which researchers, practitioners, and policymakers collaborate to increase health literacy about environmentally associated phenotypes of learning difficulties and support the development of precision-oriented instructional and environmental intervention methods for youth living in economic disadvantage.

Bridging the Gap in Adult Dyslexia Research: Assessing the Efficacy of a Linguistic Intervention on Literacy Skills

While developmental dyslexia has been extensively studied in children, research on adults is still rather limited. This paper aims to bridge the gap in existing research by presenting the findings of a study that examined the reading and spelling skills of adults with dyslexia and assessed the effectiveness of a linguistic intervention designed to improve their literacy abilities. To address this issue, we first compared the profiles of 44 adults with dyslexia (age range: 16-30 y.o.) and 44 age-matched typical readers across tasks assessing reading, spelling, phonological awareness, morphological awareness and lexical access in Italian. The findings underscored pervasive impairments in dyslexia across all measured dimensions, reaffirming the persistent nature of language and literacy challenges into adulthood. In pursuit of the second objective, the study explored the potential for literacy skill improvement in adults with dyslexia through the implementation of a specialized intervention proposed to 24 dyslexic adults and delivered via a web application. The intervention program yielded positive outcomes in the experimental group, demonstrating significant improvements in word and text reading, spelling, and speed of phonological elaboration. This study, hence, contributes not only to our understanding of developmental dyslexia in adulthood but also emphasizes the tangible benefits of targeted linguistic interventions, thereby offering practical implications for the amelioration of literacy skills in this population.

Linguistic and Cognitive Abilities in Children with Dyslexia: A Comparative Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Dyslexia is a prevalent learning disorder that significantly affects the child population. It is often accompanied by deficits in language processes, cognition, and executive functioning, all of which are crucial for reading development. Children with dyslexia frequently exhibit difficulties in phonological processing, semantics, morphosyntax, and also in cognitive areas such as working memory, inhibition, planning, and attention.

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective of this study was to compare the linguistic, cognitive, and executive functioning abilities between children diagnosed with dyslexia and those with typical reading development.

METHODOLOGY

A total of 120 children were selected and divided into two groups: the G-DYSLEXIA group (n = 60), consisting of children diagnosed with dyslexia, and the G-CONTROL group (n = 60), with typical reading development. Language, cognition, and executive functions were assessed using standardized tests: CELF-5, WISC-V, and ENFEN. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, independent sample t-tests, and Chi-square tests to compare the performance between these two groups.

RESULTS

The study revealed significant differences between the two groups in all dimensions assessed. Specifically, children with dyslexia showed markedly lower performance in linguistic, cognitive, and executive functioning measures compared with their peers with typical development.

CONCLUSION

Children with dyslexia present a distinct clinical profile characterized by significant difficulties in language processing, cognition, and executive functions. These challenges interfere with their reading acquisition and academic performance, limiting their integration into educational environments and impacting their overall quality of life.

Beyond modular and non-modular states: theoretical considerations, exemplifications, and practical implications

The concept of modularity in neuropsychology remains a topic of significant debate, especially when considering complex, non-innate, hyper-learned, and adaptable modular systems. This paper critically examines the evolution of cognitive modularity, addressing the challenges of integrating foundational theories with recent empirical and theoretical developments. We begin by analyzing the contributions of Sternberg and Fodor, whose foundational work established the concept of specialized, encapsulated modules within cognitive processes, particularly in the domains of perception and language. Building on this, we explore Carruthers' theory of massive modularity, which extends the modular framework to broader cognitive functions, though we reject its application to central amodal systems, which are overarching and resistant to modularization. We also evaluate recent discoveries, such as mirror neurons and the neural reuse hypothesis, and their implications for traditional modularity models. Furthermore, we investigate the dynamic interactions between the Default Mode Network (DMN), Central Executive Network (CEN), and Salience Network (SN), highlighting their roles in shifting between automatic and controlled states. This exploration refines existing theoretical models, distinguishing innate systems, genetically predisposed ones, and those hyper-learned through working memory, as exemplified by the three-level model of Moscovitch and Umiltà. We address the blurred boundary between domain-specific and domain-general systems, proposing modular versus non-modular states-indexed by automaticity and mandatoriness-as key discriminators. This systematization, supported by empirical literature and our own research, provides a more stable framework for understanding modular systems, avoiding interpretive confusion across varying levels of complexity. These insights advance both theoretical understanding and practical applications in cognitive science.

Deafness and Specific Learning Disorder: towards a possible comorbidity

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Most children and adolescents with deafness receive one or two cochlear implants (CIs). Despite the CI expanding the potential for auditory rehabilitation in deaf children, the improvements in language and literacy skills of some of these children do not align with the expected outcomes. As the main research question, we wondered if the reading and writing deficits reported in some deaf children with CIs may be characterized as a domain-specific learning disorder, rather than only a consequence of deafness. Thus, we analyzed the academic discrepancies, in both reading and writing, between two groups of deaf children with early CI.

METHOD

Three prelingually deaf children with CI and with unexplained disproportionate learning disorders (Deaf+LD group) were compared to control deaf children with similar clinical history, age at CI implantation and auditory experience (Deaf group). The Deaf+LD group was also matched on chronological age to three hearing children with Specific Learning Disorder (SLD group).

RESULTS

The results showed that the three cases of the Deaf+LD group demonstrated severe reading and writing deficits, with performances significantly below the age level, similarly to children of the SLD group. By contrast, the three children of the Deaf group demonstrated normal reading and writing abilities.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggested considering the possibility of comorbidity between deafness and SLD. This hypothesis was supported by the specific features of the language profile that justify such an association; in fact, deaf children with presumed SLD have profiles much more similar to hearing children with SLD than to other deaf children.

Neurodivergent students. A continuum of skills with an emphasis on creativity and executive functions

This study analyses Executive Functions (EF) and Creativity among neurodivergent students -including students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Dyslexia, Intellectual Disability (ID), Giftedness-, and a group with Neurotypical development. A sample of 181 secondary school students participated in the study. Creativity was assessed by using the PIC-J test, focusing on verbal and figural components of divergent thinking, while EF were evaluated through Nesplora Ice-Cream, a virtual reality tool assessing flexibility, working memory, and inhibition. Results showed statistically significant differences in Verbal Creativity, especially in Originality: students with ADHD outperformed their Neurotypical peers, while those with ID showed the lowest scores. Although no statistically significant differences emerged in Figural Creativity, students with ADHD showed the lowest scores in Elaboration or Figural details, whereas those with Dyslexia exhibited high levels of Figural Originality, similar to their Neurotypical peers. Concerning EF, students with ID had the highest scores in Interference and Perseveration, indicating poorer Flexibility. In contrast, Gifted students performed better than the other groups in Working Memory, while students with ADHD did not exhibit special difficulties in EF. These findings emphasize the importance of personalized interventions for Neurodivergent students, that recognize and capitalize on their unique strengths while addressing specific challenges.

