1,2,3-Triazole-Containing Compounds as Anti-Lung Cancer Agents: Current Developments, Mechanisms of Action, and Structure-Activity Relationship

Signature of click chemistry in advanced techniques for cancer therapeutics

Click chemistry has made a revolution in the field of chemical biology owing to its high efficiency, specificity, and mild reaction conditions. The copper(i)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) and strain-promoted [3 + 2] azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) stand out as the most popular click reactions that construct a stable triazole ring by reacting an azide with an alkyne. These two reactions represent an ideal choice for biological applications due to its specificity, reliability, and biocompatibility. As a powerful modular synthetic approach for creating new molecular entities, it has seen increasing use in anticancer drug discovery. The present "state of the art" focuses mainly on the signature of click chemistry (CuAAC and SPAAC) in advanced techniques for cancer therapeutics, which includes cancer immunotherapy, antibody-drug conjugates, development of proteolysis-targeting chimeras, targeted dual-agent combination therapy for cancer, exosome modification for cancer therapy, and photodynamic therapy (PDT).

Evaluation of Polar Substituted Schiff Bases and 1,2,3-Triazole Hybrids as Anticancer Agents

Polar substituted Schiff bases and 1,2,3-triazole hybrids (2-6) were successfully synthesized by Schiff base condensation reaction between the previously synthesized triazole 1 and series of polar substituted amines. The chemical structures of the hybrids were confirmed using spectroscopies (NMR and FTIR), CHN elemental analysis and single-crystal x-ray diffraction analysis. The compounds were evaluated for their antiproliferative activity against two cancer cells, PC3 (prostate) and MCF7 (breast) cell lines, using the alamarBlue assay method, and camptothecin was employed as a standard. All the compounds exhibited good activity for the proliferation of the cancer cell lines compared to the standard, and their activity is concentration-dependent. Compounds 1, 2, 4 and 5 exhibited good caspase activity with relevant dosages that inhibited 50% (IC50) in prostate cancer cells. All the compounds exhibited high binding affinity for human 3-alpha hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 (PDB ID: 4xo6) and Androgen receptor (PDB ID: 2Q7K) inhibitors compared to the reference anticancer drug (camptothecin). Structure-activity relationships (SARs) of the tested compounds are in good agreement with DFT and molecular docking studies. ADMET analysis was used to predict the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and toxicology of the compounds, and it proved that the compounds exhibited desirable physicochemical properties for drug likeness.

Exploring anticancer properties of new triazole-linked benzenesulfonamide derivatives against colorectal carcinoma: Synthesis, cytotoxicity, and in silico insights

This study reports the design, synthesis, and characterization of a novel series of benzene sulfonamide-triazole hybrid derivatives, to evaluate their anticancer potential against colorectal cancer. The synthesized compounds were characterized using NMR and HRMS spectroscopic techniques. In vitro cytotoxicity assessments revealed that compounds 5g and 5j exhibited significant anticancer effects. 5g showed the highest potency in the DLD-1 cell line (IC50 = 11.84 µM), while 5j demonstrated robust activity in the HT-29 cell line (IC50 = 9.35 µM). Apoptotic analysis indicated that compound 5g effectively induced early and total apoptosis, surpassing the chemotherapeutic agent 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), highlighting its therapeutic potential. Molecular docking studies showed strong binding interactions with key proteins involved in colorectal cancer progression, such as TGFβ2 and VEGFR1. 5j displayed a high binding affinity for TGFβ2 (MM-GBSA ΔG = -92.52 kcal/mol) and 5g showed promising interactions with VEGFR1 (ΔG = -70.63 kcal/mol). Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the stability of the ligand-protein complexes, indicating potential as targeted therapeutic agents. Compounds 5g and 5j demonstrate significant promise for further development in colorectal cancer treatment.

Mechanistic Approach into 1,2,3-triazoles-based IIIM(S)-RS98 Mediated Apoptosis in Lung Cancer Cells

Lung cancer is a major public health problem across the globe, since it is the second most frequent cancer and the leading cause of cancer fatalities. This necessitates careful assessment of current therapies for lung cancer and discovery of novel drug candidates. 1,2,3 triazole compounds have emerged as an important class of prospective chemotherapeutic drugs for the treatment of lung cancer, with promising anti-lung cancer activity shown via a variety of pathways. They may interact with a various enzymes and receptors in cancer cells, causing cell cycle arrest and the activation of apoptosis. The present study aims to investigate the cytotoxic potential of institutional molecule based on 1,2,3 triazole [IIIM(S)-RS98] on multiple cancer cell lines. The compound was found to be most active on A549 cells and displayed the selectivity index as 8.16 in normal cells (e.g. HEK293). The in vitro findings revealed that IIIM(S)-RS98 induced apoptosis, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, enhanced ROS and nitric oxide levels, and arrest cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. It inhibits the cell migration and clonogenic potential of A549 cells. Additionally, the downregulation of PI3K and p-Akt pathway leads to the activation of pro-apoptotic proteins Bax, downregulation of bcl2, activation of caspase 9, cleaved caspase 3, and cleaved parp1 expression and finally contribute towards apoptosis. Furthermore, molecular docking analysis indicated the interactions of IIIM(S)-RS98 with the apoptotic target proteins. The results demonstrated the potential of IIIM(S)-RS98 in the therapy of lung cancer.

