Nephropathic Cystinosis: Symptoms, Treatment, and Perspectives of a Systemic Disease

Targeting oxidative stress-induced lipid peroxidation enhances podocyte function in cystinosis

BACKGROUND

Cystinosis is a rare, incurable lysosomal storage disease caused by mutations in the CTNS gene encoding the cystine transporter cystinosin, which leads to lysosomal cystine accumulation in all cells of the body. Patients with cystinosis display signs of podocyte damage characterized by extensive loss of podocytes into the urine at early disease stages, glomerular proteinuria, and the development of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) lesions. Although standard treatment with cysteamine decreases cellular cystine levels, it neither reverses glomerular injury nor prevents the loss of podocytes. Thus, pathogenic mechanisms other than cystine accumulation are involved in podocyte dysfunction in cystinosis.

METHODS

We used immortalized patient-derived cystinosis, healthy, and CTNS knockdown podocytes to investigate podocyte dysfunction in cystinosis. The results were validated in our newly in-house developed fluorescent ctns-/-[Tg(fabp10a:gc-EGFP)] zebrafish larvae model. To understand impaired podocyte functionality, static and dynamic permeability assays, tracer-metabolomic analysis, flow cytometry, western blot, and chemical and dynamic redox-sensing fluorescent probes were used.

RESULTS

In the current study, we discovered that cystinosis podocytes demonstrate increased ferroptotic cell death caused by mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS)-driven membrane lipid peroxidation. Moreover, cystinosis cells present a fragmented mitochondrial network with impaired tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) cycle and energy metabolism. Targeting mitochondrial ROS and lipid peroxidation improved podocyte function in vitro and rescued proteinuria in vivo in cystinosis zebrafish larvae.

CONCLUSIONS

Mitochondrial ROS contribute to podocyte injury in cystinosis by driving lipid peroxidation and ferroptosis, which in turn lead to podocyte detachment. This finding adds cystinosis to the list of podocytopathies associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. The identified mechanisms reveal new therapeutic targets and highlight lipid peroxidation as an exploitable vulnerability of cystinosis podocytes.

ZenoSWATH DIA proteomics and clustering analysis of the effect of cysteamine at the cellular level in cystinotic fibroblasts

Cysteamine, an aminothiol, is the only available treatment for cystinosis, an incurable metabolic recessive disease characterized by detrimental symptoms at the renal, ocular, and muscular levels. Cystinosis is due to mutations in the CTNS gene encoding for the lysosomal symporter cystinosine. Cysteamine treatment only delays the symptoms, presents undesirable side effects and the patients depend on it for life. Thus, it is of paramount importance to find new complementary therapeutic targets for the disease, as well as to understand, at the molecular level, both the beneficial and detrimental effects of cysteamine. Here, we have used ZenoSWATH DIA proteomics and clustering analysis to unravel the differences between cystinotic and non-cystinotic skin fibroblasts, and to study the effect of increasing concentrations of cysteamine. Cystinotic cells present significant differences in proteins related to extracellular matrix structure and detoxification. Only a subset of those proteins is reversed by cysteamine in a dose-dependent manner, partially providing an explanation for its therapeutic benefits. Finally, cysteamine per se alters the levels of a group of lysosomal proteins that are not modulated in basal conditions. Our results will be helpful to understand the benefits, deficiencies, and detrimental effects of the cysteamine treatment.

Cysteamine toxicity presenting with acute encephalopathy and spastic tetraparesis

Cystinosis is a lysosomal storage disorder usually presenting with renal disease in infancy. As soon as the diagnosis is made, cysteamine (a cystine-depleting medication), is started, significantly improving life expectancy. We describe a young woman taking lifelong cysteamine for nephropathic cystinosis, who became acutely encephalopathic with a spastic tetraparesis secondary to cysteamine toxicity, which was potentially worsened by copper deficiency. On replacing copper and reducing the dose of cysteamine, she made a full neurological recovery. We discuss the case, and review cystinosis and what is known about cysteamine toxicity.

Development and Evaluation of Different Electrospun Cysteamine-Loaded Nanofibrous Webs: A Promising Option for Treating a Rare Lysosomal Storage Disorder

Nanofibers can be utilized to overcome the challenges faced by conventional ophthalmic formulations. This study aimed to develop and characterize cysteamine (Cys)-loaded nanofiber-based ophthalmic inserts (OIs) as a potential candidate for the treatment of ophthalmic cystinosis using water-soluble polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/poloxamer 407 (PO-407) and water-insoluble tetraethoxysilane (TEOS)/PVA nanofibers. Plain and Cys-loaded fibers in different proportions were prepared by the electrospinning method and studied for their morphological, physicochemical, release study, cytocompatibility effects, and stability study. The fiber formation was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, while Fourier transform infrared spectra showed the most critical peaks for the Cys and the excipients. The release of the Cys was fast from the two polymeric matrices (≤20 min). The release from TEOS/PVA nanofibers is characterized by Case II transport (0.75 < β < 1), while the release from PVA/PO-407 nanofibers follows Fickian diffusion (β < 0.75). The cytocompatibility of compositions was confirmed by hen eggs tested on the chorioallantoic membrane (HET-CAM) of chick embryos. All formulations remained stable under stress conditions (40 ± 2 °C, 75 ± 5% relative humidity) regarding morphology and physicochemical characteristics. The developed nanofibrous mats could be an excellent alternative to available Cys drops, with better stability and convenience of self-administration as OIs.

A 15-Month-Old with Faltering Growth

AbstractMorning Report is a time-honored tradition where physicians-in-training present cases to their colleagues and clinical experts to collaboratively examine an interesting patient presentation. The Morning Report section seeks to carry on this tradition by presenting a patient's chief concern and story, inviting the reader to develop a differential diagnosis and discover the diagnosis alongside the authors of the case. This report examines the story of a 15-month-old with faltering growth and short stature. Using questions, physical examination, and testing, an illness script for the presentation emerges. As the clinical course progresses, the differential is refined until a diagnosis is made.