Graphophonological-semantic flexibility and its contribution to reading comprehension in children with dyslexia: A pilot study

Graphophonological-semantic flexibility is the cognitive flexibility in reading that enables individuals to manage multiple phonological and semantic aspects of text simultaneously. This study investigated graphophonological-semantic flexibility and its contribution to reading comprehension in children with dyslexia, comparing them to age-matched, typically developing peers. Thirty children aged 8-11 were assessed using a reading-specific sorting task, where they categorized word cards by initial phoneme and meaning within a 2x2 matrix. After sorting, participants explained their arrangements, and their sorting speed, accuracy, and composite scores were evaluated. Additionally, reading comprehension was assessed through passages followed by questions. Results revealed significant differences between children with dyslexia and their peers in sorting accuracy and composite scores. Children with dyslexia exhibited poorer accuracy and longer sorting times, leading to lower composite scores indicative of reduced graphophonological-semantic flexibility. Age showed a positive correlation with sorting accuracy and composite scores. Moreover, sorting accuracy and composite scores were strong predictors of reading comprehension. These findings suggest that children with dyslexia face challenges in managing both phonological and semantic aspects of text concurrently, highlighting the importance of graphophonological-semantic flexibility in reading development.

Reading Skill Profiles in School-Aged Italian-Speaking Children: A Latent Profile Analysis Investigation into the Interplay of Decoding, Comprehension and Attentional Control

Our study examined the complex relationships among reading performance (decoding, comprehension) and language, visuo-spatial, and attentional control abilities in 115 Italian-speaking children. Latent profile analysis was used to identify distinct clusters of participants showcasing quantitative differences in decoding skills, including word, pseudo-word, text reading speed and accuracy. Then, we used this classification to investigate group differences in a variety of linguistic, working memory, and visuo-spatial tasks, as well as in reading comprehension skills, by means of multivariate and univariate tests. Our results reveal significant links between reading proficiency and several key factors: language skills, visuo-spatial abilities, and attentional control. These findings illuminate the nuanced impact of domain-general processes that govern a series of linguistic and visuo-perceptive subcomponents during reading tasks. Additionally, using dominance analysis, predictors of written text comprehension were identified. Our findings suggest that effective reading comprehension relies on a synergistic interplay of adequate reading speed, attentional control, working memory, and verbal fluency, accounting for 23% of the explained variance. This study highlights the multifaceted nature of reading proficiency and suggests that a broader perspective is necessary to fully understand reading development and support its improvement.

Neurocognitive and psycho-emotional profile of children with disabilities

OBJECTIVE

Neurocognitive deficits in attention, short-term memory, and sequential information processing are present in children with a variety of disabilities, whereas language and visuospatial abilities vary.

METHOD

We compared the performance of 59 children (mean age, 15 years) with learning disabilities (n = 18), Down syndrome (n = 21), and intellectual disabilities (n = 20). A series of neuropsychological tests were used to evaluate the neurocognitive processes of memory, attention, visuospatial perception, and executive function. To better understand what emotions they experience, we assessed emotions like anxiety, depression, and positive and negative mood.

RESULTS

The performance of children with Down syndrome was statistically significantly different from that of other groups, indicating lower performance (p = 0.001). In comparison to other groups, children with Down syndrome performed significantly worse across all cognitive domains. Additionally, there were no statistically significant differences between groups and low emotional functioning scores across the board for all children. People with DS frequently have distinctive neurocognitive and neurobehavioral profiles that appear during particular developmental phases and have many distinct strengths and weaknesses that should be respected as they mature over the course of their lives. The current findings have substantial consequences for interventions that are focused on achieving the best results.

Integrating Cognitive Factors and Eye Movement Data in Reading Predictive Models for Children with Dyslexia and ADHD-I

This study reports on several specific neurocognitive processes and eye-tracking predictors of reading outcomes for a sample of children with Developmental Dyslexia (DD) and At-tention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - inattentive subtype (ADHD-I) compared to typical readers. Participants included 19 typical readers, 21 children diagnosed with ADHD-I and 19 children with DD. All participants were attending 4th grade and had a mean age of 9.08 years. The psycholinguistic profile of each group was assessed using a battery of neuropsy-chological and linguistic tests. Participants were submitted to a silent reading task with lex-ical manipulation of the text. Multinomial logistic regression was conducted to evaluate the predictive capability of developing dyslexia or ADHD-I based on the following measures: (a) a linguistic model that included measures of phonological awareness, rapid naming, and reading fluency and accuracy; (b) a cognitive neuropsychological model that included measures of memory, attention, visual processes, and cognitive or intellectual functioning, and (c) an additive model of lexical word properties with manipulation of word-frequency and word-length effects through eye-tracking. The additive model in conjunction with the neuropsychological model classification improved the prediction of who develops dyslexia or ADHD-I having as baseline normal readers. Several of the neuropsychological and eye-tracking variables have power to predict the degree of reading outcomes in children with learning disabilities.

Far Transfer Effects of Trainings on Executive Functions in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Metanalysis

Executive Functions are a set of interrelated, top-down processes essential for adaptive goal-directed behaviour, frequently impaired across different neurodevelopmental disorders with variable degrees of severity. Many executive-function-training studies in children with neurodevelopmental disorders have focused on near effects, investigating post-treatment improvements on directly trained processes, while enhancements of skills not directly trained, defined as far effects, are less considered, albeit these could be extremely relevant for reducing the negative impact of a disorder's core symptomatology. This systematic review and metanalysis aims to investigate the far effect outcomes after EF training in children with different types of neurodevelopmental disorders. 17 studies met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review, while 15 studies were selected in the metanalysis. An overall statistically significant effect size was found in the majority of far effect outcome measures considered in the studies. In particular, trainings on executive functions determine significant far effects on daily life functioning (0.46, 95% CI: [0.05-0.87]) and clinical symptoms (0.33, 95% CI: [0.15-0.51]). Despite a high variability of the results, intensity, frequency and the laboratory/life contexts dimension seem to be the most influential variables in determining far effects. This systematic review and metanalysis highlights the need to measure far effects of executive function training in neurodevelopmental disorders, selecting treatments not only on directly targeted processes, but also according to far impacts on the functional weakness of the disorder.

Executive functions-based reading training engages the cingulo-opercular and dorsal attention networks

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a computerized executive functions (EFs)-based reading intervention on neural circuits supporting EFs and visual attention. Seed-to-voxel functional connectivity analysis was conducted focusing on large-scale attention system brain networks, during an fMRI reading fluency task. Participants were 8- to 12-year-old English-speaking children with dyslexia (n = 43) and typical readers (n = 36) trained on an EFs-based reading training (n = 40) versus math training (n = 39). Training duration was 8 weeks. After the EFs-based reading intervention, children with dyslexia improved their scores in reading rate and visual attention (compared to math intervention). Neurobiologically, children with dyslexia displayed an increase in functional connectivity strength after the intervention between the cingulo-opercular network and occipital and precentral regions. Noteworthy, the functional connectivity indices between these brain regions showed a positive correlation with speed of processing and visual attention scores in both pretest and posttest. The results suggest that reading improvement following an EFs-based reading intervention involves neuroplastic connectivity changes in brain areas related to EFs and primary visual processing in children with dyslexia. Our results highlight the need for training underlying cognitive abilities supporting reading, such as EFs and visual attention, in order to enhance reading abilities in dyslexia.

