Maternal nutritional manipulations program adipose tissue dysfunction in offspring

Developmentally programmed obesity: Is there a role for anti-inflammatory nutritional strategies?

Pregnancy represents a period of immense maternal physiological adaptation, with progressive increases in lipid storage potential and insulin resistance to support fetal/placental growth. This requires significant change in the adipose tissue. Women living with obesity/overweight are more susceptible to these changes causing complications such as gestational diabetes. This is particularly worrying as up to 60% of European women are living with overweight/obesity at the onset of pregnancy. Furthermore, less than 1% meet all nutrition guidelines. There is now evidence that these deep metabolic changes can result in a predisposition to metabolic disease in both the mother and child in later life. Health and nutrition status during this period therefore represents a window to future health. This period offers a valuable opportunity for intervention to prevent the negative consequences of poor in utero environments and increases the long-term quality of life for mother and offspring. This review will examine a range of in utero factors which determine adipose tissue development, the impact of these factors on later-life obesity and metabolic health and the therapeutic value of dietary anti-inflammatory nutritional interventions during pregnancy and early life. When it comes to early life nutrition, a 'one size fits all' approach is not always appropriate. Understanding the mechanisms of adipose tissue development in response to differing nutritional strategies may be important in the context of complicated or adverse in utero environments and represents a substantial step towards a more personalised nutritional approach for the prevention of obesity, metabolic syndrome and related non-communicable diseases in future generations.

Maternal Brown Rice Diet during Pregnancy Promotes Adipose Tissue Browning in Offspring via Reprogramming PKA Signaling and DNA Methylation

SCOPE

Brown rice, the most consumed food worldwide, has been shown to possess beneficial effects on the prevention of metabolic diseases. However, the way in which maternal brown rice diet improves metabolism in offspring and the regulatory mechanisms remains unclear. The study explores the epigenetic regulation of offspring energy metabolic homeostasis by maternal brown rice diet during pregnancy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Female mice are fed brown rice during pregnancy, and then body phenotypes, the histopathological analysis, and adipose tissues biochemistry assay of offspring mice are detected. It is found that maternal brown rice diet significantly reduces body weight and fat mass, increases energy expenditure and heat production in offspring. Maternal brown rice diet increases uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) protein level and upregulates the mRNA expression of thermogenic genes in adipose tissues. Mechanistically, protein kinase A (PKA) signaling is likely responsible in the induced thermogenic program in offspring adipocytes, and the progeny adipocytes browning program is altered due to decreased level of DNA methyltransferase 1 protein and hypomethylation of the transcriptional coregulator positive regulatory domain containing 16 (PRDM16).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that maternal brown rice during pregnancy improves offspring mice metabolic homeostasis via promoting adipose browning, and its mechanisms may be mediated by DNA methylation reprogramming.

Molecular pathways in placental-fetal development and disruption

The first trimester of pregnancy ranks high in priority when minimizing harmful exposures, given the wide-ranging types of organogenesis occurring between 4- and 12-weeks' gestation. One way to quantify potential harm to the fetus in the first trimester is to measure a corollary effect on the placenta. Placental biomarkers are widely present in maternal circulation, cord blood, and placental tissue biopsied at birth or at the time of pregnancy termination. Here we evaluate ten diverse pathways involving molecules expressed in the first trimester human placenta based on their relevance to normal fetal development and to the hypothesis of placental-fetal endocrine disruption (perturbation in development that results in abnormal endocrine function in the offspring), namely: human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), thyroid hormone regulation, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor protein gamma (PPARγ), leptin, transforming growth factor beta, epiregulin, growth differentiation factor 15, small nucleolar RNAs, serotonin, and vitamin D. Some of these are well-established as biomarkers of placental-fetal endocrine disruption, while others are not well studied and were selected based on discovery analyses of the placental transcriptome. A literature search on these biomarkers summarizes evidence of placenta-specific production and regulation of each biomarker, and their role in fetal reproductive tract, brain, and other specific domains of fetal development. In this review, we extend the theory of fetal programming to placental-fetal programming.

The Effect of Maternal High-Fat Diet on Adipose Tissue Histology and Lipid Metabolism-Related Genes Expression in Offspring Rats

The developing fetus is dependent on the maternal nutritional environment. This study was conducted to determine the effects of a maternal high-fat diet (HFD) applied during pregnancy and/or lactation on the expression levels of some lipid-related genes in rat models. Half of the pregnant rats (n: 6) were fed an HFD (energy from fat: 45%), while the other half (n: 6) were fed a control diet (CD) (energy from fat, 7.7%) during the pregnancy period. During lactation, dams in both groups were divided into two subgroups, with half fed the CD and the other half fed the HFD. Thus, four groups were obtained: CD-CD, CD-HFD, HFD-CD, and HFD-HFD. At the end of lactation, all mothers and half of the offspring were sacrificed. The remaining offspring were fed a CD for five weeks. The average birth weight of the CD group offspring was found to be lower than that of the HFD group (p < 0.05). The amount of adipose tissue was highest in CD-HFD (p < 0.05), while gene expression levels were similar between groups (p > 0.05), and the most degenerative histological changes were observed in the eight-week HFD-HFD (p < 0.05). This study suggests that maternal HFD during pregnancy and lactation may increase adiposity in offspring rats, especially during the weaning period.