Discovery of new benzothiazole-1,2,3-triazole hybrid-based hydrazone/thiosemicarbazone derivatives as potent EGFR inhibitors with cytotoxicity against cancer

Considering the widespread availability of certain medicines, there is still a critical need for potent anti-cancer agents. It is owing to numerous negative impacts and non-functionality of current drugs, particularly during the late stages of illness. To accomplish this, the new array of 1,2,3-triazole-benzothiazole molecular conjugates tethering hydrazone/thiosemicarbazone linkage 8a-l have been successfully synthesized via the efficient copper-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of the appropriate un/substituted benzothiazole azides 4a-c with several O-propargylated benzylidene derivatives 7a-d. The newly established 1,2,3-triazole structural hybrids were thoroughly characterized using appropriate spectroscopic techniques (IR, 1H, 13C-NMR & CHN analysis). The cytotoxic features of the investigated triazole hybrids were assessed against three human cancer cell lines, A549, T47-D, and HCT-116 cancer cells, using the MTT assay. Based on the findings, the breast cancer cell line T47D displayed promising results with IC50 values of 13, 17, and 19 μM for the synthesized molecules 8a-c, respectively. Furthermore, the safety assessment of these compounds on normal cell lines revealed a relatively low risk to normal cells, as indicated by their IC50 values exceeding 500 μM, suggesting a reasonable safety margin. Interestingly, the most relevant derivatives 8a, 8b, and 8c, exhibited IC50 values of 0.69, 1.16, and 4.82 μM, respectively, causing inhibition of 98.5%, 96.8%, and 92.3%, compared to Erlotinib (IC50 = 1.3 μM, 98.2% inhibition). Molecular docking results exhibited a good binding affinity of compounds 8a and 8b towards the EGFR active site. Accordingly, these compounds can be further developed as target-oriented EGFR chemotherapeutics against cancer.

Design, Synthesis and Application of 1,4-disubstituted 1,2,3-triazole Based Chemosensors: A Promising Avenue

The 1,2,3-triazole-based chemosensors, synthesized through Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition via 'click chemistry', offer a straightforward yet highly effective method for detecting metal cations and anions with remarkable accuracy, selectivity and sensitivity, making them invaluable across various fields such as chemistry, pharmacology, environmental science and biology. The selective recognition of these ions is crucial due to their significant roles in biological and physiological processes, where even slight concentration variations can have major consequences. The article reviews literature from 2017 to 2024, highlighting advancements in the synthesis of 1,2,3-triazole-based ligands and their application (along with sensing mechanism) for detection of various ions causing health and environmental hazards. The detection aspects have been discussed sequentially for the transition-, inner transition-, and the metals from the s or p block of the periodic table.

Aniline Derivatives Containing 1-Substituted 1,2,3-Triazole System as Potential Drug Candidates: Pharmacokinetic Profile Prediction, Lipophilicity Analysis Using Experimental and In Silico Studies

Background: The triazole ring is an attractive structural unit in medicinal chemistry, and chemical compounds containing this type of system in their structure exhibit a wide spectrum of biological activity. They are used in the development of new pharmaceuticals. One of the basic parameters considered in the initial phase of designing potential drugs is lipophilicity, which affects the bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of drugs. Methods: The study aimed to assess the lipophilicity of fifteen new triazole derivatives of aniline using reversed phase thin layer chromatography (RP-TLC) and free web servers. Based on in silico methods, the drug similarity and pharmacokinetic profile (ADMET) of synthesized molecules were assessed. Results: A relationship was observed between the structure of the title compound, including the position of substitution in the aniline ring, and the experimental values of lipophilicity parameters (logPTLC). Most of the algorithms used to determine theoretical logP values showed less sensitivity to structural differences of the tested molecules. All obtained derivatives satisfy the drug similarity rules formulated by Lipinski, Ghose and Veber. Moreover, in silico analysis of the ADME profile showed favorable values of parameters related to absorption.

Recent Developments in 1,2,3-Triazole Based α-Glucosidase Inhibitors: Design Strategies, Structure-Activity Relationship and Mechanistic Insights

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic and most prevalent metabolic disorder affecting 422 million the people worldwide and causing life-threatening associated conditions including disorders of kidney, heart, and nervous system as well as leg amputation and retinopathy. Steadily rising cases from the last few decades suggest the failure of currently available drugs in containment of this disease. α-Glucosidase is a potential target for effectively tackling this disease and attracting significant interest from medicinal chemists around the globe. Besides having a set of side effects, currently available α-glucosidase inhibitors (carbohydrate mimics) offer better tolerability, safety, and synergistic pharmacological outcomes with other antidiabetic drugs therefore medicinal chemists have working extensively over last three decades for developing alternative α-glucosidase inhibitors. The 1,2,3-Triazole nucleus is energetically used by various research groups around the globe for the development of α-glucosidase inhibitors posing it as an optimum scaffold in the field of antidiabetic drug development. This review is a systematic analysis of α-glucosidase inhibitors developed by employing 1,2,3-triazole scaffold with special focus on design strategies, structure-activity relationships, and mechanism of inhibitory effect. This article will act as lantern for medicinal chemists in developing of potent, safer, and effective α-glucosidase inhibitors with desired properties and improved therapeutic efficacy.

One-pot synthesis of tetrahydropyrimidinecarboxamides enabling in vitro anticancer activity: a combinative study with clinically relevant brain-penetrant drugs

In this study, we describe a one-pot three-component synthesis of bioactive tetrahydopyrimidinecarboxamide derivatives employing lanthanum triflate as a catalyst. Out of the synthesized compounds, 4f had the most potent anti-cancer activity and impeded cell cycle progression effectively. Anti-cancer bioactivity was observed in 4f against liver, breast, and lung cancers as well as primary patient-derived glioblastoma cell lines. Compound 4f effectively inhibited the 3D neurosphere formation in primary patient-derived glioma stem cells. Specifically, 4f exhibited synergistic cytotoxicity with the EGFR inhibitor that is the clinical epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor osimertinib. 4f does not exhibit anti-kinase activity and is cytostatic in nature, and further work is needed to understand the true molecular target of 4f and its derivatives. Through our current work, we establish a promising tetrahydopyrimidinecarboxamide-based lead compound with anti-cancer activity, which may exhibit potent anti-cancer activity in combination with specific clinically relevant small molecule kinase inhibitors.