The ReadFree tool for the identification of poor readers: a validation study based on a machine learning approach in monolingual and minority-language children

In this study, we validated the "ReadFree tool", a computerised battery of 12 visual and auditory tasks developed to identify poor readers also in minority-language children (MLC). We tested the task-specific discriminant power on 142 Italian-monolingual participants (8-13 years old) divided into monolingual poor readers (N = 37) and good readers (N = 105) according to standardised Italian reading tests. The performances at the discriminant tasks of the "ReadFree tool" were entered into a classification and regression tree (CART) model to identify monolingual poor and good readers. The set of classification rules extracted from the CART model were applied to the MLC's performance and the ensuing classification was compared to the one based on standardised Italian reading tests. According to the CART model, auditory go-no/go (regular), RAN and Entrainment100bpm were the most discriminant tasks. When compared with the clinical classification, the CART model accuracy was 86% for the monolinguals and 76% for the MLC. Executive functions and timing skills turned out to have a relevant role in reading. Results of the CART model on MLC support the idea that ad hoc standardised tasks that go beyond reading are needed.

Speech therapy to overcome dyslexia in primary schoolers

This research was aimed to investigate changes in the reading technique and in terms of its semantic charge in primary schoolers diagnosed with dyslexia, which occur as a result of the integrated use of speech therapy techniques. The study was performed between 2016 and 2019 in 6 schools of Moscow and Almaty. It enrolled 194 and 200 children, respectively, who were examined with form I to III inclusive. The study revealed that 13% of children had reading speed disorders; they were constituted group 1. Another 11% had reading comprehension disorders; they constituted group 2. In group 1, by form III, the number of reading repetitions increased twofold. In group 2, the number of children, who read in words and phrases, increased by half; in group 1, it doubled. This research showed clear progress in children with technical dyslexia vs. those with semantic dyslexia. Based on the results, it is possible to develop a methodology for speech therapy techniques that can be suitable not only for speech therapists, but also for primary school teachers, as well as for parents of dyslectic children.

Differences Between Semantic and Phonemic Verbal Fluency in Adolescents With Reading Disorders

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to examine which verbal fluency task is most useful in assessing adolescents with reading disorders (RD).

METHOD

Eighty-three Hebrew-speaking adolescents (ages 12-15), 42 of them with RD, completed semantic and phonemic fluency tasks, and their scores were converted to standardized scores according to population norms.

RESULTS

Scores on the semantic task were similar in the RD and the control group, unlike scores on the phonemic task, which were significantly lower in the RD group. The RD group demonstrated higher semantic than phonemic scores, unlike the control group whose standardized scores on both tasks were similar. Phonemic but not semantic fluency scores predicted spelling scores within the RD group.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents with RD have no difficulty on a semantic fluency task, but perform below expected age-matched levels on the phonemic fluency task. To document this task-difference, practitioners must administer both fluency tasks when assessing RD.

A Real-World Data Study on the Impact of the ReadRx Cognitive Training and Reading Intervention on Cognition, Basic Reading Ability, and Psychosocial Skills for 3527 Children

Background

The state of reading proficiency among children in the United States continues to be a subject of concern among psychologists, teachers, parents, policy makers, and the education community at large. Despite the widespread use of curricular methods that teach basic reading skills, there remains a large percentage of children that struggle to read. Therefore, novel approaches to reading remediation should be explored.

Purpose

The aims of this study were to examine 1) the effect of a multicomponent cognitive and reading intervention on cognitive and reading skills; 2) the role of ADHD, age, sex, IQ score, and individual cognitive skills on the effectiveness of the ReadRx intervention; and 3) parent-reported behavioral outcomes following the ReadRx intervention.

Methods

The current study analyzed a large real-world dataset to examine cognitive, reading, and behavioral outcomes for struggling readers (n = 3527) who had completed 24 weeks (120 hours) of intense cognitive training integrated with a structured literacy intervention using ReadRx in a one-on-one clinic setting.

Results

Analyses of pretest and post-test scores showed statistically significant changes on all cognitive and reading measures including attention, visual processing, processing speed, long-term memory, working memory, reasoning, phonological awareness, Work Attack, phonetic coding, spelling, comprehension, and overall IQ score with medium to very large effect sizes. The results included an average 4.1-year gain in reading skills including a 6-year gain in phonological awareness. No differences were found based on age, sex, or ADHD status, and minimal differences were found based on pre-intervention IQ score and cognitive test scores. The study also included a qualitative thematic analysis of parent-reported behavioral outcomes revealing themes of improved cognition, academic performance, and psychosocial skills including confidence and perseverance.

Conclusion

Our findings were consistent with previous controlled studies on this intervention and offer an encouraging alternative instructional approach to reading remediation that aligns with the Science of Reading and includes intensive remediation of underlying cognitive skills.

Disability-Informed Graduate-Student Mentors Foster Co-Regulation for Undergraduates in STEM with Learning and Attention Disabilities

As young adults transition into adulthood they must develop effective self-regulation techniques to help them navigate the heightened expectations of independence placed upon them. During this challenging developmental stage, mentors and other supportive individuals can facilitate co-regulation processes that help young adults reach self-regulation. This qualitative research identifies and characterizes supportive processes of regulation that graduate student mentors engaged in as part of their mentorship interactions with undergraduate mentees with learning disabilities and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (LD/ADHD). Participants were part of a larger campus-based study with 52 undergraduate mentees with LD/ADHD and 57 graduate student mentors. Data were transcripts from mentor group meetings (N = 20) discussing LD/ADHD and the mentorship experiences, undergraduate group meetings (N = 13) discussing LD/ADHD experiences and supports, and an instrumental mentor case study. Structural coding was used to identify content related to mentorship experiences; process coding was used to describe the actions and roles undertaken by mentors; content analysis was used to examine relative salience of topics discussed during mentor group meetings. Four themes emerged describing the ways in which mentors acted as co-regulators for mentees including: Fostering Positive Relationships, Guidance Based on a Similar Path, Supporting Strategy Generation, and Supporting Mentees by Setting Limits. Finding highlight key actions and processes for effective co-regulation techniques used by disability-informed mentors, that support the self-regulation practices of undergraduate students with LD/ADHD to reach their educational, career, and personal goals.

Context and target recollection for words and pictures in young adults with developmental dyslexia

Introduction

The specificity of memory functioning in developmental dyslexia is well known and intensively studied. However, most research has been devoted to working memory, and many uncertain issues about episodic memory remain practically unexplored. Moreover, most studies have investigated memory in children and adolescents-much less research has been conducted on adults. The presented study explored the specificity of context and target memory functioning for verbal and nonverbal stimuli in young adults with developmental dyslexia.

Methods

The dual recollection theory, which distinguishes context recollection, target recollection, and familiarity as the processes underlying memory performance in the conjoint recognition paradigm, was adopted as the theoretical basis for the analysis of memory processes. The employed measurement model, a multinomial processing tree model, allowed us to assess the individual contributions of the basic memory processes to memory task performance.

Results

The research sample consisted of 82 young adults (41 with diagnosed dyslexia). The results showed significant differences in both verbal and nonverbal memory and context and target recollection between the dyslexic and the typically developing groups. These differences are not global; they only involve specific memory processes.

