An OX40L mRNA vaccine inhibits the growth of hepatocellular carcinoma

Harnessing immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: Principles and emerging promises

HCC is considered as one of the leadin causes of death worldwide, with the ability of resistance towards therapeutics. Immunotherapy, particularly ICIs, have provided siginficant insights towards harnessing the immune system. The present review introduces the concepts and possibilities of immunotherapy for HCC treatment, emphasizing its underlying mechanisms and capacity to enhance patient results, focusing on both pre-clinical and clinical insights. The functions of TME and immune evasion mechanisms typical of HCC would be evaluated along with how contemporary immunotherapeutic approaches are designed to address these challenges. Furthermore, the clinical application of immunotherapy in HCC is discussed, emphasizing recent trial findings demonstrating the effectiveness and safety of drugs. In addition, the problems caused by immune evasion and resistance would be discussed to increase potential of immunotherapy along with combination therapy.

Enhanced Antitumor Immunity Through T Cell Activation with Optimized Tandem Double-OX40L mRNAs

Purpose

The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) is often dysfunctional and complex, contributing to tumor metastasis and drug resistance. This study investigates the use of mRNA-based cancer agents as promising tools to combat and reverse refractory TIME conditions.

Methods

We optimized and engineered an mRNA cancer agent encoding double tandemly repeated sequences of the T cell costimulator Oxford 40 ligand (diOX40L). The diOX40L mRNAs were encapsulated into lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for effective delivery. The research explored its safety and antitumor effects through a series of in vivo and in vivo experiments.

Results

Our results demonstrate that diOX40L mRNAs efficiently express increased levels of OX40L proteins. The optimized diOX40L mRNA cancer agent generated potent immune costimulatory signals within the TIME, leading to decreased tumor growth and improved survival compared to the original sequence agent. OX40L expression in subcutaneous tumors promoted CD4+ and CD8+ T cell activation, resulting in heightened IFN-γ and IL-2 secretion and robust immune responses. Combination therapy involving PD-1 antibodies and diOX40L substantially enhanced antitumor efficacy, with increased infiltration of activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells.

Discussion

In conclusion, our findings highlight the therapeutic potential of the optimized diOX40L mRNA cancer agent in cancer treatment and its potential as an innovative alternative to protein-based therapies. The study underscores the significance of mRNA-based agents in modulating the immune microenvironment and enhancing antitumor responses.

A Phase I Clinical Trial Adding OX40 Agonism to In Situ Therapeutic Cancer Vaccination in Patients with Low-Grade B-cell Lymphoma Highlights Challenges in Translation from Mouse to Human Studies

PURPOSE

Activating T-cell costimulatory receptors is a promising approach for cancer immunotherapy. In preclinical work, adding an OX40 agonist to in situ vaccination with SD101, a TLR9 agonist, was curative in a mouse model of lymphoma. We sought to test this combination in a phase I clinical trial for patients with low-grade B-cell lymphoma.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We treated 14 patients with low-dose radiation, intratumoral SD101, and intratumoral and intravenous BMS986178, an agonistic anti-OX40 antibody. The primary outcome was safety. Secondary outcomes included overall response rate and progression-free survival.

RESULTS

Adverse events were consistent with prior experience with low-dose radiation and SD101. No synergistic or dose-limiting toxicities were observed. One patient had a partial response, and nine patients had stable disease, a result inferior to our experience with TLR9 agonism and low-dose radiation alone. Flow cytometry and single-cell RNA sequencing of serial tumor biopsies revealed that T and NK cells were activated after treatment. However, high baseline OX40 expression in T follicular helper and T regulatory type 1 cells, as well as high posttreatment soluble OX40, shed from these T cells upon activation, associated with progression-free survival of less than 6 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical results of T-cell costimulatory receptor agonism have now repeatedly been inferior to the motivating preclinical results. Our study highlights potential barriers to clinical translation, particularly differences in preclinical and clinical reagents and the complex biology of these coreceptors in heterogeneous T cell subpopulations, some of which may antagonize immunotherapy.