Synthesis, Anticancer Activity, and Molecular Docking of New 1,2,3-Triazole Linked Tetrahydrocurcumin Derivatives

Cancer is one of the deadliest diseases to humanity. There is significant progress in treating this disease, but developing some drugs that can fight this disease remains a challenge in the field of medical research. Thirteen new 1,2,3-triazole linked tetrahydrocurcumin derivatives were synthesized by click reaction, including a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of tetrahydrocurcumin baring mono-alkyne with azides in good yields, and their in vitro anticancer activity against four cancer cell lines, including human cervical carcinoma (HeLa), human lung adenocarcinoma (A549), human hepatoma carcinoma (HepG2), and human colon carcinoma (HCT-116) were investigated using MTT(3-(4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetraz-olium bromide) assay. The newly synthesized compounds had their structures identified using NMR HRMS and IR techniques. Some of prepared compounds, including compounds 4g and 4k, showed potent cytotoxic activity against four cancer cell lines compared to the positive control of cisplatin and tetrahydrocurcumin. Compound 4g exhibited anticancer activity with a IC50 value of 1.09 ± 0.17 μM against human colon carcinoma HCT-116 and 45.16 ± 0.92 μM against A549 cell lines compared to the positive controls of tetrahydrocurcumin and cisplatin. Moreover, further biological examination in HCT-116 cells showed that compound 4g can arrest the cell cycle at the G1 phase. A docking study revealed that the potential mechanism by which 4g exerts its anti-colon cancer effect may be through inhabiting the binding of APC-Asef. Compound 4g can be used as a promising lead for further exploration of potential anticancer agents.

A New Insight Into The Huisgen Reaction: Heterogeneous Copper Catalyzed Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition for the Synthesis of 1,4-Disubstituted Triazole (From 2018-2023)

The Huisgen cycloaddition, often referred to as 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition, is a well-established method for synthesizing 1,4-disubstituted triazoles. Originally conducted under thermal conditions [3+2] cycloaddition reactions were limited by temperature, prolonged reaction time, and regioselectivity. The introduction of copper catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) revitalized interest, giving rise to the concept of "click chemistry". The CuAAC has emerged as a prominent method for producing 1,2,3-triazole with excellent yields and exceptional regioselectivity even in unfavorable conditions. Copper catalysts conventionally facilitate azide-alkyne cycloadditions, but challenges include instability and recycling issues. In recent years, there has been a growing demand for heterogeneous and porous catalysts in various chemical reactions. Chemists have been more interested in heterogenous catalysts as a result of the difficulties in separating homogenous catalysts from reaction products. These catalysts are favored for their abundant active sites, extensive surface area, easy separation from reaction mixtures, and the ability to be reused. Heterogeneous catalysts have garnered significant attention due to their broad industrial utility, characterized by cost-effectiveness, stability, resistance to thermal degradation, and ease of removal compared to their homogeneous counterparts. The present review covers recent advancements from year 2018 to 2023 in the field of click reactions for obtaining 1,2,3-triazoles through Cu catalyzed 1,3-dipolar azide-alkyne cycloaddition and the properties of the catalyst, reaction conditions such as solvent, temperature, reaction time, and the impact of different heterogeneous copper catalysts on product yield.

Discovery of gefitinib-1,2,3-triazole derivatives against lung cancer via inducing apoptosis and inhibiting the colony formation

A series of 20 novel gefitinib derivatives incorporating the 1,2,3-triazole moiety were designed and synthesized. The synthesized compounds were evaluated for their potential anticancer activity against EGFR wild-type human non-small cell lung cancer cells (NCI-H1299, A549) and human lung adenocarcinoma cells (NCI-H1437) as non-small cell lung cancer. In comparison to gefitinib, Initial biological assessments revealed that several compounds exhibited potent anti-proliferative activity against these cancer cell lines. Notably, compounds 7a and 7j demonstrated the most pronounced effects, with an IC50 value of 3.94 ± 0.17 µmol L-1 (NCI-H1299), 3.16 ± 0.11 µmol L-1 (A549), and 1.83 ± 0.13 µmol L-1 (NCI-H1437) for 7a, and an IC50 value of 3.84 ± 0.22 µmol L-1 (NCI-H1299), 3.86 ± 0.38 µmol L-1 (A549), and 1.69 ± 0.25 µmol L-1 (NCI-H1437) for 7j. These two compounds could inhibit the colony formation and migration ability of H1299 cells, and induce apoptosis in H1299 cells. Acute toxicity experiments on mice demonstrated that compound 7a exhibited low toxicity in mice. Based on these results, it is proposed that 7a and 7j could potentially be developed as novel drugs for the treatment of lung cancer.

1,2,3-triazole and chiral Schiff base hybrids as potential anticancer agents: DFT, molecular docking and ADME studies

A series of novel 1,2,3-triazole and chiral Schiff base hybrids 2-6 were synthesized by Schiff base condensation reaction from pre-prepared parent component of the hybrids (1,2,3-triazole 1) and series of primary chiral amines and their chemical structure were confirmed using NMR and FTIR spectroscopies, and CHN elemental analysis. Compounds 1-6 were evaluated for their anticancer activity against two cancer PC3 (prostate) and A375 (skin) and MRC-5 (healthy) cell lines by Almar Blue assay method. The compounds exhibited significant cytotoxicity against the tested cancer cell lines. Among the tested compounds 3 and 6 showed very good activity for the inhibition of the cancer cell lines and low toxicity for the healthy cell lines. All the compounds exhibited high binding affinity for Androgen receptor modulators (PDB ID: 5t8e) and Human MIA (PDB ID: 1i1j) inhibitors compared to the reference anticancer drug (cisplatin). Structure activity relationships (SARs) of the tested compounds is in good agreement with DFT and molecular docking studies. The compounds exhibited desirable physicochemical properties for drug likeness.

NeuroClick: software for mimicking click reaction to generate drug-like molecules permeating the blood-brain barrier

Background: Traditional methods for chemical library generation in virtual screening often impose limitations on the accessible chemical space or produce synthetically irrelevant structures. Incorporating common chemical reactions into generative algorithms could offer significant benefits. Materials & methods: In this study, we developed NeuroClick, a graphical user interface software designed to perform in silico azide-alkyne cycloaddition, a widely utilized synthetic approach in modern medicinal chemistry. Results & conclusion: NeuroClick facilitates the generation and filtering of large combinatorial libraries at a remarkable rate of 10,000 molecules per minute. Moreover, the generated products can be filtered to identify subsets of pharmaceutically relevant compounds based on Lipinski's rule of five and blood-brain barrier permeability prediction. We demonstrate the utility of NeuroClick by generating and filtering several thousand molecules for dopamine D3 receptor ligand screening.