MFSD12 depletion reduces cystine accumulation without improvement in proximal tubular function in experimental models for cystinosis

Cystinosis is an autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder, caused by mutations in the CTNS gene, resulting in an absent or altered cystinosin (CTNS) protein. Cystinosin exports cystine out of the lysosome, with a malfunction resulting in cystine accumulation and a defect in other cystinosin-mediated pathways. Cystinosis is a systemic disease, but the kidneys are the first and most severely affected organs. In the kidney, the disease initially manifests as a generalized dysfunction in the proximal tubules (also called renal Fanconi syndrome). MFSD12 is a lysosomal cysteine importer that directly affects the cystine levels in melanoma cells, HEK293T cells, and cystinosis patient-derived fibroblasts. In this study, we aimed to evaluate MFSD12 mRNA levels in cystinosis patient-derived proximal tubular epithelial cells (ciPTECs) and to study the effect of MFSD12 knockout on cystine levels. We showed similar MFSD12 mRNA expression in patient-derived ciPTECs in comparison with the control cells. CRISPR MFSD12 knockout in a patient-derived ciPTEC (CTNSΔ57kb) resulted in significantly reduced cystine levels. Furthermore, we evaluated proximal tubular reabsorption after injection of mfsd12a translation-blocking morpholino (TB MO) in a ctns-/- zebrafish model. This resulted in decreased cystine levels but caused a concentration-dependent increase in embryo dysmorphism. Furthermore, the mfsd12a TB MO injection did not improve proximal tubular reabsorption or megalin expression. In conclusion, MFSD12 mRNA depletion reduced cystine levels in both tested models without improvement of the proximal tubular function in the ctns-/- zebrafish embryo. In addition, the apparent toxicity of higher mfsd12a TB MO concentrations on the zebrafish development warrants further evaluation.NEW & NOTEWORTHY In this study, we show that MFSD12 depletion with either CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing or a translation-blocking morpholino significantly reduced cystine levels in cystinosis ciPTECs and ctns-/- zebrafish embryos, respectively. However, we observed no improvement in the proximal tubular reabsorption of dextran in the ctns-/- zebrafish embryos injected with mfsd12a translation-blocking morpholino. Furthermore, a negative effect of the mfsd12a morpholino on the zebrafish development warrants further investigation.

Renal transplantation for infantile and juvenile cystinosis: Two case report and review of the literature

Cystinosis is a rare autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder characterized by cystine buildup in various tissues, including the kidneys. Renal involvement is the primary manifestation, leading to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) if left untreated. Kidney transplantation (KT) in patients with cystinosis has significantly improved their prognosis for the disease outcome. Detailed reports on preoperative and Long-term postoperative management in these patients remain sparse. This report discusses the outcomes of two young adult patients of Middle Eastern descent with cystinosis who underwent KT. The first patient, diagnosed with infantile nephropathic cystinosis treated by cystine-depleting therapy, was operated by KT at the age of 18. The second patient, diagnosed with juvenile cystinosis, underwent transplantation at the age of 35 after being treated with hemodialysis. Our report describes detailed pre- and postoperative managements, including laboratory results, and pharmacological interventions. Both cases highlighted the varying clinical manifestations and disease severity between infantile and juvenile cystinosis. Pre-transplant conditions included renal dysfunction, growth retardation, secondary hyperparathyroidism, anemia, and extrarenal manifestations. Following KT, both patients experienced regained renal function, resolution of extrarenal complications, and normalization of laboratory parameters. Furthermore, both patients showed excellent postoperative outcomes with no acute rejection or allograft-related complications. KT is the treatment of choice for cystinosis patients with ESRD. Long-term follow-up post-transplantation is crucial to maintain good graft function. Further studies may elucidate optimal pre- and postoperative management protocols for this rare condition.

The Clinical Manifestations and Disease Burden of Cystinosis in Saudi Arabia: A Single-Tertiary Center Experience

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of regional and local evidence that describes the nature of cystinosis, a multiorgan accumulation of cystine, and its extent of organ damage. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the outcomes of cystinosis in patients who were followed up at a large tertiary care hospital.

METHODS

Medical records of patients with cystinosis were retrospectively reviewed. Patients' baseline demographics, lab values, medications, comorbidities, and complications were collected and described. Univariable and multivariable logistics regression models were constructed to control for confounders and build prediction models.

RESULTS

In our cohort of 39 patients, the mean age was 13.8±9.9 years. Approximately 56.4% of the patients had stunted growth, and the mortality rate was 25.6%. Regarding complications, the majority of patients developed myopathy (79.5%), end-stage renal disease (ESRD) (74.4%), and hypothyroidism (71.8%). Age (odds ratio=1.14, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 1.012, 1.285) and stunted growth (odds ratio=6.62, 95% CI: 1.024, 42.835) were found to be predictors of renal replacement therapy and renal transplantation, respectively (p<0.047).

CONCLUSION

This study on cystinosis patients reveals a high incidence of renal complications, with a significant mortality rate and common complications such as myopathy and ESRD. Age was found to be an independent risk factor for renal replacement therapy, while stunted growth predicted the need for transplantation. These findings underscore the urgency for early diagnosis, comprehensive treatment, and careful monitoring in managing cystinosis effectively.

Event-related potential (ERP) evidence for visual processing differences in children and adults with cystinosis (CTNS gene mutations)

BACKGROUND

Cystinosis, a rare lysosomal storage disease caused by mutations in the CTNS gene, is characterized by cystine crystallization and accumulation within multiple tissues, including kidney and brain. Its impact on neural function appears mild relative to its effects on other organs during early disease, but since therapeutic advances have led to substantially increased life expectancy, neurological implications are of increasing interest, necessitating deeper understanding of the impact of cystinosis on neurocognitive function. Behavioral difficulties have been reported in cystinosis in the visual domain. Very little is known, however, about how the brains of people living with cystinosis process visual information. This is especially interesting given that cystine accumulation in the cornea and posterior ocular structures is a hallmark of cystinosis.

METHODS

Here, high-density scalp electrophysiology was recorded to visual stimuli (during a Go/No-Go task) to investigate visual processing in individuals with cystinosis, compared to age-matched controls. Analyses focused on early stages of cortical visual processing.