Lipid Nanoparticle (LNP) -A Vector Suitable for Evolving Therapies for Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) stands as the predominant form of primary liver cancer, characterized by a dismal prognosis. Therapeutic options for advanced HCC remain sparse, with efficacy significantly hampered by the emergence of drug resistance. In parallel with research into novel pharmacological agents, advances in drug delivery systems represent a promising avenue for overcoming resistance. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have demonstrated considerable efficacy in the delivery of nucleic acid-based therapeutics and hold potential for broader applications in drug delivery. This review describes the development of LNPs tailored for HCC treatment and consolidates recent investigations using LNPs to target HCC.

RNA nanotherapeutics for hepatocellular carcinoma treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide, particularly due to the limited effectiveness of current therapeutic options for advanced-stage disease. The efficacy of traditional treatments is often compromised by the intricate liver microenvironment and the inherent heterogeneity. RNA-based therapeutics offer a promising alternative, utilizing the innovative approach of targeting aberrant molecular pathways and modulating the tumor microenvironment. The integration of nanotechnology in this field, through the development of advanced nanocarrier delivery systems, especially lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), polymer nanoparticles (PNPs), and bioinspired vectors, enhances the precision and efficacy of RNA therapies. This review highlights the significant progress in RNA nanotherapeutics for HCC treatment, covering micro RNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), message RNA (mRNA), and small activating RNA (saRNA) mediated gene silencing, therapeutic protein restoration, gene activation, cancer vaccines, and concurrent therapy. It further comprehensively discusses the prevailing challenges within this therapeutic landscape and provides a forward-looking perspective on the potential of RNA nanotherapeutics to transform HCC treatment.

Lipid Nanovesicle Platforms for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Precision Medicine Therapeutics: Progress and Perspectives

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality globally. HCC is highly heterogenous with diverse etiologies leading to different driver mutations potentiating unique tumor immune microenvironments. Current therapeutic options, including immune checkpoint inhibitors and combinations, have achieved limited objective response rates for the majority of patients. Thus, a precision medicine approach is needed to tailor specific treatment options for molecular subsets of HCC patients. Lipid nanovesicle platforms, either liposome- (synthetic) or extracellular vesicle (natural)-derived present are improved drug delivery vehicles which may be modified to contain specific cargos for targeting specific tumor sites, with a natural affinity for liver with limited toxicity. This mini-review provides updates on the applications of novel lipid nanovesicle-based therapeutics for HCC precision medicine and the challenges associated with translating this therapeutic subclass from preclinical models to the clinic.

Exploring a new chapter in traditional Chinese medicine: The potential of Calculus bovis in liver cancer treatment

In the ongoing quest for new treatments in medicine, traditional Chinese medicine offers unique insights and potential. Recently, studies on the ability of Calculus bovis to inhibit M2-type tumour-associated macrophage polarisation by modulating the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway to suppress liver cancer have undoubtedly revealed new benefits and hope for this field of research. The purpose of this article is to comment on this study and explore its strengths and weaknesses, thereby providing ideas for the future treatment of liver cancer.

Comprehensive analysis of lipid nanoparticle formulation and preparation for RNA delivery

Nucleic acid-based therapeutics are a common approach that is increasingly popular for a wide spectrum of diseases. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are promising delivery carriers that provide RNA stability, with strong transfection efficiency, favorable and tailorable pharmacokinetics, limited toxicity, and established translatability. In this review article, we describe the lipid-based delivery systems, focusing on lipid nanoparticles, the need of their use, provide a comprehensive analysis of each component, and highlight the advantages and disadvantages of the existing manufacturing processes. We further summarize the ongoing and completed clinical trials utilizing LNPs, indicating important aspects/questions worth of investigation, and analyze the future perspectives of this significant and promising therapeutic approach.

Recent advances in mRNA-based cancer vaccines encoding immunostimulants and their delivery strategies

The high prevalence of drug resistance, relapse, and unfavorable response rate of conventional cancer therapies necessitate the development of more efficient treatment modalities. Immunotherapy represents a novel therapeutic approach to cancer treatment in which the immune system's potential is harnessed to recognize and eliminate tumor cells. mRNA cancer vaccines, as a burgeoning field of immunotherapy, have recently drawn particular attention, and among mRNAs encoding tumor-associated antigens, tumor-specific antigens, and immune stimulatory factors, the latter has been relatively less explored. These immunostimulatory mRNAs encode a range of proteins, including stimulatory ligands, receptors, enzymes, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and inhibitory binding proteins, which collectively augment the host immune system's ability against cancerous cells. In this review, we aimed to provide a comprehensive account of mRNA-based cancer vaccines encoding immune stimulants, encompassing their current status, mechanisms of action, delivery strategies employed, as well as recent advances in preclinical and clinical studies. The potential challenges, strategies and future perspectives have also been discussed.