Synthesis and In Vitro Antitumor Activity Evaluation of Gefitinib-1,2,3-Triazole Derivatives

In this study, 14 structurally novel gefitinib-1,2,3-triazole derivatives were synthesized using a click chemistry approach and characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Preliminary cell counting kit-8 results showed that most of the compounds exhibit excellent antitumor activity against epidermal growth factor receptor wild-type lung cancer cells NCI-H1299, A549 and NCI-H1437. Among them, 4b and 4c showed the most prominent inhibitory effects. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 4b were 4.42 ± 0.24 μM (NCI-H1299), 3.94 ± 0.01 μM (A549) and 1.56 ± 0.06 μM (NCI-1437). The IC50 values of 4c were 4.60 ± 0.18 µM (NCI-H1299), 4.00 ± 0.08 μM (A549) and 3.51 ± 0.05 μM (NCI-H1437). Furthermore, our results showed that 4b and 4c could effectively inhibit proliferation, colony formation and cell migration in a concentration-dependent manner, as well as induce apoptosis in H1299 cells. In addition, 4b and 4c exerted its anti-tumor effects by inducing cell apoptosis, upregulating the expression of cleaved-caspase 3 and cleaved-PARP and downregulating the protein levels of Bcl-2. Based on these results, it is suggested that 4b and 4c be developed as potential new drugs for lung cancer treatment.

Thiazole, Isatin and Phthalimide Derivatives Tested in vivo against Cancer Models: A Literature Review of the Last Six Years

BACKGROUND

Cancer is a disease characterized by the abnormal multiplication of cells and is the second leading cause of death in the world. The search for new effective and safe anticancer compounds is ongoing due to factors such as low selectivity, high toxicity, and multidrug resistance. Thus, heterocyclic compounds derived from isatin, thiazole and phthalimide that have achieved promising in vitro anticancer activity have been tested in vivo and in clinical trials.

OBJECTIVE

This review focused on the compilation of promising data from thiazole, isatin, and phthalimide derivatives, reported in the literature between 2015 and 2022, with in vivo anticancer activity and clinical trials.

METHODS

A bibliographic search was carried out in the PUBMED, MEDLINE, ELSEVIER, and CAPES PERIODIC databases, selecting relevant works for each pharmacophoric group with in vivo antitumor activity in the last 6 years.

RESULTS

In our study, 68 articles that fit the scope were selected and critically analyzed. These articles were organized considering the type of antitumor activity and their year of publication. Some compounds reported here demonstrated potent antitumor activity against several tumor types.

CONCLUSION

This review allowed us to highlight works that reported promising structures for the treatment of various cancer types and also demonstrated that the privileged structures thiazole, isatin and phthalimide are important in the design of new syntheses and molecular optimization of compounds with antitumor activity.

Stereoselective Synthesis of Fluoroalkanes via FLP Mediated Monoselective C─F Activation of Geminal Difluoroalkanes

A method of desymmetrization of geminal difluoroalkanes using frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) mediated monoselective C-F activation where a chiral sulfide is the Lewis base component is reported. The stereoselective reaction provides generally high yields of diastereomeric sulfonium salts with dr of up to 95:5. The distribution of diastereomers is found to be thermodynamically controlled via facile sulfide exchange. The use of enantiopure chiral sulfides allows for high stereospecificity in nucleophilic substitution reactions and the formation of stereoenriched products.

A convenient method for the construction of triazole-bonded chalcone derivatives from acetophenone: Synthesis and free radical scavenging investigation

The substituted 1,2,3-triazole core is prevalent in numerous commercially available drugs utilized for a wide range of clinical applications. Simultaneously, chalcone represents a privileged framework discovered in natural products exhibiting intriguing bioactivities. In this study, we synthesized triazole-bonded chalcone compounds (4ax-4by), starting from a simple aromatic ketone, acetophenone, which underwent aldol condensation to give hydroxychalcone intermediate. In the second step, the hydroxyl group of chalcone compound was adducted with propargyl moiety through propargylation reaction. Then, the propargylated products underwent smooth copper-mediated azide-alkyne cyclization to give the triazole-bonded chalcones as the final products. They were characterized by IR, NMR and HRMS, and evaluated their radical scavenging activity against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Among the tested products, compound 4by was denoted as the most potent derivative which can inhibit DPPH radical in 91.62 ± 0.10% at 500 ppm.•Acetophenone as a simple ketone was modified to triazole-bonded chalcones.•Modification was performed through three steps reaction.•Final products exhibited free radical scavenging activity.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of ciprofloxacin - 1,2,3-triazole hybrids as antitumor, antibacterial, and antioxidant agents

Six novel ciprofloxacin-1,2,3-triazole hybrids (6a-f) were synthesized via click reaction, by reacting of methyl 1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-4-oxo-7-(4-(3-oxobutanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)-1,4-dihydroquinoline-3-carboxylate (5) with various aryl azides (9a-f). The new compounds were characterized using High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (HRMS), 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and elemental analysis. Compounds (6a-f) screened for their in vitro anticancer activity against three cell lines, namely, non-small cell lung cancer (A549), glioblastoma (U-87 MG), and breast cancer (MCF7). Hybrids 6a and 6b exhibited remarkable anti-proliferative activity against all three cell-lines. IC50 values of 6b for all cancer cell lines were significantly lower comparing to the standard reference compound IC50. The IC50 of 6b for the normal cell (HDF) line was significantly higher than the reported for cisplatin [IC50 = 170.7 ± 8.1 μM/ml (HDF), (p ≤ 0.001)], indicating less toxicity towards normal cells and thereby has a better therapeutic index, with a selectivity index of 142.3 for U87 cell line. Compounds 6e, 6d, and 6f displayed significant cytotoxic activity against only U-87 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines, compared to normal cells (HDF). Compound 6f [IC50 = 7.9 ± 2.3 μM/ml (U-87) and 10.6 ± 3 μM/ml (MCF-7)] was more potent than cisplatin [IC50 = 28.3 ± 5.3 μM/ml (U-87) and 26.9 ± 4.7 μM/ml (MCF-7)] in displaying anti-proliferative effect against U-87 and MCF-7 cells, with less cytotoxic to normal cells [IC50 = 141.7 ± 4.1] than cisplatin [IC50 = 40.9 ± 5.4]. Moreover, they were tested for their antioxidant activity in DPPH and ABTS assays and antibacterial activity.