Maternal Diet Quality During Pregnancy and Offspring Hepatic Fat in Early Childhood: The Healthy Start Study

BACKGROUND

Overnutrition in utero may increase offspring risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but the specific contribution of maternal diet quality during pregnancy to this association remains understudied in humans.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to examine the associations of maternal diet quality during pregnancy with offspring hepatic fat in early childhood (median: 5 y old, range: 4-8 y old).

METHODS

Data were from 278 mother-child pairs in the longitudinal, Colorado-based Healthy Start Study. Multiple 24-h recalls were collected from mothers during pregnancy on a monthly basis (median: 3 recalls, range: 1-8 recalls starting after enrollment), and used to estimate maternal usual nutrient intakes and dietary pattern scores [Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010), Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII), and Relative Mediterranean Diet Score (rMED)]. Offspring hepatic fat was measured in early childhood by MRI. Associations of maternal dietary predictors during pregnancy with offspring log-transformed hepatic fat were assessed using linear regression models adjusted for offspring demographics, maternal/perinatal confounders, and maternal total energy intake.

RESULTS

Higher maternal fiber intake and rMED scores during pregnancy were associated with lower offspring hepatic fat in early childhood in fully adjusted models [Back-transformed β (95% CI): 0.82 (0.72, 0.94) per 5 g/1000 kcal fiber; 0.93 (0.88, 0.99) per 1 SD for rMED]. In contrast, higher maternal total sugar and added sugar intakes, and DII scores were associated with higher offspring hepatic fat [Back-transformed β (95% CI): 1.18 (1.05, 1.32) per 5% kcal/d added sugar; 1.08 (0.99, 1.18) per 1 SD for DII]. Analyses of dietary pattern subcomponents also revealed that lower maternal intakes of green vegetables and legumes and higher intake of "empty calories" were associated with higher offspring hepatic fat in early childhood.

CONCLUSIONS

Poorer maternal diet quality during pregnancy was associated with greater offspring susceptibility to hepatic fat in early childhood. Our findings provide insights into potential perinatal targets for the primordial prevention of pediatric NAFLD.

Associations of maternal insulin sensitivity during pregnancy with childhood central adiposity in the Genetics of Glucose regulation in Gestation and Growth (Gen3G) cohort

BACKGROUND

Childhood obesity has been associated with prenatal exposure to maternal hyperglycaemia, but we lack understanding about maternal insulin physiologic components that contribute to this association.

OBJECTIVES

Evaluate the association between maternal insulin sensitivity during pregnancy and adiposity measures in childhood.

METHODS

In 422 mother-child pairs, we tested associations between maternal insulin sensitivity measures at ~26 weeks of pregnancy and child adiposity measures, including dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry body composition and anthropometry (body mass index and waist circumference) at ~5 years. We used linear regression analyses to adjust for maternal age, ethnicity, gravidity, first-trimester body mass index, and child sex and age at mid-childhood.

RESULTS

In early pregnancy, maternal mean age was 28.6 ± 4.3 years and median body mass index was 24.1 kg/m2 . Lower maternal insulin sensitivity indices were correlated with greater child adiposity based on anthropometry measures and on dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry total and trunk % fat in univariate associations (r = -0.122 to -0.159). Lower maternal insulin sensitivity was specifically associated with higher dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry trunk % fat (n = 359 for Matsuda; β = -0.034 ± 0.013; p = 0.01) after adjustment for covariates, including maternal body mass index.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal insulin sensitivity during pregnancy may contribute to increased risk for higher offspring central adiposity in middle childhood.

Prenatal EGCG consumption causes obesity and perturbs glucose homeostasis in adult mice

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) has a wide consumption for its health advantages. The current study investigates the effects of prenatal EGCG administration on glucose metabolism and obesity in adulthood. Pregnant C57BL/6J mice were supplemented with EGCG in drinking water (3 µg/mL) for 16 d. Abdominal obesity was observed in both male and female adult mice, which was associated with the upregulation of adipose-specific genes, including C/ebpα and Srebf1 (Srebf1 only in males), and the downregulation of genes related to lipolysis, such as Acox1, Atgl and Pdk4 (only in males) in visceral adipose tissue. Elevated fasting glucose levels and hyperinsulinemia were observed in adult males, while females exhibit lower glucose level in glucose tolerance test, which might be due to reduced glucagon levels. Though hepatic expression of the insulin receptor signaling pathway was upregulated in males and was not altered in females, prenatal treatment with EGCG downregulated the expression of this signaling pathway in the skeletal muscle of adult mice, which was further demonstrated in primary human skeletal muscle cells treated with EGCG. The methylation levels in promotor of genes related to the insulin receptor signaling were matched with their transcription in mice, while the expression of acetylated histones was downregulated in human skeletal muscle cells. These results suggest that EGCG consumption during pregnancy should be a risk factor for the disruption of glucose homeostasis in adulthood.