Advances and applications of RNA vaccines in tumor treatment

Compared to other types of tumor vaccines, RNA vaccines have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional vaccine therapy due to their high efficiency, rapid development capability, and potential for low-cost manufacturing and safe drug delivery. RNA vaccines mainly include mRNA, circular RNA (circRNA), and Self-amplifying mRNA(SAM). Different RNA vaccine platforms for different tumors have shown encouraging results in animal and human models. This review comprehensively describes the advances and applications of RNA vaccines in antitumor therapy. Future directions for extending this promising vaccine platform to a wide range of therapeutic uses are also discussed.

The transformative potential of mRNA vaccines for glioblastoma and human cancer: technological advances and translation to clinical trials

Originally devised for cancer control, mRNA vaccines have risen to the forefront of medicine as effective instruments for control of infectious disease, notably their pivotal role in combating the COVID-19 pandemic. This review focuses on fundamental aspects of the development of mRNA vaccines, e.g., tumor antigens, vector design, and precise delivery methodologies, - highlighting key technological advances. The recent, promising success of personalized mRNA vaccines against pancreatic cancer and melanoma illustrates the potential value for other intractable, immunologically resistant, solid tumors, such as glioblastoma, as well as the potential for synergies with a combinatorial, immunotherapeutic approach. The impact and progress in human cancer, including pancreatic cancer, head and neck cancer, bladder cancer are reviewed, as are lessons learned from first-in-human CAR-T cell, DNA and dendritic cell vaccines targeting glioblastoma. Going forward, a roadmap is provided for the transformative potential of mRNA vaccines to advance cancer immunotherapy, with a particular focus on the opportunities and challenges of glioblastoma. The current landscape of glioblastoma immunotherapy and gene therapy is reviewed with an eye to combinatorial approaches harnessing RNA science. Preliminary preclinical and clinical data supports the concept that mRNA vaccines could be a viable, novel approach to prolong survival in patients with glioblastoma.

RNA nanomedicine in liver diseases

The remarkable impact of RNA nanomedicine during the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the expansive therapeutic potential of this field in diverse disease contexts. In recent years, RNA nanomedicine targeting the liver has been paradigm-shifting in the management of metabolic diseases such as hyperoxaluria and amyloidosis. RNA nanomedicine has significant potential in the management of liver diseases, where optimal management would benefit from targeted delivery, doses titrated to liver metabolism, and personalized therapy based on the specific site of interest. In this review, we discuss in-depth the different types of RNA and nanocarriers used for liver targeting along with their specific applications in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, liver fibrosis, and liver cancers. We further highlight the strategies for cell-specific delivery and future perspectives in this field of research with the emergence of small activating RNA, circular RNA, and RNA base editing approaches.

Lipid-based nanosystems: the next generation of cancer immune therapy

Immunotherapy has become an important part of the oncotherapy arsenal. Its applicability in various cancer types is impressive, as well as its use of endogenous mechanisms to achieve desired ends. However, off-target or on-target-off-tumor toxicity, limited activity, lack of control in combination treatments and, especially for solid tumors, low local accumulation, have collectively limited clinical use thereof. These limitations are partially alleviated by delivery systems. Lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as revolutionary carriers due to favorable physicochemical characteristics, with specific applications and strengths particularly useful in immunotherapeutic agent delivery. The aim of this review is to highlight the challenges faced by immunotherapy and how lipid-based NPs have been, and may be further utilized to address such challenges. We discuss recent fundamental and clinical applications of NPs in a range of areas and provide a detailed discussion of the main obstacles in immune checkpoint inhibition therapies, adoptive cellular therapies, and cytokine therapies. We highlight how lipid-based nanosystems could address these through either delivery, direct modulation of the immune system, or targeting of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. We explore advanced and emerging liposomal and lipid nanoparticle (LNP) systems for nucleic acid delivery, intrinsic and extrinsic stimulus-responsive formulations, and biomimetic lipid-based nanosystems in immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the key challenges relating to the clinical use of lipid-based NP immunotherapies, suggesting future research directions for the near term to realize the potential of these innovative lipid-based nanosystems, as they become the crucial steppingstone towards the necessary enhancement of the efficacy of immunotherapy.