Facile preparation of polycyclic halogen-substituted 1,2,3-triazoles by using intramolecular Huisgen cycloaddition

When 1-(ω-azidoalkyl)-2-(2,2-dihalovinyl)arenes were heated in DMF, the intramolecular Huisgen cycloaddition of an azido group with a 1,1-dihalovinyl group afforded 5-halo-1,2,3-triazole-fused tricyclic benzo compounds. Based on the remaining bromo groups, carbon elongation by the Mizoroki-Heck or Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions, followed by an intramolecular Friedel-Crafts reaction, afforded polycyclic compounds with fused triazole rings. Thereafter, the bromo groups were converted into 2-nitrophenyl groups via the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reaction, which was followed by the Cadogan reaction; a fluorescent pentacyclic compound was obtained.

Study of the Molecular Architectures of 2-(4-Chlorophenyl)-5-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)-2H-1,2,3-triazole-4-carboxylic Acid Using Their Vibrational Spectra, Quantum Chemical Calculations and Molecular Docking with MMP-2 Receptor

1,2,3-triazole skeleton is a valuable building block for the discovery of new promising anticancer agents. In the present work, the molecular structure of the synthesized anticancer drug 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-5-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)-2H-1,2,3-triazole-4-carboxylic acid (1b) and its anionic form (2b) was characterized by means of the B3LYP, M06-2X and MP2 quantum chemical methods, optimizing their monomer, cyclic dimer and stacking forms using the Gaussian16 program package. The molecular structure was found to be slightly out of plane. The good agreement between the IR and Raman bands experimentally observed in the solid state with those calculated theoretically confirms the synthesized structures. All of the bands were accurately assigned according to functional calculations (DFT) in the monomer and dimer forms, together with the polynomic scaling equation procedure (PSE). Therefore, the effect of the substituents on the triazole ring and the effect of the chlorine atom on the molecular structure and on the vibrational spectra were evaluated through comparison with its non-substituted form. Through molecular docking calculations, it was evaluated as to how molecule 1b interacts with few amino acids of the MMP-2 metalloproteinase receptor, using Sybyl-X 2.0 software. Thus, the relevance of triazole scaffolds in established hydrogen bond-type interactions was demonstrated.

Structural Study of a La(III) Complex of a 1,2,3-Triazole Ligand with Antioxidant Activity

The 1,2,3-triazole derivative 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-5-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)-2H-1,2,3-triazole-4-carboxylic acid with potential anticancer activity was used as a ligand in complex formation with the lanthanum(III) ion. The molecular structure and vibrational spectra of the complex were optimized at three DFT levels, and the scaled IR and Raman spectra were compared to the experimental ones. Several scaling procedures were used. Through a detailed analysis, the structure predicted for the newly synthetized La(III) complex was confirmed by the good accordance of the calculated/experimental IR and Raman spectra. The best DFT method appeared to be M06-2X with the Lanl2mb basis set, followed closely by Lanl2dz. The effect of the lanthanide atom on the molecular structure and atomic charge distribution of the triazole ring was evaluated. The potential free radical scavenging activity of both the ligand and the complex was investigated in several radical-generating model systems. The potential mechanisms of antioxidant action (hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) and single-electron transfer (SET)) were elucidated.

Novel 1,2,3-Triazole-Containing Quinoline-Benzimidazole Hybrids: Synthesis, Antiproliferative Activity, In Silico ADME Predictions, and Docking

The newly synthesized quinoline-benzimidazole hybrids containing two types of triazole-methyl-phenoxy linkers were characterized via NMR and elemental analysis. Additional derivatization was achieved by introducing bromine at the C-2 position of the phenoxy core. These novel hybrids were tested for their effects on the growth of the non-tumor cell line MRC-5 (human fetal lung fibroblasts), leukemia and lymphoma cell lines: Hut78, THP-1 and HL-60, and carcinoma cell lines: HeLa and CaCo-2. The results obtained, presented as the concentration that achieves 50% inhibition of cell growth (IC50 value), show that the compounds tested affect tumor cell growth differently depending on the cell line and the dose applied (IC50 ranged from 0.2 to >100 µM). The quinoline-benzimidazole hybrids tested, including 7-chloro-4-(4-{[4-(5-methoxy-1H-1,3-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)phenoxy]methyl}-1H-1,2,3-triazol-1-yl)quinoline 9c, 2-(3-bromo-4-{[1-(7-chloroquinolin-4-yl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl]methoxy}phenyl)-N-propyl-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-5-carboximidamide trihydrochloride 10e, 2-{4-[(1-{2-[(7-chloroquinolin-4-yl)amino]ethyl}-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)methoxy]phenyl}-N-propyl-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-5-carboximidamide trihydrochloride 14e and 2-{3-bromo-4-[(1-{2-[(7-chloroquinolin-4-yl)amino]ethyl}-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)methoxy]phenyl}-N-propyl-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-5-carboximidamide trihydrochloride 15e, arrested the cell cycle of lymphoma (HuT78) cells. The calculated ADMET properties showed that the synthesized compounds violated at most two of Lipinski's rules, making them potential drug candidates, but mainly for parenteral use due to low gastrointestinal absorption. The quinoline-benzimidazole hybrid 14e, which was shown to be a potent and selective inhibitor of lymphoma cell line growth, obtained the highest binding energy (-140.44 kcal/mol), by docking to the TAO2 kinase domain (PDB: 2GCD).