RESULTS

The groups differed in their initial cortical response, with individuals with cystinosis exhibiting a significantly larger visual evoked potential (VEP) in the 130-150 ms time window. The groups also differed in the associations between neural responses and verbal abilities: While controls with higher IQ scores presented larger neural responses, that relationship was not observed in cystinosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The enlarged VEP in cystinosis could be the result of cortical hyperexcitability and/or differences in attentional engagement and explain, at least partially, the visual and visual-spatial difficulties described in this population.

Evaluation of the efficacy of cystinosin supplementation through CTNS mRNA delivery in experimental models for cystinosis

Messenger RNA (mRNA) therapies are emerging in different disease areas, but have not yet reached the kidney field. Our aim was to study the feasibility to treat the genetic defect in cystinosis using synthetic mRNA in cell models and ctns-/- zebrafish embryos. Cystinosis is a prototype lysosomal storage disorder caused by mutations in the CTNS gene, encoding the lysosomal cystine-H+ symporter cystinosin, and leading to cystine accumulation in all cells of the body. The kidneys are the first and the most severely affected organs, presenting glomerular and proximal tubular dysfunction, progressing to end-stage kidney failure. The current therapeutic standard cysteamine, reduces cystine levels, but has many side effects and does not restore kidney function. Here, we show that synthetic mRNA can restore lysosomal cystinosin expression following lipofection into CTNS-/- kidney cells and injection into ctns-/- zebrafish. A single CTNS mRNA administration decreases cellular cystine accumulation for up to 14 days in vitro. In the ctns-/- zebrafish, CTNS mRNA therapy improves proximal tubular reabsorption, reduces proteinuria, and restores brush border expression of the multi-ligand receptor megalin. Therefore, this proof-of-principle study takes the first steps in establishing an mRNA-based therapy to restore cystinosin expression, resulting in cystine reduction in vitro and in the ctns-/- larvae, and restoration of the zebrafish pronephros function.

Cysteamine Eye Drops in Hyaluronic Acid Packaged in Innovative Single-Dose Systems, Part II: Long-Term Stability and Clinical Ocular Biopermanence

BACKGROUND

Cystinosis is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the accumulation of cystine crystals in several tissues and organs causing, among others, severe eye symptoms. The high instability of cysteamine eye drops makes it difficult to develop formulations with an acceptable shelf life to be prepared in hospital pharmacy departments. Previously, a new compounded formulation of cysteamine eye drops in hyaluronic acid (HA) packaged in innovative single-dose systems was developed.

METHODS

Long-term stability at -20 °C of this formulation was studied considering the content of cysteamine, pH, osmolality, viscosity, and microbiological analysis. The oxygen permeability of single-dose containers was also studied and an ocular biopermanence study was conducted in healthy volunteers measuring lacrimal stability and volume parameters.

RESULTS

Data confirm that cysteamine concentration remained above 90% for 120 days, all parameters remaining within the accepted range for ophthalmic formulations. The permeability of the containers was reduced over time, while ocular biopermanence was maintained despite the freezing process and storage time.

CONCLUSIONS

0.55% cysteamine hydrochloride formulation in HA and packaged in single-dose containers preserved at -20 °C is stable for 120 days protected from light, presenting high potential for its translation into clinical practice when commercial presentations are not available.

Clinical and biochemical footprints of inherited metabolic diseases. XIV. Metabolic kidney diseases

Kidney disease is a global health burden with high morbidity and mortality. Causes of kidney disease are numerous, extending from common disease groups like diabetes and arterial hypertension to rare conditions including inherited metabolic diseases (IMDs). Given its unique anatomy and function, the kidney is a target organ in about 10% of known IMDs, emphasizing the relevant contribution of IMDs to kidney disease. The pattern of injury affects all segments of the nephron including glomerular disease, proximal and distal tubular damage, kidney cyst formation, built-up of nephrocalcinosis and stones as well as severe malformations. We revised and updated the list of known metabolic etiologies associated with kidney involvement and found 190 relevant IMDs. This represents the 14th of a series of educational articles providing a comprehensive and revised list of metabolic differential diagnoses according to system involvement.

Event-related potential (ERP) evidence for early visual processing differences in children and adults with Cystinosis (CTNS gene mutations)

Background

Cystinosis, a rare lysosomal storage disease caused by mutations in the CTNS gene, is characterized by cystine crystallization and accumulation within multiple tissues, including kidney and brain. Its impact on neural function appears mild relative to its effects on other organs during early disease, but since therapeutic advances have led to substantially increased life expectancy, neurological implications are of increasing interest, necessitating deeper understanding of the impact of cystinosis on neurocognitive function. Behavioral difficulties have been reported in cystinosis in the visual domain. Very little is known, however, about how the brains of people living with cystinosis process visual information. This is especially interesting given that cystine accumulation in the cornea and posterior ocular structures is a hallmark of cystinosis.

Methods

Here, high-density scalp electrophysiology was recorded to visual stimuli (during a Go/No-Go task) to investigate early visual processing in individuals with cystinosis, compared to age-matched controls. Analyses focused on early stages of cortical visual processing.

Results

The groups differed in their initial cortical response, with individuals with cystinosis exhibiting a significantly larger visual evoked potential (VEP) in the 130-150 ms time window. The groups also differed in the associations between neural responses and verbal abilities: While controls with higher IQ scores presented larger neural responses, that relationship was not observed in cystinosis.

Conclusions

The enlarged VEP in cystinosis could be the result of cortical hyperexcitability and/or differences in attentional engagement and explain, at least partially, the visual and visual-spatial difficulties described in this population.

A different approach to cystinosis: ultrasound, doppler, and shear wave elastography findings of thyroid gland

BACKGROUND

While thyroid dysfunction develops in about 50% of untreated children with cystinosis, there is no data about how the sonography of thyroid tissue appears in this disease. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the sonographic appearance, color doppler findings in this disease and to evaluate how cystine crystal accumulation affect tissue stiffness using shear wave elastography (SWE).

METHODS

Sixteen children diagnosed with cystinosis and a control group consisting of 34 healthy children were included in this study. B mode ultrasound, color doppler imaging and real-time SWE of thyroid tissue were performed.