RNA vaccines for cancer: Principles to practice

Vaccines are the most impactful medicines to improve health. Though potent against pathogens, vaccines for cancer remain an unfulfilled promise. However, recent advances in RNA technology coupled with scientific and clinical breakthroughs have spurred rapid discovery and potent delivery of tumor antigens at speed and scale, transforming cancer vaccines into a tantalizing prospect. Yet, despite being at a pivotal juncture, with several randomized clinical trials maturing in upcoming years, several critical questions remain: which antigens, tumors, platforms, and hosts can trigger potent immunity with clinical impact? Here, we address these questions with a principled framework of cancer vaccination from antigen detection to delivery. With this framework, we outline features of emergent RNA technology that enable rapid, robust, real-time vaccination with somatic mutation-derived neoantigens-an emerging "ideal" antigen class-and highlight latent features that have sparked the belief that RNA could realize the enduring vision for vaccines against cancer.

Treatment options for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: the potential of biologics

INTRODUCTION

Advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) represents a significant global health burden, whose treatment has been recently revolutionized by the advent of biologic treatments. Despite that, innovative therapeutic regimens and approaches, especially immune-based, remain to be explored aiming at extending the therapeutic benefits to a wider population of patients.

AREAS COVERED

This review comprehensively discusses the evolving landscape of biological treatment modalities for advanced HCC, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, antiangiogenic monoclonal antibodies, tumor-targeting monoclonal antibodies either naked or drug-conjugated, therapeutic vaccines, oncolytic viruses, adoptive cell therapies, and cytokine-based therapies. Key clinical trials and preclinical studies are examined, highlighting the actual or potential impact of these interventions in reshaping treatment paradigms for HCC.

EXPERT OPINION

Tailored and rational combination strategies, leveraging the synergistic effects of different modalities, represent a promising approach to maximize treatment efficacy in advanced HCC, which should aim at conversion endpoints to increase the fraction of patients eligible for curative approaches. The identification of predictive biomarkers holds the key to optimizing patient selection and improving therapeutic outcomes.

Understanding Gene Involvement in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Implications for Gene Therapy and Personalized Medicine

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the dominant type of liver cancers and is one of the deadliest health threats globally. The conventional therapeutic options for HCC are hampered by low efficiency and intolerable side effects. Gene therapy, however, now offers hope for the treatment of many disorders previously considered incurable, and gene therapy is beginning to address many of the shortcomings of conventional therapies. Herein, we summarize the involvement of genes in the pathogenesis and prognosis of HCC, with a special focus on dysregulated signaling pathways, genes involved in immune evasion, and non-coding RNAs as novel two-edged players, which collectively offer potential targets for the gene therapy of HCC. Herein, the opportunities and challenges of HCC gene therapy are discussed. These include innovative therapies such as genome editing and cell therapies. Moreover, advanced gene delivery technologies that recruit nanomedicines for use in gene therapy for HCC are highlighted. Finally, suggestions are offered for improved clinical translation and future directions in this area of endeavor.

Combination therapy with oncolytic virus and T cells or mRNA vaccine amplifies antitumor effects

Antitumor therapies based on adoptively transferred T cells or oncolytic viruses have made significant progress in recent years, but the limited efficiency of their infiltration into solid tumors makes it difficult to achieve desired antitumor effects when used alone. In this study, an oncolytic virus (rVSV-LCMVG) that is not prone to induce virus-neutralizing antibodies was designed and combined with adoptively transferred T cells. By transforming the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment into an immunosensitive one, in B16 tumor-bearing mice, combination therapy showed superior antitumor effects than monotherapy. This occurred whether the OV was administered intratumorally or intravenously. Combination therapy significantly increased cytokine and chemokine levels within tumors and recruited CD8+ T cells to the TME to trigger antitumor immune responses. Pretreatment with adoptively transferred T cells and subsequent oncolytic virotherapy sensitizes refractory tumors by boosting T-cell recruitment, down-regulating the expression of PD-1, and restoring effector T-cell function. To offer a combination therapy with greater translational value, mRNA vaccines were introduced to induce tumor-specific T cells instead of adoptively transferred T cells. The combination of OVs and mRNA vaccine also displays a significant reduction in tumor burden and prolonged survival. This study proposed a rational combination therapy of OVs with adoptive T-cell transfer or mRNA vaccines encoding tumor-associated antigens, in terms of synergistic efficacy and mechanism.