Peculiarities of the Spatial and Electronic Structure of 2-Aryl-1,2,3-Triazol-5-Carboxylic Acids and Their Salts on the Basis of Spectral Studies and DFT Calculations

The molecular structure and vibrational spectra of six 1,2,3-triazoles-containing molecules with possible anticancer activity were investigated. For two of them, the optimized geometry was determined in the monomer, cyclic dimer and stacking forms using the B3LYP, M06-2X and MP2 methods implemented in the GAUSSIAN-16 program package. The effect of the para-substitution on the aryl ring was evaluated based on changes in the molecular structure and atomic charge distribution of the triazole ring. An increment in the positive N4 charge was linearly related to a decrease in both the aryl ring and the carboxylic group rotation, with respect to the triazole ring, and by contrast, to an increment in the pyrrolidine ring rotation. Anionic formation had a larger effect on the triazole ring structure than the electronic nature of the different substituents on the aryl ring. Several relationships were obtained that could facilitate the selection of substituents on the triazole ring for their further synthesis. The observed IR and Raman bands in the solid state of two of these compounds were accurately assigned according to monomer and dimer form calculations, together with the polynomic scaling equation procedure (PSE). The large red-shift of the C=O stretching mode indicates that strong H-bonds in the dimer form appear in the solid state through this group.

Theoretical Assessment of the Ligand/Metal/Quadruplex Recognition in the Non-Canonical Nucleic Acids Structures

Quadruplexes (GQs), peculiar DNA/RNA motifs concentrated in specific genomic regions, play a vital role in biological processes including telomere stability and, hence, represent promising targets for anticancer therapy. GQs are formed by folding guanine-rich sequences into square planar G-tetrads which stack onto one another. Metal cations, most often potassium, further stabilize the architecture by coordinating the lone electron pairs of the O atoms. The presence of additional nucleic acid bases, however, has been recently observed experimentally and contributes substantially to the structural heterogeneity of quadruplexes. Therefore, it is of paramount significance to understand the factors governing the underlying complex processes in these structures. The current study employs DFT calculations to model the interactions between metal cations (K+, Na+, Sr2+) and diverse tetrads composed of a guanine layer in combination with a guanine (G)-, adenine (A)-, cytosine (C)-, thymine (T)-, or uracil (U)-based tetrad layer. Moreover, the addition of 4-(3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-2-yl)-2-(quinolin-2-yl)quinazoline to the modeled quadruplexes as a possible mechanism of its well-exerted antitumor effect is assessed. The calculations imply that the metal cation competition and ligand complexation are influenced by the balance between electronic and implicit/explicit solvation effects, the composition of the tetrad layers, as well as by the solvent exposure to the surrounding environment expressed in terms of different dielectric constant values. The provided results significantly enhance our understanding of quadruplex diversity, ligand recognition, and the underlying mechanisms of stabilization at an atomic level.

In-silico identification of small molecule benzofuran-1,2,3-triazole hybrids as potential inhibitors targeting EGFR in lung cancer via ligand-based pharmacophore modeling and molecular docking studies

Lung cancer is one of the most common and deadly types of cancer worldwide, and the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of this disease. In this study, we designed a library of 1840 benzofuran-1,2,3-triazole hybrids and conducted pharmacophore-based screening to identify potential EGFR inhibitors. The 20 identified compounds were further evaluated using molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations to understand their binding interactions with the EGFR receptor. In-silico ADME and toxicity studies were also performed to assess their drug-likeness and safety profiles. The results of this study showed the benzofuran-1,2,3-triazole hybrids BENZ-0454, BENZ-0143, BENZ-1292, BENZ-0335, BENZ-0332, and BENZ-1070 dock score of - 10.2, - 10, - 9.9, - 9.8, - 9.7, - 9.6, while reference molecule - 7.9 kcal/mol for EGFR (PDB ID: 4HJO) respectively. The molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the identified compounds formed stable interactions with the active site of the receptor, indicating their potential as inhibitors. The in-silico ADME and toxicity studies suggested that the compounds had good pharmacokinetic and safety profiles, further supporting their potential as therapeutic agents. Finally, performed DFT studies on the best-selected ligands to gain further insights into their electronic properties. The findings of this study provide important insights into the potential of benzofuran-1,2,3-triazole hybrids as promising EGFR inhibitors for the treatment of lung cancer. Overall, this study provides a valuable starting point for the development of novel EGFR inhibitors with improved efficacy and safety profiles.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40203-023-00157-1.

Design, synthesis, and modelling study of new 1,2,3-triazole/chalcone hybrids with antiproliferative action as epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors

A novel series of 1,2,3-triazole/chalcone hybrids 6a-n was designed and synthesized using a molecular hybridization approach to develop a new cytotoxic agent capable of targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and/or BRAF. The antiproliferative effect of the novel hybrids was investigated against four cancer cells using doxorubicin as a reference. Hybrids 6a, 6d, 6f-h, and 6n have the highest antiproliferative activity (IC₅₀ values 0.95-1.80 μM) compared to doxorubicin (IC₅₀ 1.14 μM). The most potent antiproliferative derivative, compound 6d, was also the most potent EGFR inhibitor with an IC₅₀ of 0.09 ± 0.05 μM, which is comparable to the reference Erlotinib (IC₅₀  = 0.05 ± 0.03 μM). 6d has modest BRAF inhibitory action with an IC₅₀ of 0.90 ± 0.10 μM. The findings were also related to molecular docking studies, which provided models of strong interactions with the EGFR-TK domain for the inhibitors. In cell cycle analysis, hybrid 6d caused a cell cycle arrest at the G1 transition phase.

Novel Erlotinib-Chalcone Hybrids Diminish Resistance in Head and Neck Cancer by Inducing Multiple Cell Death Mechanisms

In a search for novel therapeutic options for head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) generally treated with limited therapeutic success, we synthesized a series of novel erlotinib-chalcone molecular hybrids with 1,2,3-triazole and alkyne linkers and evaluated them for their anticancer activity on Fadu, Detroit 562 and SCC-25 HNSCC cell lines. Time- and dose-dependent cell viability measurements disclosed a significantly increased efficiency of the hybrids compared to the 1:1 combination of erlotinib and a reference chalcone. The clonogenic assay demonstrated that hybrids eradicate HNSCC cells in low micromolar concentrations. Experiments focusing on potential molecular targets indicate that the hybrids trigger the anticancer effect by a complementary mechanism of action that is independent of the canonical targets of their molecular fragments. Confocal microscopic imaging and real-time apoptosis/necrosis detection assay pointed to slightly different cell death mechanisms induced by the most prominent triazole- and alkyne-tethered hybrids (6a and 13, respectively). While 6a featured the lowest IC₅₀ values on each of the three HNSCC cell lines, in Detroit 562 cells, this hybrid induced necrosis more markedly compared to 13. The therapeutic potential indicated by the observed anticancer efficacy of our selected hybrid molecules validates the concept of development and justifies further investigation to reveal the underlying mechanism of action.