RESULTS

Ultrasound imaging revealed lower echogenicity and diffuse heterogeneous echotexture in 7 of the 16 cystinosis patients. Thyroid gland volumes were lower in cystinosis patients (p 0.005). Doppler ultrasound demonstrated increased flow in 8 patients. On SWE, the thyroid tissue stiffness was established to be lower in patients compared to healthy children (p 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study evaluating thyroid gland B mode, color doppler ultrasonography, and SWE findings in cystinosis. Our findings indicate that cysteamine treatment still cannot completely prevent the disease infiltration process of thyroid gland. The other important finding-that thyroid tissue stiffness was established to be lower than that of the controls-also demonstrates the ongoing disease infiltration process.

Response inhibition and error-monitoring in cystinosis (CTNS gene mutations): Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence of a diverse set of difficulties

Cystinosis, a rare lysosomal storage disease, is characterized by cystine crystallization and accumulation within tissues and organs, including the kidneys and brain. Its impact on neural function appears mild relative to its effects on other organs, but therapeutic advances have led to substantially increased life expectancy, necessitating deeper understanding of its impact on neurocognitive function. Behaviorally, some deficits in executive function have been noted in this population, but the underlying neural processes are not understood. Using standardized cognitive assessments and a Go/No-Go response inhibition task in conjunction with high-density electrophysiological recordings (EEG), we sought to investigate the behavioral and neural dynamics of inhibition of a prepotent response and of error monitoring (critical components of executive function) in individuals with cystinosis, when compared to age-matched controls. Thirty-seven individuals diagnosed with cystinosis (7-36 years old, 24 women) and 45 age-matched controls (27 women) participated in this study. Analyses focused on N2 and P3 No-Go responses and error-related positivity (Pe). Atypical inhibitory processing was shown behaviorally. Electrophysiological differences were additionally found between the groups, with individuals with cystinosis showing larger No-Go P3s. Error-monitoring was likewise different between the groups, with those with cystinosis showing reduced Pe amplitudes.

Event-related potential (ERP) evidence of early visual processing differences in cystinosis

Cystinosis, a rare lysosomal storage disease, is characterized by cystine crystallization and accumulation within tissues and organs, including the kidneys and brain. Its impact on neural function appears mild relative to its effects on other organs, but therapeutic advances have led to substantially increased life expectancy, necessitating deeper understanding of its impact on neurocognitive function. Behavioral difficulties have been reported in cystinosis in the visual and visual-processing domain. Very little is known, however, about how the brains of people living with cystinosis process visual information, although cysteamine accumulation in the retina is a prominent feature of cystinosis. Here, electrophysiology was recorded during a Go/No-Go task to investigate early visual processing in cystinosis, compared to an age-matched control group. Analyses focused on early stages of cortical visual processing. The groups differed in their initial cortical response, with individuals with cystinosis exhibiting a significantly larger visual evoked potential (VEP) in the 130 to 150 ms time window. The timing and topography of this response suggested an enhanced P1 in cystinosis that could be the result of cortical hyperexcitability and/or differences in attentional engagement and explain, at least partially, the visual and visual-spatial difficulties described in this population. The groups also differed in the associations between neural responses and verbal abilities: While controls with higher IQ scores presented larger neural responses, that relationship was not observed in cystinosis.

Metabolomic Analyses to Identify Candidate Biomarkers of Cystinosis

Cystinosis is a rare, devastating hereditary disease secondary to recessive CTNS gene mutations. The most commonly used diagnostic method is confirmation of an elevated leukocyte cystine level; however, this method is expensive and difficult to perform. This study aimed to identify candidate biomarkers for the diagnosis and follow-up of cystinosis based on multiomics studies. The study included three groups: newly-diagnosed cystinosis patients (patient group, n = 14); cystinosis patients under treatment (treatment group, n = 19); and healthy controls (control group, n = 30). Plasma metabolomics analysis identified 10 metabolites as candidate biomarkers that differed between the patient and control groups [L-serine, taurine, lyxose, 4-trimethylammoniobutanoic acid, orotic acid, glutathione, PE(O-18:1(9Z)/0:0), 2-hydroxyphenyl acetic acid, acetyl-N-formil-5-metoxikinuramine, 3-indoxyl sulphate]. As compared to the healthy control group, in the treatment group, hypotaurine, phosphatidylethanolamine, N-acetyl-d-mannosamine, 3-indolacetic acid, p-cresol, phenylethylamine, 5-aminovaleric acid, glycine, creatinine, and saccharic acid levels were significantly higher, and the metabolites quinic acid, capric acid, lenticin, xanthotoxin, glucose-6-phosphate, taurine, uric acid, glyceric acid, alpha-D-glucosamine phosphate, and serine levels were significantly lower. Urinary metabolomic analysis clearly differentiated the patient group from the control group by means of higher allo-inositol, talose, glucose, 2-hydroxybutiric acid, cystine, pyruvic acid, valine, and phenylalanine levels, and lower metabolite (N-acetyl-L-glutamic acid, 3-aminopropionitrile, ribitol, hydroquinone, glucuronic acid, 3-phosphoglycerate, xanthine, creatinine, and 5-aminovaleric acid) levels in the patient group. Urine metabolites were also found to be significantly different in the treatment group than in the control group. Thus, this study identified candidate biomarkers that could be used for the diagnosis and follow-up of cystinosis.

Facial features of lysosomal storage disorders

INTRODUCTION

The use of facial recognition technology has diversified the diagnostic toolbelt for clinicians and researchers for the accurate diagnoses of patients with rare and challenging disorders. Specific identifiers in patient images can be grouped using artificial intelligence to allow the recognition of diseases and syndromes with similar features. Lysosomal storage disorders are rare, and some have prominent and unique features that may be used to train the accuracy of facial recognition software algorithms. Noteworthy features of lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs) include facial features such as prominent brows, wide noses, thickened lips, mouth, and chin, resulting in coarse and rounded facial features.

AREAS COVERED

We evaluated and report the prevalence of facial phenotypes in patients with different LSDs, noting two current examples when artificial intelligence strategies have been utilized to identify distinctive facies.