Discussion

In line with previous studies using multinomial modeling, this shows that memory functioning in dyslexia cannot be characterized as a simple impairment but is a much more complex phenomenon that includes compensatory mechanisms. Implications of the findings and possible limitations are discussed, pointing to the need for further investigation of the relationship between context memory functioning and developmental dyslexia, taking into account the type of material being processed.

Transgender Youth Executive Functioning: Relationships with Anxiety Symptoms, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Gender-Affirming Medical Treatment Status

Executive function (EF) underlies broad health and adaptive outcomes. For transgender youth, navigating gender discernment and gender affirmation demand EF. Yet, factors associated with transgender youth EF are unknown. We investigate hypothesized predictors of EF: over-represented conditions among transgender youth (anxiety and depression symptoms, autism spectrum disorder [ASD]) and gender-affirming care. One-hundred twenty-four transgender 11-21-year-olds participated. Parents/caregivers completed EF and mental health report measures. ASD diagnostics and gender-affirming medication histories were collected. 21 % of non-autistic and 69 % of autistic transgender youth had clinically elevated EF problems. Membership in the gender-affirming hormone treatment group was associated with better EF. ASD, anxiety symptoms, and membership in the long-duration pubertal suppression group were associated with poorer EF. Given the importance of EF skills for multiple outcomes, and the unique and additional EF demands specific to transgender youths' experiences, EF skill monitoring-and when appropriate, supports-should be considered for transgender youth.

Efficacy of Occupational Performance Coaching with and without Four Quadrant Model of Facilitated Learning for mothers of children with specific learning disorder: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Background

In addition to academic problems, children with a specific learning disability (SLD) encounter problems with participation in activities outside school.

Purpose

To investigate the efficacy of Occupational Performance Coaching (OPC) with and without Four Quadrant Model of Facilitated Learning (4QM) in the mothers of children with SLD.

Method

A single-blinded, parallel-group randomized clinical trial will be carried out. Mothers of children with SLD will constitute the participants and be allocated to experimental (OPC+4QM) and control (OPC alone) groups.

Key issues

Children's occupational performance and satisfaction, participation in activities outside school, goals attainment, executive function, and academic achievement along with self-efficacy of mothers will be measured in baseline, post-intervention, and one-month follow-up stages.

Implications

An OPC intervention protocol may improve children's participation in activities outside school and may help clarify whether 4QM promotes maternal empowerment and better results for children with SLD.

Trial registration

Clinical Trials, IRCT20140416017301N9. (https://en.irct.ir/trial/55842)

Effects of a short and intensive transcranial direct current stimulation treatment in children and adolescents with developmental dyslexia: A crossover clinical trial

Developmental Dyslexia (DD) significantly interferes with children’s academic, personal, social, and emotional functioning. Nevertheless, therapeutic options need to be further validated and tested in randomized controlled clinical trials. The use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been gaining ground in recent years as a new intervention option for DD. However, there are still open questions regarding the most suitable tDCS protocol for young people with DD. The current crossover study tested the effectiveness of a short and intensive tDCS protocol, including the long-term effects, as well as the influence of age and neuropsychological processes at baseline on reading improvements. Twenty-four children and adolescents with DD were randomly assigned to receive active tDCS during the first slot and sham tDCS during the second slot or vice versa. Five consecutive daily sessions of left anodal/right cathodal tDCS set at 1 mA for 20 min were administered over the parieto-occipital regions. Reading measures (text, high frequency word, low frequency word, and non-word lists) and neuropsychological measures (visual-spatial and verbal working memory, phoneme blending, and rapid automatized naming tasks) were collected before, immediately after, 1 week and 1 month later the treatment. Our results showed that only the active tDCS condition improved non-word reading speed immediately after and 1 month later the end of the treatment compared with baseline. In addition, the improvement in non-word reading speed was significantly correlated with age and with neuropsychological measures (verbal working memory and phoneme blending) at baseline but only in the active tDCS condition. The current crossover study contributed to enforce previous effects of tDCS, including long-term effects, on non-word reading speed and to understand the effect of age and neuropsychological processes on reading outcomes. Our findings showed that tDCS could be a low-cost and easy-to-implement treatment option with long-term effects for children and adolescents with DD.

The involvement of inhibition in word and sentence reading

Individual differences in reading performance between children appear from the onset of literacy acquisition. One possible explanation for this variability is the influence of inhibition in reading ability, a topic that has received very little research attention. Nevertheless, children often make guessing errors characterized by replacing a word with an orthographic neighbor, possibly linked to failing inhibition. The present study aims to evaluate the role of inhibition during word and sentence reading and compare its effects in spoken and motor tasks. Participants comprised 25 children in Grades 2 and 3 (M_age = 8; 2). The children performed five inhibition tasks in reading (words, sentences), spoken (words, sentences) and motor modalities. Within the two reading tasks, inhibition demands were assessed using pairs of orthographic neighbors for which the frequency was manipulated. Accuracy, types of errors, latency, and response times were measured. GLMM analyses demonstrated that children were sensitive to the inhibitory demands of both spoken tasks and of the sentence reading task regarding accuracy, latency, and response times. Indeed, children made more mistakes and were slower when inhibitory demands were augmented. They also made more guessing errors in the word reading task. No such inhibitory effect was found in the motor task. Moreover, correlational analyses revealed that children who showed better inhibitory skills were able to read words and texts more accurately. These findings suggest that children need to utilize inhibitory resources when processing words or sentences and that these inhibitory skills are involved in overall reading ability.

Specific learning disorders in young adults: Investigating pragmatic abilities and their relationship with theory of mind, executive functions and quality of life

BACKGROUND

Specific Learning Disorders (SLD) are lifelong conditions often associated with language difficulties, executive dysfunctions, and psychological problems. Previous research has shown that communicative-pragmatic ability may be impaired in SLD. However, the role of other cognitive abilities in explaining pragmatic difficulties has still not been fully investigated. The relationship between pragmatics and quality of life is not yet clear, as well.

AIMS

Firstly, the study assessed pragmatic comprehension abilities in adults with SLD. Secondly, we examined the relationship between pragmatics, theory of mind, executive functions and quality of life.

METHOD AND PROCEDURES

We enrolled 26 adults with SLD and 30 adults without SLD. Standardized tests assessing pragmatic comprehension, theory of mind and executive functions were used. The quality of life was investigated with a self-reported questionnaire.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Pragmatic comprehension abilities were compromised in young adults with SLD. In this clinical population we also found a link between pragmatic comprehension and visual theory of mind. Finally, independently from the presence of SLD, pragmatics abilities were in relationship with quality of life.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Overall, these data highlight the importance of including pragmatic abilities both in the clinical evaluation, as well as in psychological intervention for adults with SLD.