Synthesis and In Vitro Anticancer Evaluation of Flavone-1,2,3-Triazole Hybrids

Hybrid compounds of flavones, namely chrysin and kaempferol, and substituted 1,2,3-triazole derivatives, were synthesized by click reaction of the intermediate O-propargyl derivatives. 4-Fluoro- and 4-nitrobenzyl-1,2,3-triazole-containing hybrid molecules were prepared. The mono- and bis-coupled hybrids were investigated on 60 cell lines of 9 common cancer types (NCI60) in vitro as antitumor agents. Some of them proved to have a significant antiproliferative effect.

Challenging breast cancer through novel sulfonamide-pyridine hybrids: design, synthesis, carbonic anhydrase IX inhibition and induction of apoptosis

Background: Among the important key modulators of the tumor microenvironment and hypoxia is a family of enzymes named carbonic anhydrases. Herein, 11 novel sulfonamide-pyridine hybrids (2-12) were designed, synthesized and biologically evaluated for their potential use in targeting breast cancer. Methods & results: The para chloro derivative 7 reported the highest cytotoxic activity against the three breast cancer cell lines used. In addition, compound 7 was found to induce cell cycle arrest and autophagy as well as delaying wound healing. The IC₅₀ of compound 7 against carbonic anhydrase IX was 253 ± 12 nM using dorzolamide HCl as control. Conclusion: This study encourages us to expand the designed library, where more sulfonamide derivatives would be synthesized and studied for their structure-activity relationships.

Small Heterocyclic Ligands as Anticancer Agents: QSAR with a Model G-Quadruplex

G-quadruplexes (GQs) have become valid targets for anticancer studies in recent decades due to their multifaceted biological function. Herewith, we aim to quantify interactions of potential heterocyclic ligands (Ls) with model GQs. For seven 4-aminoquinazolines and three 2-heteroaryl perimidines, seven of this ten-membered group so far unknown, we use routine quantum chemical modeling. As shown in the literature, a preferred mode of interaction of heterocycles with cellular structures is stacking to exposable faces of G-quadruplexes. To exploit the energy of this interaction as a molecular descriptor and achieve the necessary chemical precision, we use state of the art large-scale density functional theory (DFT) calculations of stacked heterocycles to a GQ. Actually, the GQ has been simplified for the computation by stripping it off all pentose phosphate residues into a naked model of stacked guanine quartets. The described model thus becomes computable. The obtained heterocyclic ligand GQ.L stacking energies, that is, their GQ affinities, are the necessary ligand descriptors. Using the ligand biological inhibitory activities (IC₅₀) on a human malignant melanoma A375 cell line, we obtain a good linear relationship between computed ligand stacking affinities to GQ, and experimental log (IC₅₀) values. Based on the latter relationship, we discuss a putative mechanism of anticancer activity of heterocyclic ligands via stacking interactions with GQs and thereby controlling cell regulatory activity. This mechanism may tentatively be applied to other condensed five- and six-membered small heterocycles as well.

The 1,2,3-triazole 'all-in-one' ring system in drug discovery: a good bioisostere, a good pharmacophore, a good linker, and a versatile synthetic tool

INTRODUCTION

The 1,2,3-triazole ring occupies an important space in medicinal chemistry due to its unique structural properties, synthetic versatility and pharmacological potential making it a critical scaffold. Since it is readily available through click chemistry for creating compound collections against various diseases, it has become an emerging area of interest for medicinal chemists.

AREAS COVERED

This review article addresses the unique properties of the1,2,3-triazole nucleus as an intriguing ring system in drug discovery while focusing on the most recent medicinal chemistry strategies exploited for the design and development of 1,2,3-triazole analogs as inhibitors of various biological targets.

EXPERT OPINION

Evidently, the 1,2,3-triazole ring with unique structural features has enormous potential in drug design against various diseases as a pharmacophore, a bioisoster or a structural platform. The most recent evidence indicates that it may be more emerging in drug molecules in near future along with an increasing understanding of its prominent roles in drug structures. The synthetic feasibility and versatility of triazole chemistry make it certainly ideal for creating compound libraries for more constructive structure-activity relationship studies. However, more comparative and target-specific studies are needed to gain a deeper understanding of the roles of the 1,2,3-triazole ring in molecular recognition.[Figure: see text].

1,2,3-Triazole Tethered Hybrid Capsaicinoids as Antiproliferative Agents Active against Lung Cancer Cells (A549)

A series of novel 1,2,3-triazole derivatives of capsaicin and its structural isomer (new natural product hybrid capsaicinoid) were synthesized by exploiting one-/two-point modification of capsaicin without altering the amide linkage (neck). The newly synthesized compounds were screened for their antiproliferative activity against an NCI panel of 60 cancer cell lines at a single dose of 10 μM. Most of the compounds have demonstrated reduced growth between 55 and 95%, whereas capsaicin (10) has shown reduced growth between 0 and 24%. Compounds showing more than 50% growth inhibition were further evaluated for the IC50 value. Among the cell lines tested, lung cancer cell lines (A549, NCI-H460) were found to be more susceptible toward most of the synthesized compounds. Compounds 14g and 14j demonstrated good antiproliferative activity in NCI-H460 with IC50 values of 6.65 and 5.55 μM, respectively, while compounds 18b, 18c, 18f, and 18m demonstrated potential antiproliferative activity in A549 cell lines with IC50 values ranging between 2.9 and 10.5 μM. Among the compounds, compound 18f was found to demonstrate the best activity with an IC50 value of 2.91 μM against A549. Furthermore, 18f induces cell cycle arrest at the S-phase and disrupts the mitochondrial membrane potential, reducing cell migration potential by inducing cellular apoptosis and higher ROS generation along with a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential in addition to surface and nuclear morphological alterations such as a reduction in the number and shrinkage of cells coupled with nuclear blabbing indicating the sign of apoptosis of A549 non-small cell lung cancer cell lines. Compound 18f has emerged as a lead molecule and may serve as a template for further discovery of capsaicinoid scaffolds.