EXPERT OPINION

Specific LSDs, including Gaucher disease, Mucolipidosis IV and Fabry disease have recently been distinguished using facial recognition software. Additional lysosomal disorders LSDs lysosomal storage disorders with unique and distinguishable facial features also merit evaluation using this technology. These tools may ultimately aid in the identification of specific LSDs and shorten the diagnostic odyssey for patients with these rare and under-recognized disorders.

Efficacy of Cysteamine and Methimazole in Treating Melasma A Comparative Narrative Review

Melasma is a chronic and acquired pigmentary condition that primarily affects women and undermines patient satisfaction and confidence. Melasma mostly affects females, accounting for 90% of all cases. It affects people of all races, particularly those with skin types IV and V who live in areas with lots of UV radiation. According to the studies, Melasma lesions are seen throughout the face in centrofacial, malar, and mandibular patterns. Melasma lesions on the forehead, cheeks, nose, upper lip, and/or chin are the most prevalent centrofacial pattern. Melasma lesions can also be detected along the periorbital area, especially in Asian people. Melasma is notably resistant to treatment, with many patients experiencing only temporary relief and relapses. Combining therapies that target numerous pathologic components, including photodamage, inflammation, aberrant vascularity, and abnormal pigmentation, generally results in the most dramatic therapeutic improvements. Treatments for dark circles include topical depigmenting medicines like hydroquinone, kojic acid, azelaic acid, and topical retinoic acid, and physical treatments such as chemical peels, surgical adjustments, and laser therapy. The objective of therapy should be to figure out what's causing the hyperpigmentation and what's contributing to it. This article provides an overview of melasma therapies and the efficacy of methimazole and cysteamine for melasma therapy.

Co-axial Printing of Convoluted Proximal Tubule for Kidney Disease Modeling

Despite the increasing incidence of kidney-related diseases, we are still far from understanding the underlying mechanisms of these diseases and their progression. This lack of understanding is partly because of a poor replication of the diseases in vitro, limited to planar culture. Advancing towards three-dimensional models, hereby we propose coaxial printing to obtain microfibers containing a helical hollow microchannel. These recapitulate the architecture of the proximal tubule (PT), an important nephron segment often affected in kidney disorders. A stable gelatin/alginate-based ink was formulated to allow printability while maintaining structural properties. Fine tuning of the composition, printing temperature and extrusion rate allowed for optimal ink viscosity that led to coiling of the microfiber's inner channel. The printed microfibers exhibited prolonged structural stability (42 days) and cytocompatibility in culture. Healthy conditionally immortalized PT epithelial cells and a knockout cell model for cystinosis (CTNS^-/-) were seeded to mimic two genotypes of PT. Upon culturing for 14 days, engineered PT showed homogenous cytoskeleton organization as indicated by staining for filamentous actin, barrier-formation and polarization with apical marker α-tubulin and basolateral marker Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. Cell viability was slightly decreased upon prolonged culturing for 14 days, which was more pronounced inCTNS^-/-microfibers. Finally, cystinosis cells showed reduced apical transport activity in the microfibers compared to healthy PT epithelial cells when looking at breast cancer resistance protein and multidrug resistance-associated protein 4. Engineered PT incorporated in a custom-designed microfluidic chip allowed to assess leak-tightness of the epithelium, which appeared less tight in cystinosis PT compared to healthy PT, in agreement with its in vivo phenotype. While we are still on the verge of patient-oriented medicine, this system holds great promise for further research in establishing advanced in vitro disease models.

Cysteamine bitartrate delayed-release capsules control leukocyte cystine levels and promote statural growth and kidney health in an open-label study of treatment-naïve patients <6 years of age with nephropathic cystinosis

Nephropathic cystinosis is a rare autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disease that is characterized by accumulation of cysteine and formation of crystals within cells of different organs and tissues causing systemic manifestations in childhood that include poor linear growth, ocular involvement, hypothyroidism, and progressive kidney disease. This study was a long-term, prospective open-label evaluation of twice-daily delayed release (DR) cysteamine capsules in cystinosis patients <6 years of age who were naïve to any form of cysteamine treatment. Fifteen treatment-naïve patients <6 years old (mean age 2.2 ± 1.0 years, 53% male, 73% White) were enrolled and treated with DR-cysteamine capsules for up to 18 months. Patients had clinically meaningful decreases in WBC cysteine concentration during treatment (3.2 ± 3.0 nmol ½ cystine/mg protein at Day 1 to 0.8 ± 0.8 nmol ½ cystine/mg protein at study exit), and anthropometric data improvements were consistently observed in height, weight and body surface area. Additionally, estimated glomerular filtration rate increased from 55.93 ± 22.43 ml/min/1.73 m2 at baseline to 63.79 ± 21.44 ml/min/1.73 m2 at study exit. Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic results support the use of the same starting, escalation, and maintenance doses according to body surface for children aged <6 years that are currently recommended in adults and older children. All patients experienced ≥1 adverse event(s) with vomiting (80%) and upper respiratory tract infection (53%) most frequently reported. Based on our study, patients <6 years of age with nephropathic cystinosis without prior treatment can safely and effectively initiate treatment with DR-cysteamine, a delayed-release form of cysteamine bitartrate that can be given every 12 h.

Limitations and Challenges in the Stability of Cysteamine Eye Drop Compounded Formulations

Accumulation of cystine crystals in the cornea of patients suffering from cystinosis is considered pathognomonic and can lead to severe ocular complications. Cysteamine eye drop compounded formulations, commonly prepared by hospital pharmacy services, are meant to diminish the build-up of corneal cystine crystals. The objective of this work was to analyze whether the shelf life proposed for six formulations prepared following different protocols used in hospital pharmacies is adequate to guarantee the quality and efficacy of cysteamine eye drops. The long-term and in-use stabilities of these preparations were studied using different parameters: content of cysteamine and its main degradation product cystamine; appearance, color and odor; pH and viscosity; and microbiological analysis. The results obtained show that degradation of cysteamine was between 20% and 50% after one month of storage in the long-term stability study and between 35% and 60% in the in-use study. These data confirm that cysteamine is a very unstable molecule in aqueous solution, the presence of oxygen being the main degradation factor. Saturation with nitrogen gas of the solutions offers a means of reducing cysteamine degradation. Overall, all the formulae studied presented high instability at the end of their shelf life, suggesting that their clinical efficacy might be dramatically compromised.