Structural white matter characteristics for working memory and switching/inhibition in children with reading difficulties: The role of the left superior longitudinal fasciculus

Reading difficulties (RDs) are characterized by slow and inaccurate reading as well as additional challenges in cognitive control (i.e., executive functions, especially in working memory, inhibition, and visual attention). Despite evidence demonstrating differences in these readers' language and visual processing abilities, white matter differences associated with executive functions (EFs) difficulties in children with RDs are scarce. Structural correlates for reading and EFs in 8- to 12-year-old children with RDs versus typical readers (TRs) were examined using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data. Results suggest that children with RDs showed significantly lower reading and EF abilities versus TRs. Lower fractional anisotropy (FA) in left temporo-parietal tracts was found in children with RDs, who also showed positive correlations between reading and working memory and switching/inhibition scores and FA in the left superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF). FA in the left SLF predicted working memory performance mediated by reading ability in children with RDs but not TRs. Our findings support alterations in white matter tracts related to working memory, switching/inhibition, and overall EF challenges in children with RDs and the linkage between working memory difficulties and FA alterations in the left SLF in children with RDs via reading.

Automaticity and Executive Abilities in Developmental Dyslexia: A Theoretical Review

Cognitive difficulties are well documented in developmental dyslexia but they present a challenge to dyslexia theory. In this paper, the Model of the Control of Action is proposed as a theoretical explanation of how and why deficits in both automaticity and executive abilities are apparent in the cognitive profiles of dyslexia and how these deficits might relate to literacy difficulties. This theoretical perspective is used to consider evidence from different cognitive domains. The neuroanatomical underpinnings of automaticity and executive abilities are then discussed in relation to the understanding of dyslexia. Links between reading, writing, and executive function are considered. The reviewed evidence suggests that dyslexia theory should consider an interaction between procedural learned behaviour (automaticity) and higher-order (executive) abilities. The capacity to handle environmental interference, develop and engage adaptive strategies accordingly, and plan actions all require interactions between the cerebellum and the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Difficulties in these areas might explain both impairments in the cumulative development of literacy skills in childhood and general task management in everyday life in adulthood. It is suggested that improved measures are required to assess this cerebellar–PFC interaction and to allow early identification of future literacy difficulties, allowing implementation of timely interventions and reasonable adjustments.

Phonological working memory and central executive function differ in children with typical development and dyslexia

The primary purpose of this study was to compare the working memory performance of monolingual English-speaking second^- grade children with dyslexia (N = 82) to second-grade children with typical development (N = 167). Prior to making group comparisons, it is important to demonstrate invariance between working memory models in both groups or between-group comparisons would not be valid. Thus, we completed invariance testing using a model of working memory that had been validated for children with typical development (Gray et al., 2017) to see if it was valid for children with dyslexia. We tested three types of invariance: configural (does the model test the same constructs?), metric (are the factor loadings equivalent?), and scalar (are the item intercepts the same?). Group comparisons favoured the children with typical development across all three working memory factors. However, differences in the Focus-of-Attention/Visuospatial factor could be explained by group differences in non-verbal intelligence and language skills. In contrast, differences in the Phonological and Central Executive working memory factors remained, even after accounting for non-verbal intelligence and language. Results highlight the need for researchers and educators to attend not only to the phonological aspects of working memory in children with dyslexia, but also to central executive function.

Orthographic depth and developmental dyslexia: a meta-analytic study

Cross-cultural studies have suggested that reading deficits in developmental dyslexia (DD) can be moderated by orthographic depth. To further explore this issue and assess the moderating role of orthographic depth in the developmental cognitive trajectories of dyslexic and typical readers, we systematically reviewed 113 studies on DD that were published from 2013 to 2018 and selected 79 in which participants received an official DD diagnosis. Each study was classified according to orthographic depth (deep vs. shallow) and participant age (children vs. adults). We assessed the difference between DD and control groups' performance in reading tasks and in a wide range of cognitive domains associated with reading (phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN), short-term working memory (WM), and nonverbal reasoning), including age and orthographies as moderators. We found an age-by-orthography interaction effect in word reading accuracy and a significant effect of age in pseudoword reading accuracy, but we found no effect of age and orthographic depth on the fluency parameters. These results suggest that reading speed is a reliable index for discriminating between DD and control groups across European orthographies from childhood to adulthood. A similar pattern of results emerged for PA, RAN, and short-term/WM. Our findings are discussed in relation to their impact on clinical practice while considering the orthographic depth and developmental level.

The Role of Emoticons in the Comprehension of Emotional and Non-emotional Messages in Dyslexic Youth - A Preliminary Study

The study explored how well-dyslexic youth deals with written messages in an environment simulating popular social network communication system. The messaging systems, present more and more in pandemic and post-pandemic online world, are rich in nonverbal aspects of communicating, namely, the emoticons. The pertinent question was whether the presence of emoticons in written messages of emotional and non-emotional content changes the comprehension of the messages. Thirty-two pupils aged 11–15 took part in the study, 16 had a school-approved diagnosis of dyslexia and were included in the experimental group. Sixteen controls had no diagnosed disabilities. Both groups viewed short messages of four types (each including seven communicates): verbal-informative (without emoticons and emotional verbal content), verbal-emotive (without emoticons, with emotional verbal content), emoticon-informative (including emoticon-like small pictures, but without emotional content either verbal or nonverbal), and emoticon-emotive (with standard emoticons and including verbal-emotional content). The participants had to answer short questions after quick presentation of each message that tested their comprehension of the content. RTs and accuracy of the answers were analyzed. Students without dyslexia had shorter response times to the questions regarding all types of messages than the dyslexic participants. The answers of the experimental group to the questions about the emoticon-informative messages were less correct. The study pointed tentatively to the beneficial role of emoticons (especially the nonstandard, i.e., of non-emotional kind) in reading short messages with understanding.

Neuro-Behavioral Correlates of Executive Dysfunctions in Dyslexia Over Development From Childhood to Adulthood

Dyslexia is a neurobiological learning disability in the reading domain that has symptoms in early childhood and persists throughout life. Individuals with dyslexia experience difficulties in academia and cognitive and emotional challenges that can affect wellbeing. Early intervention is critical to minimize the long-term difficulties of these individuals. However, the behavioral and neural correlates which predict dyslexia are challenging to depict before reading is acquired. One of the precursors for language and reading acquisition is executive functions (EF). The present review aims to highlight the current atypicality found in individuals with dyslexia in the domain of EF using behavioral measures, brain mapping, functional connectivity, and diffusion tensor imaging along development. Individuals with dyslexia show EF abnormalities in both behavioral and neurobiological domains, starting in early childhood that persist into adulthood. EF impairment precedes reading disability, therefore adding an EF assessment to the neuropsychological testing is recommended for early intervention. EF training should also be considered for the most comprehensive outcomes.

Working memory profiles of children with reading difficulties who are learning to read in Greek

This study investigated working memory skills in a small group of 13 nine-year-old Greek children facing reading difficulties and a group of 14 age matched typical Greek readers. The children were assessed on working memory tasks measuring separately the four components of the working memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974) as revised by Baddeley (2000): the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer and central executive. Both groups completed tests of accuracy of reading, speed of reading and text understanding. The children with reading difficulties performed significantly more poorly than typical readers on all aspects of working memory apart from visual-spatial short-term memory. These results indicate a similar verbal working memory impairment in Greek children with reading difficulties as in their English peers, despite the fact that they are learning to read a language with a transparent rather than an opaque orthography.