Parental obesity-induced changes in developmental programming

Many studies support the link between parental obesity and the predisposition to develop adult-onset metabolic syndromes that include obesity, high blood pressure, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and diabetes in the offspring. As the prevalence of obesity increases in persons of childbearing age, so does metabolic syndrome in their descendants. Understanding how parental obesity alters metabolic programs in the progeny, predisposing them to adult-onset metabolic syndrome, is key to breaking this cycle. This review explores the basis for altered metabolism of offspring exposed to overnutrition by focusing on critical developmental processes influenced by parental obesity. We draw from human and animal model studies, highlighting the adaptations in metabolism that occur during normal pregnancy that become maladaptive with obesity. We describe essential phases of development impacted by parental obesity that contribute to long-term alterations in metabolism in the offspring. These encompass gamete formation, placentation, adipogenesis, pancreas development, and development of brain appetite control circuits. Parental obesity alters the developmental programming of these organs in part by inducing epigenetic changes with long-term consequences on metabolism. While exposure to parental obesity during any of these phases is sufficient to alter long-term metabolism, offspring often experience multiple exposures throughout their development. These insults accumulate to increase further the susceptibility of the offspring to the obesogenic environments of modern society.

Early introduction of exercise prevents insulin resistance in postnatal overfed rats

Early childhood obesity increases the risk of developing metabolic diseases. We examined the early introduction of exercise in small-litter obese-induced rats (SL) on glucose metabolism in the epididymal adipose tissue (AT) and soleus muscle (SM). On day 3 post-birth, pups were divided into groups of ten or three (SL). On day 22, rats were split into sedentary (S and SLS) and exercise (E and SLE) groups. The rats swam three times/week carrying a load for 30 min. In the first week, they swam without a load; in the 2nd week, they carried a load equivalent to 2% of their body weight; from the 3rd week to the final week, they carried a 5% body load. At 85 days of age, an insulin tolerance test was performed in some rats. At 90 days of age, rats were killed, and blood was harvested for plasma glucose, cholesterol, and triacylglycerol measurements. Mesenteric, epididymal, retroperitoneal, and brown adipose tissues were removed and weighed. SM and AT were incubated in the Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate buffer, 5.5 mM glucose for 1 h with or without 10 mU/mL insulin. Comparison between the groups was performed by 3-way ANOVA followed by the Tukey post-hoc test. Sedentary, overfed rats had greater body mass, more visceral fat, lower lactate production, and insulin resistance. Early introduction of exercise reduced plasma cholesterol and contained the deposition of white adipose tissue and insulin resistance. In conclusion, the early introduction of exercise prevents the effects of obesity on glucose metabolism in adulthood in this rat model.

Effects of a maternal high-fat diet on adipose tissue in murine offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to analyze the influence of a maternal and/or offspring high-fat diet (HFD) on the morphology of the offspring adipocytes and amount of food and energy consumption. The search was conducted through Pubmed, EMBASE, and Web of Science databases up to October 31st, 2021. The outcomes were extracted and pooled as a standardized mean difference with random effect models. 5,004 articles were found in the databases. Of these, only 31 were selected for this systematic review and 21 were included in the meta-analysis. A large discrepancy in the percentage of fat composing the HFD (from 14% to 62% fat content) was observed. Considering the increase of adipose tissue by hyperplasia (cell number increase) and hypertrophy (cell size increase) in HFD models, the meta-analysis showed that excessive consumption of a maternal HFD influences the development of visceral white adipose tissue in offspring, related to adipocyte hypertrophy, regardless of their HFD or control diet consumption. Upon following a long-term HFD, hyperplasia was confirmed in the offspring. When analyzing the secondary outcome in terms of the amount of food and energy consumed, there was an increase of caloric intake in the offspring fed with HFD whose mothers consumed HFD. Furthermore, the adipocyte hypertrophy in different regions of the adipose tissue is related to the sex of the pups. Thus, the adipose tissue obesity phenotypes in offspring are programmed by maternal consumption of a high-fat diet, independent of postnatal diet.

Maternal Obesity Programming of Perivascular Adipose Tissue and Associated Immune Cells: An Understudied Area With Few Answers and Many Questions

At present, the worldwide prevalence of obesity has become alarmingly high with estimates foreshadowing a continued escalation in the future. Furthermore, there is growing evidence attributing an individual’s predisposition for developing obesity to maternal health during gestation. Currently, 60% of pregnancies in the US are to either overweight or obese mothers which in turn contributes to the persistent rise in obesity rates. While obesity itself is problematic, it conveys an increased risk for several diseases such as diabetes, inflammatory disorders, cancer and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Additionally, as we are learning more about the mechanisms underlying CVD, much attention has been brought to the role of perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) in maintaining cardiovascular health. PVAT regulates vascular tone and for a significant number of individuals, obesity elicits PVAT disruption and dysregulation of vascular function. Obesity elicits changes in adipocyte and leukocyte populations within PVAT leading to an inflammatory state which promotes vasoconstriction thereby aiding the onset/progression of CVD. Our current understanding of obesity, PVAT and CVD has only been examined at the individual level without consideration for a maternal programming effect. It is unknown if maternal obesity affects the propensity for PVAT remodeling in the offspring, thereby enhancing the obesity/CVD link, and what role PVAT leukocytes play in this process. This perspective will focus on the maternal contribution of the interplay between obesity, PVAT disruption and CVD and will highlight the leukocyte/PVAT interaction as a novel target to stem the tide of the current obesity epidemic and its secondary health consequences.