In Vitro and In Vivo Models to Study Nephropathic Cystinosis

The development over the past 50 years of a variety of cell lines and animal models has provided valuable tools to understand the pathophysiology of nephropathic cystinosis. Primary cultures from patient biopsies have been instrumental in determining the primary cause of cystine accumulation in the lysosomes. Immortalised cell lines have been established using different gene constructs and have revealed a wealth of knowledge concerning the molecular mechanisms that underlie cystinosis. More recently, the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells, kidney organoids and tubuloids have helped bridge the gap between in vitro and in vivo model systems. The development of genetically modified mice and rats have made it possible to explore the cystinotic phenotype in an in vivo setting. All of these models have helped shape our understanding of cystinosis and have led to the conclusion that cystine accumulation is not the only pathology that needs targeting in this multisystemic disease. This review provides an overview of the in vitro and in vivo models available to study cystinosis, how well they recapitulate the disease phenotype, and their limitations.

Deficiency of the sedoheptulose kinase (Shpk) does not alter the ability of hematopoietic stem cells to rescue cystinosis in the mouse model

Cystinosis is an autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder caused by mutations in the CTNS gene encoding the lysosomal cystine transporter, cystinosin, and leading to multi-organ degeneration including kidney failure. A clinical trial for cystinosis is ongoing to test the safety and efficacy of transplantation of autologous hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) ex vivo gene-modified to introduce functional CTNS cDNA. Preclinical studies in Ctns-/- mice previously showed that a single HSPC transplantation led to significant tissue cystine decrease and long-term tissue preservation. The main mechanism of action involves the differentiation of the transplanted HSPCs into macrophages within tissues and transfer of cystinosin-bearing lysosomes to the diseased cells via tunneling nanotubes. However, a major concern was that the most common cystinosis-causing mutation in humans is a 57-kb deletion that eliminates not only CTNS but also the adjacent sedopheptulose kinase SHPK/CARKL gene encoding a metabolic enzyme that influences macrophage polarization. Here, we investigated if absence of Shpk could negatively impact the efficiency of transplanted HSPCs to differentiate into macrophages within tissues and then to prevent cystinosis rescue. We generated Shpk knockout mouse models and detected a phenotype consisting of perturbations in the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), the metabolic shunt regulated by SHPK. Shpk-/- mice also recapitulated the urinary excretion of sedoheptulose and erythritol found in cystinosis patients homozygous for the 57-kb deletion. Transplantation of Shpk-/--HSPCs into Ctns-/- mice resulted in significant reduction in tissue cystine load and restoration of Ctns expression, as well as improved kidney architecture comparable to WT-HSPC recipients. Altogether, these data demonstrate that absence of SHPK does not alter the ability of HSPCs to rescue cystinosis, and then patients homozygous for the 57-kb deletion should benefit from ex vivo gene therapy and can be enrolled in the ongoing clinical trial. However, because of the limits inherent to animal models, outcomes of this patient population will be carefully compared to the other enrolled subjects.

Molecular Mechanisms and Treatment Options of Nephropathic Cystinosis

Nephropathic cystinosis is a severe, monogenic systemic disorder that presents early in life and leads to progressive organ damage, particularly affecting the kidneys. It is caused by mutations in the CTNS gene, which encodes the lysosomal transporter cystinosin, resulting in intralysosomal accumulation of cystine. Recent studies demonstrated that the loss of cystinosin is associated with disrupted autophagy dynamics, accumulation of distorted mitochondria, and increased oxidative stress, leading to abnormal proliferation and dysfunction of kidney cells. We discuss these molecular mechanisms driving nephropathic cystinosis. Further, we consider how unravelling molecular mechanisms supports the identification and development of new strategies for cystinosis by the use of small molecules, biologicals, and genetic rescue of the disease in vitro and in vivo.

Non-invasive intradermal imaging of cystine crystals in cystinosis

IMPORTANCE

Development of noninvasive methodology to reproducibly measure tissue cystine crystal load to assess disease status and guide clinical care in cystinosis, an inherited lysosomal storage disorder characterized by widespread cystine crystal accumulation.

OBJECTIVE

To develop an unbiased and semi-automated imaging methodology to quantify dermal cystine crystal accumulation in patients to correlate with disease status.

DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

101 participants, 70 patients and 31 healthy controls, were enrolled at the University of California, San Diego, Cystinosis Clinics, Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego and at the annual Cystinosis Research Foundation family conference for an ongoing prospective longitudinal cohort study of cystinosis patients with potential yearly follow-up.

EXPOSURES

Intradermal reflectance confocal microscopy (RCM) imaging, blood collection via standard venipuncture, medical record collection, and occasional skin punch biopsies.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was to establish an automated measure of normalized confocal crystal volume (nCCV) for each subject. Secondary analysis examined the association of nCCV with various clinical indicators to assess nCCV's possible predictive potential.

RESULTS

Over 2 years, 57 patients diagnosed with cystinosis (median [range] age: 15.1 yrs [0.8, 54]; 41.4% female) were intradermally assessed by RCM to produce 84 image stacks. 27 healthy individuals (38.7 yrs [10, 85]; 53.1% female) were also imaged providing 37 control image stacks. Automated 2D crystal area quantification revealed that patients had significantly elevated crystal accumulation within the superficial dermis. 3D volumetric analysis of this region was significantly higher in patients compared to healthy controls (mean [SD]: 1934.0 μm3 [1169.1] for patients vs. 363.1 μm3 [194.3] for controls, P<0.001). Medical outcome data was collected from 43 patients with infantile cystinosis (media [range] age: 11 yrs [0.8, 54]; 51% female). nCCV was positively associated with hypothyroidism (OR = 19.68, 95% CI: [1.60, 242.46], P = 0.02) and stage of chronic kidney disease (slope estimate = 0.53, 95%CI: [0.05, 1.00], P = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This study used non-invasive RCM imaging to develop an intradermal cystine crystal quantification method. Results showed that cystinosis patients had increased nCCV compared to healthy controls. Level of patient nCCV correlated with several clinical outcomes suggesting nCCV may be used as a potential new biomarker for cystinosis to monitor long-term disease control and medication compliance.