Childhood reading problems and cognitive ageing across mid to later life

Background

Little research has investigated long-term associations of childhood reading with cognitive ageing. The aim of this study was to test longitudinal associations between childhood reading problems and cognitive function from mid-adulthood (age 43) to early old age (age 69), and whether associations were mediated by education.

Methods

Data were from the MRC National Survey of Health and Development, a prospective population-based birth cohort. Reading problems were measured at age 11 using a reading test. Verbal memory and processing speed were measured at ages 43, 53, 60–64 and 69 and Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination (ACE) was administered at age 69. Linear mixed models and path analyses were used to test: (1) associations between reading problems and verbal memory and processing speed trajectories; (2) associations between reading problems and ACE-III scores; (3) whether associations were mediated by education.

Results

Reading problems were associated with poorer verbal memory at intercept but not rate of decline (N=1726), and were not associated with processing speed intercept or decline (N=1730). There were higher rates of scores below ACE-III clinical thresholds (<82 and <88) in people with reading problems compared with those without. Reading problems were associated with poorer total ACE-III scores and all domain scores at age 69 (N=1699). Associations were partly mediated by education.

Conclusion

Reading problems in childhood were associated with poorer cognitive function in early old age, and associations were partly mediated by education.

The role of visual-spatial attention in reading development: a meta-analysis

The association between visual attention and reading development has been investigated as a possible core causal deficit in dyslexia, in addition to phonological awareness. This study aims to provide a meta-analytic review of the research on attentional processes and their relation to reading development, to examine the possible influence on it of orthographic depth, age, and attentional tasks (interpreted as serial or parallel processing indices). We included studies with participants up to 18 years of age that have considered the visual spatial attention orienting that sustains the serial visual analysis involved in the phonological pathway of decoding, and the visual attention span that supports the multielement parallel processing that is thought to influence lexical decoding. The results confirm a strong association between visual attention and reading development; we evaluate the evidence and discuss the possibility that visual attention processes play a causal role in determining individual differences in reading acquisition.

Principles of Integrated Cognitive Training for Executive Attention: Application to an Instrumental Skill

One effective cognitive treatment is the rehabilitation of working memory (WM) using an integrated approach that targets the “executive attention” system. Recent neuroscientific literature has revealed that treatment efficacy depends on the presence of various features, such as adaptivity, empathy, customization, avoidance of automatism and stereotypies, and alertness activation. Over the last two decades, an Integrated Cognitive Training (ICT) protocol has been proposed and developed; ICT takes the above-mentioned features and existing literature into account, and has been used to promote the development of reading skills. ICT has been employed in several clinical settings and involves stimulation of a specific deteriorated system (e.g., reading) and the improvement of executive attention components, thus also increasing working memory capacity. In this context, we present two experiments. In Experiment 1, participants diagnosed with dyslexia (aged between 8 and 14 years) underwent two ICT sessions a week, with home supplements, for a duration of 7 months. The participants showed a significant improvement in the reading speed of text, words, and non-words, and in the reading accuracy of text and non-words. In Experiment 2, we replicated Experiment 1, but included a comparison between two groups (experimental group vs. control group) of young participants with diagnosis of dyslexia. The experimental group was subjected to 18 ICT sessions twice a week and with home supplements, using the same protocol as in Experiment 1. The control group was entrusted to the protocol of compensatory tools and dispense/helping procedures provided by the scholastic Personalized Educational Plan. After training, the experimental group gained about 0.5 syllables per second in text reading, and a marked decrease in error rate. The control group showed no significant improvement in reading skills after the same period. Moreover, the improvement observed in the experimental group remained stable 4 months after ICT had ended. The results of these two experiments support the efficacy of the integrated ICT protocol in improving reading skills in children with dyslexia and its sustained effect.

Neural correlates of cognitive control deficits in children with reading disorder

Reading disorder (RD) is characterized by deficient phonological processing, but children with RD also have cognitive control deficits, the neural correlates of which are not fully understood. We used fMRI to assess neural activity during the resolution of cognitive conflict on the Simon Spatial Incompatibility task and patterns of resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) from task control (TC) regions in 7-12-year-old children with RD compared to their typically developing (TD) peers. Relative to TD children (n = 17), those with RD (n = 16) over-engaged a right superior/medial frontal cluster during the resolution of conflict (p = .05). Relative to TD children (n = 18), those with RD (n = 17) also showed reduced RSFC (voxel-wise p < .001; cluster-size p < .05, FDR corrected) from cingulo-opercular seeds to left hemisphere fronto-parietal and temporo-parietal reading-related regions, perhaps reflecting reduced organization of TC circuits and reduced integration with reading-related regions. Children with RD additionally showed reduced RSFC between fronto-parietal and default mode network regions. Follow-up analyses in a subset of children with both useable task and resting state data (RD = 13; TD = 17) revealed that greater conflict-related activation of the right frontal Simon task ROI associated with better word-reading, perhaps suggesting a compensatory role for this over-engagement. Connectivity from fronto-parietal seeds significantly associated with Simon task performance and word-reading accuracy in RD children. These findings suggest that altered functioning and connectivity of control circuits may contribute to cognitive control deficits in children with RD. Future studies should assess the utility of adding cognitive control training to reading remediation programs.

Is executive dysfunction a potential contributor to the comorbidity between basic reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?

Our study is one of the few to analyze executive functioning (EF) in a comprehensive, multi-modal fashion as a potential contributor to the comorbidity between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and basic reading disability (RD). We included multiple, traditional, neuropsychological measures of EF, along with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) questionnaire, to assess inhibit, shift, working memory (WM), planning, generation fluency, and problem-solving. Participants included 263 children, ages 8-12 years, with RD, ADHD, RD/ADHD, and typically developing controls. When using the traditional measures in a 2 × 2 MANCOVA, we found both RD and ADHD had poor cognitive EF in most areas at the group level, with phonological loop deficits being more specific to RD and behavioral regulation deficits being more specific to ADHD. Children with RD/ADHD performed comparably to those with RD and ADHD alone. Results were similar on the BRIEF. In contrast, only WM predicted both basic reading and inattention when the data were assessed in a continuous fashion. It also explained the correlations between basic reading and inattention, being worthy of longitudinal research to determine if it is a shared contributor to RD/ADHD. When comparing hypotheses as to the nature of RD/ADHD, we found the multiple deficit hypothesis was better supported by our EF data than the phenocopy hypothesis or the cognitive subtype hypothesis.

Improving reading skills in children with dyslexia: efficacy studies on a newly proposed remedial intervention-repeated reading with vocal music masking (RVM)

In this work, two different studies are examined to evaluate the effectiveness of a novel intervention program for the improvement of reading ability in children with dyslexia, known as repeated reading with vocal music masking (RVM). The proposed remedial approach is inspired by Breznitz's original work. The studies assess a 5-week program of intensive RVM training in a pre-post-test clinical paradigm, as well as a longitudinal paradigm where it is compared to 8 months of the standard remediation program (SRP). The results of both studies support the efficacy of the newly proposed RVM method. Notably in the longitudinal study, the reading speed of children, as well as related phonological, visuo-attentional, and cognitive skills, and attitudes toward reading, were measured regularly. Significant improvements in reading efficiency and related skills were observed, as well as greater motivation to read after RVM training. A modeling of the data specifically linked executive and processing speed skills to be involved in RVM training, suggesting that RVM may help rebalance the phonological and orthographic coding procedures necessary for efficient reading. The short, intensive, and focused nature of RVM training makes it a viable and attractive intervention for clinical practice. As preliminary results are promising, RVM training may prove to be a valuable tool that clinicians can call upon to effectively treat reading fluency disorders, especially when standard programs do not provide results.