Animal Foetal Models of Obesity and Diabetes - From Laboratory to Clinical Settings

The prenatal period, during which a fully formed newborn capable of surviving outside its mother's body is built from a single cell, is critical for human development. It is also the time when the foetus is particularly vulnerable to environmental factors, which may modulate the course of its development. Both epidemiological and animal studies have shown that foetal programming of physiological systems may alter the growth and function of organs and lead to pathology in adulthood. Nutrition is a particularly important environmental factor for the pregnant mother as it affects the condition of offspring. Numerous studies have shown that an unbalanced maternal metabolic status (under- or overnutrition) may cause long-lasting physiological and behavioural alterations, resulting in metabolic disorders, such as obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Various diets are used in laboratory settings in order to induce maternal obesity and metabolic disorders, and to alter the offspring development. The most popular models are: high-fat, high-sugar, high-fat-high-sugar, and cafeteria diets. Maternal undernutrition models are also used, which results in metabolic problems in offspring. Similarly to animal data, human studies have shown the influence of mothers' diets on the development of children. There is a strong link between the maternal diet and the birth weight, metabolic state, changes in the cardiovascular and central nervous system of the offspring. The mechanisms linking impaired foetal development and adult diseases remain under discussion. Epigenetic mechanisms are believed to play a major role in prenatal programming. Additionally, sexually dimorphic effects on offspring are observed. Therefore, further research on both sexes is necessary.

Associations between maternal obesity, gestational cytokine levels and child obesity in the NEST cohort

BACKGROUND

Although maternal systemic inflammation is hypothesized to link maternal pre-pregnancy obesity to offspring metabolic dysfunction, patient empirical data are limited.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we hypothesized that pre-pregnancy obesity alters systemic chemo/cytokines concentrations in pregnancy, and this alteration contributes to obesity in children.

METHODS

In a multi-ethnic cohort of 361 mother-child pairs, we measured prenatal concentrations of plasma TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, IL-4, IFN-γ, IL-12 p70 subunit, and IL-17A using a multiplex ELISA and examined associations of pre-pregnancy obesity on maternal chemo/cytokine levels, and associations of these cytokine levels with offspring body mass index z score (BMI-z) at age 2-6 years using linear regression.

RESULTS

After adjusting for maternal smoking, ethnicity, age, and education, pre-pregnancy obesity was associated with increased concentrations of TNF-α (P = .026) and IFN-γ (P = .06). While we found no evidence for associations between TNF-α concentrations and offspring BMI-z, increased IFN-γ concentrations were associated with decreased BMI-z (P = .0002), primarily in Whites (P = .0011). In addition, increased maternal IL-17A concentrations were associated with increased BMI-z in offspring (P = .0005) with stronger associations in African Americans (P = .0042) than Whites (P = .24).

CONCLUSIONS

Data from this study are consistent with maternal obesity-related inflammation during pregnancy, increasing the risk of childhood obesity in an ethnic-specific manner.

Maternal obesity as a risk factor for developing diabetes in offspring: An epigenetic point of view

According to the developmental origin of health and disease concept, the risk of many age-related diseases is not only determined by genetic and adult lifestyle factors but also by factors acting during early development. In particular, maternal obesity and neonatal accelerated growth predispose offspring to overweight and type 2 diabetes (T2D) in adulthood. This concept mainly relies on the developmental plasticity of adipose tissue and pancreatic β-cell programming in response to suboptimal milieu during the perinatal period. These changes result in unhealthy hypertrophic adipocytes with decreased capacity to store fat, low-grade inflammation and loss of insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells. Over the past years, many efforts have been made to understand how maternal obesity induces long-lasting adipose tissue and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction in offspring and what are the molecular basis of the transgenerational inheritance of T2D. In particular, rodent studies have shed light on the role of epigenetic mechanisms in linking maternal nutritional manipulations to the risk for T2D in adulthood. In this review, we discuss epigenetic adipocyte and β-cell remodeling during development in the progeny of obese mothers and the persistence of these marks as a basis of obesity and T2D predisposition.

Developmental programming of the female reproductive system-a review

Exposures to adverse conditions in utero can lead to permanent changes in the structure and function of key physiological systems in the developing fetus, increasing the risk of disease and premature aging in later postnatal life. When considering the systems that could be affected by an adverse gestational environment, the reproductive system of developing female offspring may be particularly important, as changes have the potential to alter both reproductive capacity of the first generation, as well as health of the second generation through changes in the oocyte. The aim of this review is to examine the impact of different adverse intrauterine conditions on the reproductive system of the female offspring. It focuses on the effects of exposure to maternal undernutrition, overnutrition/obesity, hypoxia, smoking, steroid excess, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and pollutants during gestation and draws on data from human and animal studies to illuminate underlying mechanisms. The available data indeed indicate that adverse gestational environments alter the reproductive physiology of female offspring with consequences for future reproductive capacity. These alterations are mediated via programmed changes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and the structure and function of reproductive tissues, particularly the ovaries. Reproductive programming may be observed as a change in the timing of puberty onset and menopause/reproductive decline, altered menstrual/estrous cycles, polycystic ovaries, and elevated risk of reproductive tissue cancers. These reproductive outcomes can affect the fertility and fecundity of the female offspring; however, further work is needed to better define the possible impact of these programmed changes on subsequent generations.

Effects of Birth Weight on Animal Performance, Fattening Traits and Meat Quality of Lambs

Simple Summary

It is accepted that a low body weight at birth (<4 kg) might impair postnatal muscle and increase adipose tissue development during the whole life of lambs. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of body weight at birth of lambs on the growth performance, ruminal parameters, digestibility, non-carcass components, carcass traits, physicochemical characteristics and fatty acid profile of meat when slaughtered at 27 kg. Compared to the lambs born with a high weight (>5.5 kg), the lambs born with a low body weight showed a worse animal performance during the fattening period, and increased fat depots with a higher content of saturated fatty acids and a reduced tenderness of meat.