Phase 1 Renal Impairment Trial Results Supports Targeted Individualized Dosing of ELX-02 in Patients With Nephropathic Cystinosis

The aim of this study was to assess the pharmacokinetics (PK) and safety of ELX‐02 in a renally impaired population and apply these findings to the individualized dosing of patients with nephropathic cystinosis. This phase 1 renal impairment (RI; mild, moderate, or severe), single‐dose, PK, and safety evaluation included 6 participants assigned to each RI group. Six healthy controls with normal renal function were matched to participants with renal impairment. All received a single subcutaneous dose of 1‐mg/kg ELX‐02 on day 1 and were monitored for 72 hours after dosing with serial blood and urine samples. An estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR)‐PK model of ELX‐02 was developed from the RI study data and used to implement individualized dosing in a phase 2a study in patients with nephropathic cystinosis to achieve a weekly targeted exposure (area under the plasma concentration–time curve [AUC]). In participants with RI, ELX‐02 clearance decreased, and exposure increased with severity of RI. ELX‐02 plasma exposure was similar to healthy controls in participants with mild RI, but increasing severity of RI resulted in significantly decreased clearance, increased maximum plasma concentration, AUC from time zero to infinity, and half‐life compared to controls. ELX‐02 urinary clearance showed a similar pattern. Relationships between eGFR and exposure were defined supporting individualized dose determination for prediction of dose and AUC in patients with nephropathic cystinosis, achieving overall mean 110.7% of AUC targets. ELX‐02 was well tolerated by RI and nephropathic cystinosis populations. ELX‐02 exhibits a consistent PK profile across increasing degrees of RI with reduced clearance, increased exposure, and prolonged renal elimination proportional to reductions in eGFR. The defined relationship between eGFR and plasma exposure enabled individualized dose adjustment in patients with nephropathic cystinosis.

Ophthalmic Evaluation of Diagnosed Cases of Eye Cystinosis: A Tertiary Care Center's Experience

Background: We aimed to identify diagnosed cases of ocular cystinosis and describe clinical, epidemiological and therapeutic characteristics. Methods: This is a descriptive and retrospective case series. All patients underwent a full check-up examination every 4–6 months by ophthalmologists, nephrologists and other required specialists. Results: Of the seven cases, six (85.7%) were females and one (14.2%) was male. The infantile nephropathic form of cystinosis was observed in five patients and the juvenile nephropathic form in two patients. No patients with the ocular form of cystinosis were identified. Corneal cystine crystals (CCC) were found in all analyzed patients. Severe ocular and general complications of the disease that had been standing for years, connected to the infantile nephropathic form, delayed diagnosis or inappropriate treatment, were observed only in two patients. All patients received topical therapy. No adverse events related to the therapy were observed. Conclusions: Cystinosis is a rare, progressive disease. Early diagnosis and treatment prevent serious complications from numerous systemic organs. Patients require constant systematic monitoring by various specialists.

Cystinosis beyond kidneys: gastrointestinal system and muscle involvement

Background

Cystinosis is a multisystemic disease resulting from cystine accumulation primarily in kidney and many other tissues. We intended to study the evolution of less commonly seen extrarenal complications of cystinosis in a group of patients who have periods without cysteamine treatment.

Methods

Gastrointestinal and muscular complications of cystinosis were studied in a group of 21 patients.

Results

Twenty one patients were included in the study. Among them, 14 were homozygous and 3 were compound heterozygous for CTNS mutations. The median age of diagnosis was 15 months (range; 5 months-14 years) and the mean age at last visit was 11.3 ± 6.5 years. Nine patients (42%) had end stage renal disease at a mean age of 10.6 years (6.5–17 years). Abdominal ultrasonography and portal vein doppler ultrasonography were performed in19 patients, 14 of them (74%) had hepatomegaly, 10 patients (53%) had granular pattern or heterogeneity of liver. Only one patient had high transaminase levels and liver biopsy showed cystine crystals in the liver. Eleven patients (58%) had borderline or increased portal vein minimum and maximum flow velocities. One patient had CK level of 9024 U/L and electromyographic study showed active myopathic involvement. Two patients were found to have gastroesaphageal reflux only and 4 patients were found to have esophageal remnants in addition to reflux.

Conclusions

In addition to renal functions, extrarenal organs may be affected from cystine accumulation even in childhood, especially in patients who are incompliant to treatment, resulting in complications such as swallowing difficulty, hepatomegaly and portal hypertension.

Amino Acid Transport Defects in Human Inherited Metabolic Disorders

Amino acid transporters play very important roles in nutrient uptake, neurotransmitter recycling, protein synthesis, gene expression, cell redox balance, cell signaling, and regulation of cell volume. With regard to transporters that are closely connected to metabolism, amino acid transporter-associated diseases are linked to metabolic disorders, particularly when they involve different organs, cell types, or cell compartments. To date, 65 different human solute carrier (SLC) families and more than 400 transporter genes have been identified, including 11 that are known to include amino acid transporters. This review intends to summarize and update all the conditions in which a strong association has been found between an amino acid transporter and an inherited metabolic disorder. Many of these inherited disorders have been identified in recent years. In this work, the physiological functions of amino acid transporters will be described by the inherited diseases that arise from transporter impairment. The pathogenesis, clinical phenotype, laboratory findings, diagnosis, genetics, and treatment of these disorders are also briefly described. Appropriate clinical and diagnostic characterization of the underlying molecular defect may give patients the opportunity to avail themselves of appropriate therapeutic options in the future.