Plasmid DNA ionisable lipid nanoparticles as non-inert carriers and potent immune activators for cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is currently a standard of care in the treatment of many malignancies. However, predictable side effects caused by systemic administration of highly immunostimulatory molecules have been a serious concern within this field. Intratumoural expression or silencing of immunogenic and immunoinhibitory molecules using nucleic acid-based approaches such as plasmid DNA (pDNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA), respectively, could represent a next generation of cancer immunotherapy. Here, we employed lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to deliver either non-specific pDNA and siRNA, or constructs targeting two prominent immunotherapeutic targets OX40L and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-1 (IDO), to tumours in vivo. In the B16F10 mouse model, intratumoural delivery of LNP-formulated non-specific pDNA and siRNA led to strong local immune activation and tumour growth inhibition even at low doses due to the pDNA immunogenic nature. Replacement of these non-specific constructs by pOX40L and siIDO resulted in more prominent immune activation as evidenced by increased immune cell infiltration in tumours and tumour-draining lymph nodes. Consistently, pOX40L alone or in combination with siIDO could prolong overall survival, resulting in complete tumour regression and the formation of immunological memory in tumour rechallenge models. Our results suggest that intratumoural administration of LNP-formulated pDNA and siRNA offers a promising approach for cancer immunotherapy.

mRNA vaccines and their delivery strategies: A journey from infectious diseases to cancer

mRNA vaccines have evolved as promising cancer therapies. These vaccines can encode tumor-allied antigens, thus enabling personalized treatment approaches. They can also target cancer-specific mutations and overcome immune evasion mechanisms. They manipulate the body's cellular functions to produce antigens, elicit immune responses, and suppress tumors by overcoming limitations associated with specific histocompatibility leukocyte antigen molecules. However, successfully delivering mRNA into target cells destroys a crucial challenge. Viral and nonviral vectors (lipid nanoparticles and cationic liposomes) have shown great capacity in protecting mRNA from deterioration and assisting in cellular uptake. Cell-penetrating peptides, hydrogels, polymer-based nanoparticles, and dendrimers have been investigated to increase the delivery efficacy and immunogenicity of mRNA. This comprehensive review explores the landscape of mRNA vaccines and their delivery platforms for cancer, addressing design considerations, diverse delivery strategies, and recent advancements. Overall, this review contributes to the progress of mRNA vaccines as an innovative strategy for effective cancer treatment.

Amplifying mRNA vaccines: potential versatile magicians for oncotherapy

Cancer vaccines drive the activation and proliferation of tumor-reactive immune cells, thereby eliciting tumor-specific immunity that kills tumor cells. Accordingly, they possess immense potential in cancer treatment. However, such vaccines are also faced with challenges related to their design and considerable differences among individual tumors. The success of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines against coronavirus disease 2019 has prompted the application of mRNA vaccine technology platforms to the field of oncotherapy. These platforms include linear, circular, and amplifying mRNA vaccines. In particular, amplifying mRNA vaccines are characterized by high-level and prolonged antigen gene expression at low doses. They can also stimulate specific cellular immunity, making them highly promising in cancer vaccine research. In this review, we summarize the research progress in amplifying mRNA vaccines and provide an outlook of their prospects and future directions in oncotherapy.

mRNA vaccine in gastrointestinal tumors: Immunomodulatory effects and immunotherapy

Gastrointestinal tumors remain a significant healthcare burden worldwide, necessitating the development of innovative therapeutic strategies. mRNA vaccines have emerged as a promising approach in cancer immunotherapy, harnessing the immune system's potential to recognize and eliminate tumor cells. mRNA vaccines offer several advantages, including their ability to elicit both innate and adaptive immune responses, ease of production, and adaptability to different tumor types. In the context of gastrointestinal tumors, mRNA vaccines hold great potential as a therapeutic strategy. In this review, we will delve into the immunomodulatory mechanisms and immunotherapy strategies of mRNA vaccines in gastrointestinal tumors. Additionally, we will discuss the challenges and ongoing research efforts in optimizing mRNA vaccine development, delivery, and stability. By understanding the potential of mRNA vaccines in addressing the unmet medical need of gastrointestinal tumors, we aim to pave the way for improved treatment strategies and better patient outcomes.