Abstract

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is a key developmental programming factor which might impair both the feed efficiency of lambs and meat quality, since it deeply impacts skeletal muscle and adipose tissue development. To determine the effect of birth weight on the growth performance, ruminal parameters, digestibility, non-carcass components, carcass traits, physicochemical characteristics and fatty acid profile of meat, two experimental groups (six animals in each group) of male Merino lambs with different body weights (BW) at birth (low BW (LW; 3.88 ± 0.281 kg) and high BW (HW; 5.80 ± 0.647 kg)) were used. The lambs were penned with their corresponding ewe during the natural suckling period, being weaned at 15 kg. Then, the lambs were penned individually and offered a complete pelleted diet during the fattening period. All the animals were slaughtered when they reached 27 kg of BW. After weaning, both daily dry matter intake (578 vs. 615 g/day; p = 0.021) and average daily gain (141 vs. 190 g/day; p = 0.004) were significantly lower in LW lambs, and a higher feed:gain ratio was recorded for this group (3.98 vs. 3.45; p = 0.008). Carcass traits did not show differences (p > 0.05) between both groups of lambs, except for higher chilling losses for the LW group (3.29 vs. 2.69%; p = 0.012). Additionally, higher amounts of kidney knob and channel fat were observed for LW lambs (85.4 vs. 152 g; p = 0.028). Apart from a higher hardness of meat in LW lambs (152 vs. 189 Newtons, p = 0.040), no other differences (p > 0.05) were observed in the physicochemical traits of this product; however, the meat of LW lambs tended (p = 0.057) to contain more total fatty acid content with a higher (p = 0.041) proportion of saturated fatty acids than the meat of HW lambs. In conclusion, under the conditions of the present study, a low body weight at birth increased the deposition of fat in carcass and non-carcass components during the fattening period of lambs, thus reducing animal performance and worsening the nutritional indexes of the meat. Accordingly, it seems reasonable to try to identify these animals during early life, to be sold as suckling lambs in the meat market instead of being fattened.

Sex Differences in Long-term Metabolic Effects of Maternal Resveratrol Intake in Adult Rat Offspring

Maternal nutrition can affect the susceptibility of the offspring to metabolic disease later in life, suggesting that this period is a window of opportunity for intervention to reduce the risk of metabolic disease. Resveratrol, a natural polyphenol, has a wide range of beneficial properties including anti-obesogenic, anti-atherosclerotic, and anti-diabetic effects. We previously reported that maternal resveratrol intake during pregnancy and lactation has early metabolic effects in the offspring with these effects at weaning depending on the type of diet ingested by the mother and the offspring's sex. Here we analyzed whether these metabolic changes are maintained in the adult offspring and if they remain sex and maternal diet dependent. Wistar rats received a low-fat diet (LFD; 10.2% Kcal from fat) or high fat diet (HFD; 61.6% Kcal from fat) during pregnancy and lactation. Half of each group received resveratrol in their drinking water (50 mg/L). Offspring were weaned onto standard chow on postnatal day 21. Maternal resveratrol reduced serum cholesterol levels in all adult offspring from HFD mothers and increased it in adult female offspring from LFD mothers. Resveratrol increased visceral adipose tissue (VAT) in LFD offspring in both sexes but decreased it in male HFD offspring. Resveratrol shifted the distribution of VAT adipocyte size to a significantly higher incidence of large adipocytes, regardless of sex or maternal diet. These results clearly demonstrate that maternal resveratrol intake has long-lasting effects on metabolic health of offspring in a sex specific manner with these effects being highly dependent on the maternal diet.

Maternal high-fat diet induces long-term obesity with sex-dependent metabolic programming of adipocyte differentiation, hypertrophy and dysfunction in the offspring

Maternal obesity determines obesity and metabolic diseases in the offspring. The white adipose tissue (WAT) orchestrates metabolic pathways, and its dysfunction contributes to metabolic disorders in a sex-dependent manner. Here, we tested if sex differences influence the molecular mechanisms of metabolic programming of WAT in offspring of obese dams. To this end, maternal obesity was induced with high-fat diet (HFD) and the offspring were studied at an early phase [postnatal day 21 (P21)], a late phase (P70) and finally P120. In the early phase we found a sex-independent increase in WAT in offspring of obese dams using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which was more pronounced in females than males. While the adipocyte size increased in both sexes, the distribution of WAT differed in males and females. As mechanistic hints, we identified an inflammatory response in females and a senescence-associated reduction in the preadipocyte factor DLK in males. In the late phase, the obese body composition persisted in both sexes, with a partial reversal in females. Moreover, female offspring recovered completely from both the adipocyte hypertrophy and the inflammatory response. These findings were linked to a dysregulation of lipolytic, adipogenic and stemness-related markers as well as AMPKα and Akt signaling. Finally, the sex-dependent metabolic programming persisted with sex-specific differences in adipocyte size until P120. In conclusion, we do not only provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms of sex-dependent metabolic programming of WAT dysfunction, but also highlight the sex-dependent development of low- and high-grade pathogenic obesity.