Implementation of an intraleukocitary cystine quantification method for diagnosis of cystinosis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cystinosis is an inborn error of metabolism, clinically characterised by severe renal involvement and development of corneal cystine deposits, especially in the adult form of the disease. Cystinosis is a treatable condition. Therefore, an early diagnosis is necessary to start therapy. For biochemical confirmation of the condition it is necessary to quantify intracellular cystine concentrations. For this, different methods have been described with variations in cell isolation strategies and the amino acid quantification techniques used. In order to improve confirmatory biochemical diagnosis in our setting, a protocol for intraleukocitary cystine quantification was established.

METHODS

A high performance liquid chromatography based method for cystine quantification in polymorphonuclear cells was implemented. Evaluation of the best anticoagulant to use and temperature stability of the sample at 4̊C were performed. In addition, we established reference values for our population.

RESULTS

It was determined that intraleukocitary cystine quantification must be performed in blood samples containing acid-citrate-dextrose as anticoagulant. Samples must be processed immediately due to their poor stability even when refrigerated. Based on the results from 50 healthy individuals, the cut-off point established for our population was 0.34nmol 1/2 cystine/mg.

CONCLUSION

The adaptation performed to the cystine quantification method here presented the highest control population that has been reported in the literature so far. Our results highlight the need for making available a cystine quantification method locally and confirm the convenience for each laboratory to establish its own reference values to provide greater reliability for interpreting results.

Proximal renal tubular acidosis with and without Fanconi syndrome

Proximal renal tubular acidosis (RTA) is caused by a defect in bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) reabsorption in the kidney proximal convoluted tubule. It usually manifests as normal anion-gap metabolic acidosis due to HCO₃⁻ wastage. In a normal kidney, the thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop and more distal nephron segments reclaim all of the HCO₃⁻ not absorbed by the proximal tubule. Bicarbonate wastage seen in type II RTA indicates that the proximal tubular defect is severe enough to overwhelm the capacity for HCO₃⁻ reabsorption beyond the proximal tubule. Proximal RTA can occur as an isolated syndrome or with other impairments in proximal tubular functions under the spectrum of Fanconi syndrome. Fanconi syndrome, which is characterized by a defect in proximal tubular reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, uric acid, phosphate, and HCO₃⁻, can occur due to inherited or acquired causes. Primary inherited Fanconi syndrome is caused by a mutation in the sodium-phosphate cotransporter (NaP_i-II) in the proximal tubule. Recent studies have identified new causes of Fanconi syndrome due to mutations in the EHHADH and the HNF4A genes. Fanconi syndrome can also be one of many manifestations of various inherited systemic diseases, such as cystinosis. Many of the acquired causes of Fanconi syndrome with or without proximal RTA are drug-induced, with the list of causative agents increasing as newer drugs are introduced for clinical use, mainly in the oncology field.

Next generation sequencing as second-tier test in high-throughput newborn screening for nephropathic cystinosis

Nephropathic cystinosis is a rare autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder, which causes loss of renal proximal tubular function and progressive loss of glomerular function, finally leading to end stage renal failure at school age. In the course of the disease most patients will need kidney transplantation if treatment has not been started before clinical manifestation. With an effective treatment available, a newborn screening assay is highly demanded. Since newborns with cystinosis usually do not show symptoms within the first months of life and no biochemical markers are easily detectable, a DNA-based method seems to be an obvious tool for early diagnosis. Screening was performed using high-throughput nucleic acid extraction followed by 384-well qPCR and melting analysis for the three most frequent variants (57 kb deletion NC_000017.11:g.3600934_3658165del (GRCh38); c.18_21del GACT; c.926dupG) responsible for the defective lysosomal membrane protein cystinosin (CTNS). To increase sensitivity, all heterozygous samples identified in qPCR assay were verified and screened for additional variants by applying next generation sequencing. From January 2018 to July 2019 nearly 292,000 newborns were successfully screened. We identified two newborns with a homozygous 57 kb deletion and a second one with heterozygous 57 kb deletion and a G>C substitution at position c.-512 on the second allele. Cystinosis is an example for diseases caused by a limited number of high prevalence and a high number of low prevalence variants. We have shown that qPCR combined with NGS can be used as a high throughput, cost effective tool in newborn screening for such diseases.

Mimicry and well known genetic friends: molecular diagnosis in an Iranian cohort of suspected Bartter syndrome and proposition of an algorithm for clinical differential diagnosis

BACKGROUND

Bartter Syndrome is a rare, genetically heterogeneous, mainly autosomal recessively inherited condition characterized by hypochloremic hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis. Mutations in several genes encoding for ion channels localizing to the renal tubules including SLC12A1, KCNJ1, BSND, CLCNKA, CLCNKB, MAGED2 and CASR have been identified as underlying molecular cause. No genetically defined cases have been described in the Iranian population to date. Like for other rare genetic disorders, implementation of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technologies has greatly facilitated genetic diagnostics and counseling over the last years. In this study, we describe the clinical, biochemical and genetic characteristics of patients from 15 Iranian families with a clinical diagnosis of Bartter Syndrome.

RESULTS

Age range of patients included in this study was 3 months to 6 years and all patients showed hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis. 3 patients additionally displayed hypercalciuria, with evidence of nephrocalcinosis in one case. Screening by Whole Exome Sequencing (WES) and long range PCR revealed that 12/17 patients (70%) had a deletion of the entire CLCNKB gene that was previously identified as the most common cause of Bartter Syndrome in other populations. 4/17 individuals (approximately 25% of cases) were found to suffer in fact from pseudo-Bartter syndrome resulting from congenital chloride diarrhea due to a novel homozygous mutation in the SLC26A3 gene, Pendred syndrome due to a known homozygous mutation in SLC26A4, Cystic Fibrosis (CF) due to a novel mutation in CFTR and apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome due to a novel homozygous loss of function mutation in HSD11B2 gene. 1 case (5%) remained unsolved.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate deletion of CLCNKB is the most common cause of Bartter syndrome in Iranian patients and we show that age of onset of clinical symptoms as well as clinical features amongst those patients are variable. Further, using WES we were able to prove that nearly 1/4 patients in fact suffered from Pseudo-Bartter Syndrome, reversing the initial clinical diagnosis with important impact on the subsequent treatment and clinical follow up pathway. Finally, we propose an algorithm for clinical differential diagnosis of Bartter Syndrome.