A Longitudinal Study on Bidirectional Relations between Executive Functions and English Word-Level Reading in Chinese American Children in Immigrant Families

This two-wave (1.5 years apart) longitudinal study examined the bidirectional relations between measures of executive function (EF; working memory, attention focusing, inhibitory control, and a comprehensive EF measure) and two types of English word-level reading (pseudoword reading and word reading) among 258 school-aged children (52.6% boys, age = 5.8-9.1 years, in 1st to 3rd grades at Wave 1) from Chinese American immigrant families. Cross-lagged panel analyses were conducted to test whether the four EF measures and English word-level reading proficiency predicted one another controlling for prior levels of EF or word reading, as well as demographic characteristics and children's English and Chinese language proficiency. We found a positive bidirectional association between the comprehensive EF measure and pseudoword reading. By contrast, although the comprehensive EF measure positively predicted word reading over time, word reading did not predict comprehensive EF. Additionally, both word reading and pseudoword reading positively predicted working memory over time. The results provided partial evidence that English word-level reading is bidirectionally related to EF among early elementary school-age dual language learners.

The nature of the risk faced by pedestrians with neurodevelopmental disorders: A systematic review

Pedestrians represent one of the most vulnerable road user groups worldwide. Children and adult pedestrians with neurodevelopmental disorders may be at greater risk due to deficits in a range of domains, such as attention, social communication, motor control and executive function. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (American Psychological Association, 2013), neurodevelopmental disorders include individuals with a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Specific Learning Disorder, Motor Difficulties, Communication Disorders and Intellectual Disabilities. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to explore existing literature relating to determine the nature of the risk faced by pedestrians with neurodevelopmental disorders. Relevant databases including Web of Science, PhysInfo and CINAHL were searched up to July 2019. All peer reviewed journals that presented data focusing on neurodevelopmental disorders and some aspect of road crossing or roadside behaviour that included a control or comparison group were included. A total of 149 abstracts were assessed and 17 met the inclusion criteria. The identified papers could be grouped into four areas: (1) rate of injury; (2) assessment of risk; (3) eye gaze and understanding of road layout and (4) gap choice. No papers exploring the risk factors at the roadside for individuals with Specific Learning Disorders or Communication Disorders were identified. Overall, the review provide evidence for an elevated risk of injury for individuals with ADHD at the roadside, potentially as a consequence of poor temporal gap choice, although there was evidence that this risk could be mediated by executive dysfunction rather than ADHD symptomology. Furthermore, poor temporal gap choice was found in children with DCD but it remains unclear as to whether this risk translates to the roadside. Finally, both children and adults with ASD and children with ID were found to demonstrate differences in behaviour / understanding at the roadside. In general, co-occurrence between neurodevelopmental disorders has been largely ignored in the current literature relating to pedestrian risk and future research could consider this along with executive functioning.

Memory Deficits in Children with Developmental Dyslexia: A Reading-Level and Chronological-Age Matched Design

Developmental Dyslexia (DD) is considered a multifactorial deficit. Among the neurocognitive impairments identified in DD, it has been found that memory plays a particularly important role in reading and learning. The present study aims to investigate whether short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) deficits could be related to poor reading experience or could be causal factors in DD. To verify that memory deficits in DD did not simply reflect differences in reading experience, 16 children with DD were not only compared to 16 chronological age-matched children (CA) but also to 16 reading level-matched children (RL) in verbal, visual-object, and visual-spatial STM and LTM tasks. Children with DD performed as well as RL, but worse than CA in all STM tasks. Considering LTM, the three groups did not differ in Visual-Object and Visual-Spatial Learning tasks. In the Verbal LTM task, DD recalled significantly fewer words than CA but not RL, while CA and RL showed a similar performance. The present results suggest that when reading experience was equated, children with DD and typical readers did not differ in STM and LTM, especially in the verbal modality, weakening claims that memory has a causal effect in reading impairments.

Prevalence and Cognitive Profiles of Children With Comorbid Literacy and Motor Disorders

There is a high prevalence of comorbidity between neurodevelopmental disorders. Contemporary research of these comorbidities has led to the development of multifactorial theories of causation, including the multiple deficit model (MDM). While several combinations of disorders have been investigated, the nature of association between literacy and motor disorders remains poorly understood. Comorbid literacy and motor disorders were the focus of the two present studies. In Study 1, we examined the prevalence of comorbid literacy and motor difficulties relative to isolated literacy and motor difficulties in a community sample (N = 605). The prevalence of comorbidity was five times greater than expected by chance alone, implying some relationship between difficulties. In Study 2, we examined the cognitive profiles of children with literacy and motor disorders amongst a subsample of children from Study 1 (N = 153). Children with literacy disorder had deficits in phonological processing, selective attention, and memory whilst children with motor disorder had deficits in visuospatial processing and memory, suggesting the disorders should be considered to have both independent and shared (memory) cognitive risk factors. Children with comorbid literacy and motor disorder demonstrated an additive combination of these deficits. Together, these findings are consistent with predictions from the MDM.

Semantic fluency difficulties in developmental dyslexia and developmental language disorder (DLD): poor semantic structure of the lexicon or slower retrieval processes?

BACKGROUND

Children with dyslexia and/or developmental language disorder (hereafter children with DDLD) have been reported to retrieve fewer words than their typically developing (TD) peers in semantic fluency tasks. It is not known whether this retrieval difficulty can be attributed to the semantic structure of their lexicon being poor or, alternatively, to words being retrieved more slowly despite semantic structure being intact.

AIMS

To test two theoretical models that could potentially account for retrieval difficulties in semantic fluency tasks, namely, the Poor Lexical-Semantic Structure Model and the Slow-Retrieval Model. Both models predict that children with DDLD will retrieve fewer items compared with TD children. However, while the Poor Lexical-Semantic Structure Model predicts a less sophisticated network of semantic connections between words in the lexicon, as evidenced by smaller clusters of related items in children with DDLD, the Slow-Retrieval Model predicts intact inter-item associations in the lexicon, as evidenced by the two groups' clusters being of a similar size. The groups' semantic fluency performance was therefore compared. How semantic fluency performance related to children's language, literacy, and phonological skills was also investigated.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

A total of 66 children with DDLD aged 7-12 years and 83 TD children aged 6-12 years, all monolingual Greek speakers, were tested on semantic fluency, using the categories 'animals', 'foods' and 'objects from around the house'. The numbers of correct and incorrect responses, clusters and switches, and the average cluster size were computed. Children were also assessed on non-verbal IQ, language, literacy and phonological tasks.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

In both groups, productivity in semantic fluency tasks correlated strongly with the numbers of clusters and switches, but not with average cluster size. The DDLD group produced significantly fewer correct responses and fewer clusters compared with the TD group, but the two groups showed similar switching and average cluster size. Children's language, literacy and phonological skills significantly predicted the number of correct responses produced, beyond the significant effect of age.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

We conclude that poorer semantic fluency performance in children with DDLD results not from a lexicon with poor semantic structure, but rather from slower retrieval processes from a lexicon with intact semantic structure. The underlying causes of slow lexical retrieval still need further investigation.