Epigenetic Programming of Adipose Tissue in the Progeny of Obese Dams

According to the Developmental Origin of Health and Disease (DOHaD) concept, maternal obesity and the resulting accelerated growth in neonates predispose offspring to obesity and associated metabolic diseases that may persist across generations. In this context, the adipose tissue has emerged as an important player due to its involvement in metabolic health, and its high potential for plasticity and adaptation to environmental cues. Recent years have seen a growing interest in how maternal obesity induces long-lasting adipose tissue remodeling in offspring and how these modifications could be transmitted to subsequent generations in an inter- or transgenerational manner. In particular, epigenetic mechanisms are thought to be key players in the developmental programming of adipose tissue, which may partially mediate parts of the transgenerational inheritance of obesity. This review presents data supporting the role of maternal obesity in the developmental programming of adipose tissue through epigenetic mechanisms. Inter- and transgenerational effects on adipose tissue expansion are also discussed in this review.

Early-life programming of adipose tissue

Worldwide obesity is increasing at an alarming rate in children and adolescents, with the consequent emergence of co-morbidities. Moreover, the maternal environment during pregnancy plays an important role in obesity, contributing to transgenerational transmission of the same and metabolic dysfunction. White adipose tissue represents a prime target of metabolic programming induced by maternal milieu. In this article, we review adipose tissue physiology and development, as well as maternal influences during the perinatal period that may lead to obesity in early postnatal life and adulthood. First, we describe the adipose tissue cell composition, distribution and hormonal action, together with the evidence of hormonal factors participating in fetal/postnatal programming. Subsequently, we describe the critical periods of adipose tissue development and the relationship of gestational and early postnatal life with healthy fetal adipose tissue expansion. Furthermore, we discuss the evidence showing that adipose tissue is an important target for nutritional, hormonal and epigenetic signals to modulate fetal growth. Finally, we describe nutritional, hormonal, epigenetic and microbiome changes observed in maternal obesity, and whether their disruption alters fetal growth and adiposity. The presented evidence supports the developmental origins of health and disease concept, which proposes that the homeostatic system is affected during gestational and postnatal development, impeding the ability to regulate body weight after birth, thereby resulting in adult obesity. Consequently, we anticipate that promoting a healthy early-life programming of adipose tissue and increasing the knowledge of the mechanisms by which maternal factors affect the health of future generations may offer novel strategies for explaining and addressing worldwide health problems such as obesity.

Influences of the perinatal diet on maternal and child health: insights from the GUSTO study

Maternal and child health are intrinsically linked. With accumulating evidence over the past two decades supporting the developmental origins of health and diseases hypothesis, it is now widely recognised that nutrition in the first 1000 d sets the foundation for long-term health. Maternal diet before, during and after pregnancy can influence the developmental pathways of the fetus and lead to health consequences later in life. While maternal and infant mortality rates have declined significantly in the past two decades, the growing burden of obesity and chronic non-communicable diseases in women of reproductive age and children is on a rapid rise worldwide, in developed and developing countries. A key contributory factor is malnutrition, which is a consequence of consuming poor quality diets. Suboptimal macronutrient balance and micronutrient inadequacies can lead to undesirable maternal body composition and metabolism, in turn influencing the health of the mother and leading to longer-term metabolic and cognitive health consequences in the infant. The GUSTO (Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes) study, a mother-offspring multi-ethnic cohort study in Singapore, has contributed to this body of evidence over the past 10 years. This review will illustrate how nutritional epidemiological research through a birth cohort has illuminated the importance and urgency of maternal and child nutrition and health in a modern, industrialised setting. It underscores the importance of a number of critical nutrients during pregnancy, in combination with healthy dietary patterns and appropriate meal timing, for optimal maternal and child health.

Maternal obesity in pregnancy impacts offspring cardiometabolic health: Systematic review and meta-analysis of animal studies

Obesity before and during pregnancy leads to reduced offspring cardiometabolic health. Here, we systematically reviewed animal experimental evidence of maternal obesity before and during pregnancy and offspring anthropometry and cardiometabolic health. We systematically searched Embase and Medline from inception until January 2018. Eligible publications compared offspring of mothers with obesity to mothers with a normal weight. We performed meta-analyses and subgroup analyses. We also examined methodological quality and publication bias. We screened 2543 publications and included 145 publications (N = 21 048 animals, five species). Essential methodological details were not reported in the majority of studies. We found evidence of publication bias for birth weight. Offspring of mothers with obesity had higher body weight (standardized mean difference (SMD) 0.76 [95% CI 0.60;0.93]), fat percentage (0.99 [0.64;1.35]), systolic blood pressure (1.33 [0.75;1.91]), triglycerides (0.64 [0.42;0.86], total cholesterol (0.46 [0.18;0.73]), glucose level (0.43 [0.24;0.63]), and insulin level (0.81 [0.61;1.02]) than offspring of control mothers, but similar birth weight. Sex, age, or species did not influence the effect of maternal obesity on offspring's cardiometabolic health. Obesity before and during pregnancy reduces offspring cardiometabolic health in animals. Future intervention studies should investigate whether reducing obesity prior to conception could prevent these detrimental programming effects and improve cardiometabolic health of future generations.