A Facile One-Pot Synthesis of New Poly Functionalized Pyrrolotriazoles via a Regioselective Multicomponent Cyclisation and Suzuki–Miyaura Coupling Reactions

The first access to N-1, N-4 disubstituted pyrrolo[2,3-d][1,2,3]triazoles is reported. The series were generated using a “one-pot” MCR, leading to a single regioisomer of the attempted heteroaromatic skeleton in good yields. Next, the functionalization of C-5 and C-6 positions was investigated. (Het)aryl groups were introduced at the C-5 and C-6 positions of the pyrrolo[2,3-d][1,2,3]triazoles using regioselective electrophilic brominations followed by Suzuki–Miyaura cross coupling reactions. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling conditions were optimized and a representative library of various boronic acids was employed to establish the scope and limitations of the method.

Synthesis, Spectroscopic Analysis, and In Vitro Anticancer Evaluation of 2-(Phenylsulfonyl)-2H-1,2,3-triazole

The 1,2,3-Triazole derivatives containing the sulfonyl group have proved their biological importance in medicinal chemistry and drug design. In this sense, we describe the regioselective synthesis of 2-(phenylsulfonyl)-2H-1,2,3-triazole 3 in good yield through a classical sulfonamidation reaction of 1H-1,2,3-triazole 1 with benzenesulfonyl chloride 2 in dichloromethane using a slight excess of triethylamine at 20 °C for 3 h. This procedure is distinguished by its short reaction time, high yield, excellent regioselectivity, clean reaction profile, and operational simplicity. The sulfonamide 3 was characterized by high-resolution mass spectrometry, FT–IR, UV–Vis, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, and elemental analysis. The sulfonamide 3 exhibited moderate activity against UO-31 renal, SNB-75 central nervous system, HCT-116 colon, and BT-549 breast cancer cell lines, with growth inhibition percentages (GI%) ranging from 10.83% to 17.64%.

1,2,3-Triazole derivatives with anti-breast cancer potential

Abstract:

Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent malignant diseases and one of the main mortality causes among women across the world. Despite advances in chemotherapy, drug resistance remains major clinical concerns, creating an urgent need to explore novel anti-breast cancer drugs. 1,2,3-Triazole is a privileged moiety, and its derivatives could inhibit cancer cell proliferation, and induce the cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Accordingly, 1,2,3-triazole derivatives possess profound activity against various cancers including breast cancer. This review summarizes the latest progresses related to the anti-breast cancer potential of 1,2,3-triazole derivatives, covering articles published from January 2017 to December 2021. The mechanisms of action and structure-activity relationships (SARs) are also discussed for further rational design of more effective candidates.

Rationale design, synthesis, cytotoxicity evaluation, and in silico mechanistic studies of novel 1,2,3-triazoles with potential anticancer activity

A new set of 1,2,3-triazoles was designed and synthesized to evaluate their potential to inhibit the growth of cancer cells.

Click Chemistry in Natural Product Modification

Click chemistry is perhaps the most powerful synthetic toolbox that can efficiently access the molecular diversity and unique functions of complex natural products up to now. It enables the ready synthesis of diverse sets of natural product derivatives either for the optimization of their drawbacks or for the construction of natural product-like drug screening libraries. This paper showcases the state-of-the-art development of click chemistry in natural product modification and summarizes the pharmacological activities of the active derivatives as well as the mechanism of action. The aim of this paper is to gain a deep understanding of the fruitful achievements and to provide perspectives, trends, and directions regarding further research in natural product medicinal chemistry.

Discovery of a Series of Theophylline Derivatives Containing 1,2,3-Triazole for Treatment of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Chemotherapy is the most common clinical treatment for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), but low efficiency and high toxicity of current chemotherapy drugs limit their clinical application. Therefore, it is urgent to develop hypotoxic and efficient chemotherapy drugs. Theophylline, a natural compound, is safe and easy to get, and it can be used as a modified scaffold structure and hold huge potential for developing safe and efficient antitumor drugs. Herein, we linked theophylline with different azide compounds to synthesize a new type of 1,2,3-triazole ring-containing theophylline derivatives. We found that some theophylline1,2,3-triazole compounds showed a good tumor-suppressive efficacy. Especially, derivative d17 showed strong antiproliferative activity against a variety of cancer cells in vitro, including H460, A549, A2780, LOVO, MB-231, MCF-7, OVCAR3, SW480, and PC-9. It is worth noting that the two NSCLC cell lines H460 H and A549 are sensitive to compound d17 particularly, with IC50 of 5.929 ± 0.97 μM and 6.76 ± 0.25 μM, respectively. Compound d17 can significantly induce cell apoptosis by increasing the ratio of apoptotic protein Bax/Bcl-2 by downregulating the expression of phosphorylated Akt protein, and it has little toxicity to normal hepatocyte cells LO2 at therapeutic concentrations. These data indicate that these theophylline acetic acid-1,2,3-triazole derivatives may be potential drug candidates for anti-NSCLC and are worthy of further study.

1,2,3-Triazole hybrids as anticancer agents: A review

Despite the advancements in the development of anticancer agents, more effective and safer anticancer drugs still need to be developed as the current agents cause unwanted side effects and many patients have become drug resistant. 1,2,3-Triazoles, due to their remarkable biological potential, have received considerable attention in drug discovery for the development of anticancer agents. The present review article presents an overview of the recent advances in 1,2,3-triazole hybrids with anticancer potential over the last 2 years, their chemical structures, structure-activity relationships, and mechanisms of action, as well as insights into the docking studies.