Implicit Learning, Bilingualism, and Dyslexia: Insights From a Study Assessing AGL With a Modified Simon Task

This paper presents an experimental study investigating artificial grammar learning in monolingual and bilingual children, with and without dyslexia, using an original methodology. We administered a serial reaction time task, in the form of a modified Simon task, in which the sequence of the stimuli was manipulated according to the rules of a simple Lindenmayer grammar (more specifically, a Fibonacci grammar). By ensuring that the subjects focused on the correct response execution at the motor stage in presence of congruent or incongruent visual stimuli, we could meet the two fundamental criteria for implicit learning: the absence of an intention to learn and the lack of awareness at the level of resulting knowledge. The participants of our studies were four groups of 10-year-old children: 30 Italian monolingual typically developing children, 30 bilingual typically developing children with Italian L2, 24 Italian monolingual dyslexic children, and 24 bilingual dyslexic children with Italian L2. Participants were administered the modified Simon task developed according to the rules of the Fibonacci grammar and tested with respect to the implicit learning of three regularities: (i) a red is followed by a blue, (ii) a sequence of two blues is followed by a red, and (iii) a blue can be followed either by a red or by a blue. Results clearly support the hypothesis that learning took place, since participants of all groups became increasingly sensitive to the structure of the input, implicitly learning the sequence of the trials and thus appropriately predicting the occurrence of the relevant items, as manifested by faster reaction times in predictable trials. Moreover, group differences were found, with bilinguals being overall faster than monolinguals and dyslexics less accurate than controls. Finally, an advantage of bilingualism in dyslexia was found, with bilingual dyslexics performing consistently better than monolingual dyslexics and, in some conditions, at the level of the two control groups. These results are taken to suggest that bilingualism should be supported also among linguistically impaired individuals.

Executive Functioning and Narrative Language in Children With Dyslexia

Purpose Children with dyslexia often struggle with nonphonological aspects of language and executive functioning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of executive functioning on language abilities at both structural (e.g., grammar in sentences) and functional (e.g., narrative) levels in 92 third- and 4th-grade students with dyslexia. Additionally, we asked if working memory updating contributed a significant amount of variance in narrative language ability beyond what would be expected by students' structural language skills alone. Method Students' language and executive functioning skills were evaluated using a range of language and cognitive measures including the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition (Semel, Wiig, & Secord, 2003), the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition (Dunn & Dunn, 2007), the Test of Narrative Language (Gillam & Pearson, 2004), the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function Scale (Kaplan, Kramer, & Delis, 2001), and the Corsi Block-Tapping Test (WISC-IV Integrated; Kaplan, Fein, Kramer, Delis, & Morris, 2004). Results Low correlations between the language measures suggested that each of these assessments captures a unique element of language ability for children with dyslexia. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that working memory updating accounted for a significant amount of unique variance in oral narrative production beyond what would be expected by structural language ability. Conclusions The range of performance found across language measures suggests that it may be important to include a variety of language measures assessing both structural and functional language skills when evaluating children with dyslexia. Including cognitive measures of executive functioning may also be key to determine if deficits in working memory updating are contributing to functional expressive language difficulties.

Dyslexia-related impairments in sequence learning predict linguistic abilities

Dyslexia is often characterized by disordered word recognition and spelling, though dysfunction on various non-linguistic tasks suggests a more pervasive deficit may underlie reading and spelling abilities. The serial-order learning impairment in dyslexia (SOLID) hypothesis proposes that sequence learning impairments fundamentally disrupt cognitive abilities, including linguistic processes, among individuals with dyslexia; yet only some studies report sequence learning deficits in people with dyslexia relative to controls. Evidence may be mixed because traditional sequence learning tasks often require strong motor demands, working memory processes and/or executive functions, wherein people with dyslexia can show impairments. Thus, observed sequence learning deficits in dyslexia may only appear to the extent that comorbid motor-based processes, memory capacity, or executive processes are involved. The present study measured sequence learning in college-aged students with and without dyslexia using a single task that evaluates sequencing and non-sequencing components but without strong motor, executive, or memory demands. During sequencing, each additional link in a sequence of stimuli leading to a reward is trained step-by-step, until a complete sequence is acquired. People with dyslexia made significantly more sequencing errors than controls, despite equivalent performance on non-sequencing components. Mediation analyses further revealed that sequence learning accounted for a large portion of the variance between dyslexia status and linguistic abilities, particularly pseudo-word reading. These findings extend the SOLID hypothesis by showing difficulties in the ability to acquire sequences that may play an underlying role in literacy acquisition.

Participation in Peer-Play Activities Among Children With Specific Learning Disability: A Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

Children with a specific learning disability (SLD) have deficits in social and academic competence and executive function (EF). In this study, we used the Model of Human Occupation to investigate the effect of peer-play activities on occupational values and competence as well as EF skills (i.e., behavior regulation and metacognition) in children with SLD.

METHOD

Forty-nine children ages 7-11 yr with SLD were randomly assigned to the peer-play and control groups. Outcome measures were the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function and the Child Occupational Self-Assessment (COSA).

RESULTS

Data analysis showed that the effects of the intervention on EF skills were medium to large. The occupational values and competence did not change according to the COSA.

CONCLUSION

Occupational therapy practitioners can use peer-play activities to enhance EF in children with SLD; however, perceived occupational values and competence may not show any changes with the peer-play intervention using a self-assessment instrument.

Development of Dyslexia: The Delayed Neural Commitment Framework

It is now evident that explanations of many developmental disorders need to include a network perspective. In earlier work, we proposed that developmental dyslexia (DD) is well-characterized in terms of impaired procedural learning within the language networks, with the cerebellum being the key structure involved. Here, we deepen the analysis to include the child's developmental process of constructing these networks. The "Delayed Neural Commitment (DNC)" framework proposes that, in addition to slower skill acquisition, dyslexic children take longer to build (and to rebuild) the neural networks that underpin the acquisition of reading. The framework provides an important link backwards in time to the development of executive function networks and the earlier development of networks for language and speech. It is consistent with many theories of dyslexia while providing fruitful suggestions for further research at the genetic, brain, cognitive and behavioral levels of explanation. It also has significant implications for assessment and teaching.

Executive functions in children with dyslexia

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to verify whether children with dyslexia have difficulties in executive functions (shifting, working memory, inhibition).

METHODS

A sample of 47 children (ages 8-13 years) participated in the study: 24 who were dyslexic and 23 controls with typical development. A battery of neuropsychological tests was used.

RESULTS

Results revealed executive function difficulties among the dyslexic children when compared with controls, encompassing selective attention modulation processes, shifting, and inhibitory control. These difficulties appeared to be affected by phonological working memory deficits, typically associated with dyslexia.

CONCLUSION

Our findings support the consensus among scholars regarding the central involvement of phonological skill dysfunctions in dyslexia.