Obesity programmed by prenatal dexamethasone and postnatal high-fat diet leads to distinct alterations in nutrition sensory signals and circadian-clock genes in visceral adipose tissue

BACKGROUND

Prenatal dexamethasone treatment has been shown to enhance the susceptibility of offspring to postnatal high-fat (HF) diet-induced programmed obesity. We investigated the metabolic phenotypes, nutrient-sensing signal and circadian-clock genes in adipose tissue that are programmed by prenatal dexamethasone exposure and postnatal HF diet.

METHODS

Male offspring of Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four experimental groups: normal diet, prenatal dexamethasone exposure, postnatal HF diet, and prenatal dexamethasone plus postnatal HF diet. Postnatal HF diet was prescribed from weaning to 6 months of age.

RESULTS

Prenatal dexamethasone and postnatal HF diet exerted synergistic effects on body weight and visceral adiposity, whereas prenatal dexamethasone and postnatal HF diet altered the metabolic profile and caused leptin dysregulation. Prenatal dexamethasone and postnatal HF diet distinctly influenced nutrient-sensing molecules and circadian-clock genes in adipose tissue. The mRNA expression of mTOR, AMPK-α2, PPAR-α, and PPAR-γ was suppressed by prenatal dexamethasone but enhanced by postnatal HF diet.

CONCLUSION

Prenatal dexamethasone and postnatal HF treatment cause dysregulation of nutrient-sensing molecules and circadian-clock genes in visceral adipose tissue. Characterizing altered nutrient-sensing molecules and circadian-clock genes has potential therapeutic relevance with respect to the pathogenesis and treatment of prenatal stress and postnatal HF diet-related metabolic disorders.

Regulatory effects of brown adipose tissue thermogenesis on maternal metabolic adaptation, placental efficiency, and fetal growth in mice

To determine the role of UCP1-mediated thermogenesis in controlling maternal metabolic adaptation to pregnancy, energy metabolism of C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) and Ucp1 gene knockout ( Ucp1-/-) mice was studied during pregnancy. With the progression of pregnancy, maternal energy expenditure rates (EERs), expression of UCP1, and core body temperature steadily declined in WT dams. Despite no significant alterations in core body temperature and weight gain during pregnancy, Ucp1-/- dams exhibited lower rates in EER decline. High-fat (HF) feeding not only robustly increased maternal UCP1 expression and core body temperature but also abolished gestation-suppressed EER in WT dams. However, HF-increased EERs were significantly attenuated in Ucp1-/- dams. Significantly increased fetal body weights and fetal/placental weight ratio were detected in fetuses from Ucp1-/- dams compared with fetuses from WT dams. Markedly increased expression levels of glucose transporter 1 and amino acid transporters were also observed in placentas from Ucp1-/- dams. Furthermore, blood glucose concentrations of fetuses from Ucp1-/- dams were significantly higher than those of fetuses from WT dams, indicating that maternal UCP1 has an inhibitory effect on placental efficiency and fetal growth. Taken all together, this study demonstrated that maternal brown adipose tissue plays an important role in controlling maternal metabolic adaptation and placental nutrient transport.

Transgenerational Epigenetic Mechanisms in Adipose Tissue Development

An adverse nutritional environment during the perinatal period increases the risk of adult-onset metabolic diseases, such as obesity, which may persist across generations. Adipose tissue (AT) from offspring of malnourished dams has been shown to display altered adipogenesis, lipogenesis, and adipokine expression, impaired thermogenesis, and low-grade inflammation. Although the exact mechanisms underlying these alterations remain unclear, epigenetic processes are believed to have an important role. In this review, we focus on epigenetic mechanisms in AT that may account for transgenerational dysregulation of adipocyte formation and adipose function. Understanding the complex interactions between maternal diet and epigenetic regulation of the AT in offspring may be valuable in improving preventive strategies against the obesity pandemic.

Establishment and Comparison of Juvenile Female Mouse Models of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis

Experimental research has successfully established an adult offspring animal model of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but the female offspring model of NAFLD in young age has not been well characterized yet. The aim of this study was to present a direct comparison of the maternal versus postweaning female juvenile NAFLD and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) animal models. Four different female mouse models were established and compared using different high-fat diet feeding (HF) strategies in maternal mice and their offspring. The models were non-HF maternal mice and HF offspring with high-high fat (C/HHF), non-HF maternal mice and HF offspring with low-high fat (C/LHF), HF maternal mice and offspring both with high-high fat (HHF/HHF), and HF maternal mice and offspring both with low-high fat (LHF/LHF). A female control group (C/C) was also established. The offspring mice were raised to the age of 8 weeks and then euthanized. Blood glucose levels, lipid profiles, liver function, and triglycerides/total cholesterol contents were examined. Hepatic morphology and superoxide anion levels were evaluated. The nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate activity and related regulatory subunits protein expression in the liver tissue were also determined. Our data demonstrated that offspring fat intake contributed to the successful establishment of NAFLD and maternal-offspring fat intake contributed to the successful establishment of NASH in juvenile female mice. Offspring high-fat exposure might be associated with the development of NAFLD and maternal high-fat exposure might be associated with the development of NASH in juvenile female offspring. Higher calories from a fat diet program (both in maternal and offspring) are more prone to inducing liver injury in offspring. In addition, the combination of the aforementioned two factors could aggravate this process. Moreover, oxidative stress was prominent in the juvenile female mouse model of NAFLD/NASH, and the mechanism might be related to the activation of liver NADPH oxidase.