Recent advances in mRNA cancer vaccines: meeting challenges and embracing opportunities

Since the successful application of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines in preventing COVID-19, researchers have been striving to develop mRNA vaccines for clinical use, including those exploited for anti-tumor therapy. mRNA cancer vaccines have emerged as a promising novel approach to cancer immunotherapy, offering high specificity, better efficacy, and fewer side effects compared to traditional treatments. Multiple therapeutic mRNA cancer vaccines are being evaluated in preclinical and clinical trials, with promising early-phase results. However, the development of these vaccines faces various challenges, such as tumor heterogeneity, an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and practical obstacles like vaccine administration methods and evaluation systems for clinical application. To address these challenges, we highlight recent advances from preclinical studies and clinical trials that provide insight into identifying obstacles associated with mRNA cancer vaccines and discuss potential strategies to overcome them. In the future, it is crucial to approach the development of mRNA cancer vaccines with caution and diligence while promoting innovation to overcome existing barriers. A delicate balance between opportunities and challenges will help guide the progress of this promising field towards its full potential.

A recombinant oncolytic influenza virus expressing a PD-L1 antibody induces CD8+ T-cell activation via the cGas-STING pathway in mice with hepatocellular carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate targeted killing of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells by a recombinant oncolytic influenza virus expressing a PD-L1 antibody (rgFlu/PD-L1) and to develop a novel immunotherapy for HCC.

METHODS

Using influenza virus reverse genetics, a recombinant oncolytic virus was generated in the background of the A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (PR8) virus, then identified via screening and passage in specific pathogen-free chicken embryos. Hepatocellular carcinoma cell killing by rgFlu/PD-L1 was confirmed in vitro and in vivo. Transcriptome analyses were used to explore PD-L1 expression and function. Western blotting revealed that PD-L1 activated the cGas-STING pathway.

RESULTS

rgFlu/PD-L1 expressed the PD-L1 heavy and light chain in PB1 and PA, respectively; PR8 served as the backbone. The hemagglutinin titer of rgFlu/PD-L1 was 2⁹, and the virus titer was 9-10 logTCID₅₀/mL. Electron microscopy revealed that the rgFlu/PD-L1 morphology and size were consistent with wild-type influenza virus. The MTS assay showed that rgFlu/PD-L1 induced significant killing of HCC cells but not normal cells. rgFlu/PD-L1 inhibited PD-L1 expression and induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells. Notably, rgFlu/PD-L1 controlled the viability and function of CD8⁺ T cells by activating the cGas-STING pathway.

CONCLUSION

rgFlu/PD-L1 activated the cGas-STING pathway in CD8⁺ T cells, causing them to kill HCC cells. This approach represents a novel immunotherapy for liver cancer.

Immunotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma: recent progress and new strategy

Due to its widespread occurrence and high mortality rate, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an abhorrent kind of cancer. Immunotherapy is a hot spot in the field of cancer treatment, represented by immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), which aim to improve the immune system's ability to recognize, target and eliminate cancer cells. The composition of the HCC immune microenvironment is the result of the interaction of immunosuppressive cells, immune effector cells, cytokine environment, and tumor cell intrinsic signaling pathway, and immunotherapy with strong anti-tumor immunity has received more and more research attention due to the limited responsiveness of HCC to ICI monotherapy. There is evidence of an organic combination of radiotherapy, chemotherapy, anti-angiogenic agents and ICI catering to the unmet medical needs of HCC. Moreover, immunotherapies such as adoptive cellular therapy (ACT), cancer vaccines and cytokines also show encouraging efficacy. It can significantly improve the ability of the immune system to eradicate tumor cells. This article reviews the role of immunotherapy in HCC, hoping to improve the effect of immunotherapy and develop personalized treatment regimens.