Low maternal vitamin D status in pregnancy increases the risk of childhood obesity

BACKGROUND

Vitamin D may modulate adipogenesis. However, limited studies have investigated the effect of maternal vitamin D during pregnancy on offspring adiposity or cardiometabolic parameters with inconclusive results.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study is to examine the association of maternal 25(OH)-vitamin D [25(OH)D] status with offspring obesity and cardiometabolic characteristics in 532 mother-child pairs from the prospective pregnancy cohort Rhea in Crete, Greece.

METHODS

Maternal 25(OH)D concentrations were measured at the first prenatal visit (mean: 14 weeks, SD: 4). Child outcomes included body mass index standard deviation score, waist circumference, skin-fold thickness, blood pressure and serum lipids at ages 4 and 6 years. Body fat percentage was also measured at 6 years. Body mass index growth trajectories from birth to 6 years were estimated by mixed effects models with fractional polynomials of age. Adjusted associations were obtained via multivariable linear regression analyses.

RESULTS

About two-thirds of participating mothers had 25(OH)D concentrations <50 nmol L^-1 . Offspring of women in the low 25(OH)D tertile (<37.7 nmol L^-1 ) had higher body mass index standard deviation score (β 0.20, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.37), and waist circumference (β 0.87 95% CI: 0.12, 1.63) at preschool age, compared with the offspring of women with higher 25(OH)D measurements (≥37.7 nmol L^-1 ), on covariate-adjusted analyses. The observed relationships persisted at age 6 years. We found no association between maternal 25(OH)D concentrations and offspring blood pressure or serum lipids at both time points.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to very low 25(OH)D concentrations in utero may increase childhood adiposity indices. Given that vitamin D is a modifiable risk factor, our findings may have important public health implications.

Feeding a slowly digestible carbohydrate diet during pregnancy of insulin-resistant rats prevents the excess of adipogenesis in their offspring

An obesogenic environment during pregnancy has been shown to increase the risk of dysregulation on adipogenesis and insulin resistance in the offspring. Being essential for the growing fetus, glucose supply is guaranteed by a number of modifications in the mother's metabolism, and thus, glucose control during pregnancy especially among obese or diabetic women is paramount to prevent adverse consequences in their children. Besides the election of low-glycemic-index carbohydrates, the rate of carbohydrate digestion could be relevant to keep a good glucose control. In the present study, we compared the effects of two high-fat diets with similar glycemic load but different rates of carbohydrate digestion given to pregnant insulin-resistant rats. After birth, all animals were fed a standard diet until age 14 weeks. We analyzed offspring body composition, plasma and adipocyte lipidomics, lipid metabolism in adipose tissue and insulin sensitivity. Those animals whose mothers were fed the rapid-digesting carbohydrate diet exhibited an excessive adipogenesis. Thus, these animals showed a marked lipidemia, increased lipid synthesis in the adipose tissue and reduced glucose transporter amount in the adipose. On the contrary, those animals whose mothers were fed the slow-digesting carbohydrate diet showed a profile in the measured parameters closer to that of the offspring of healthy mothers. These results support the hypothesis that not only glycemic index but the rate of carbohydrate digestion during gestation may be critical to regulate the programming of adipogenesis in the offspring.

Maternal obesity increases the risk of metabolic disease and impacts renal health in offspring

Obesity, together with insulin resistance, promotes multiple metabolic abnormalities and is strongly associated with an increased risk of chronic disease including type 2 diabetes (T2D), hypertension, cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). The incidence of obesity continues to rise in astronomical proportions throughout the world and affects all the different stages of the lifespan. Importantly, the proportion of women of reproductive age who are overweight or obese is increasing at an alarming rate and has potential ramifications for offspring health and disease risk. Evidence suggests a strong link between the intrauterine environment and disease programming. The current review will describe the importance of the intrauterine environment in the development of metabolic disease, including kidney disease. It will detail the known mechanisms of fetal programming, including the role of epigenetic modulation. The evidence for the role of maternal obesity in the developmental programming of CKD is derived mostly from our rodent models which will be described. The clinical implication of such findings will also be discussed.

Proinflammatory Diets during Pregnancy and Neonatal Adiposity in the Healthy Start Study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association between dietary inflammatory index (DII) scores during pregnancy and neonatal adiposity.

STUDY DESIGN

The analysis included 1078 mother-neonate pairs in Healthy Start, a prospective prebirth cohort. Diet was assessed using repeated 24-hour dietary recalls. DII scores were obtained by summing nutrient intakes, which were standardized to global means and multiplied by inflammatory effect scores. Air displacement plethysmography measured fat mass and fat-free mass within 72 hours of birth. Linear and logistic models evaluated the associations of DII scores with birth weight, fat mass, fat-free mass, and percent fat mass, and with categorical outcomes of small- and large-for-gestational age. We tested for interactions with prepregnancy BMI and gestational weight gain.

RESULTS

The interaction between prepregnancy BMI and DII was statistically significant for birth weight, neonatal fat mass, and neonatal percent fat mass. Among neonates born to obese women, each 1-unit increase in DII was associated with increased birth weight (53 g; 95% CI, 20, 87), fat mass (20 g; 95% CI, 7-33), and percent fat mass (0.5%; 95% CI, 0.2-0.8). No interaction was detected for small- and large-for-gestational age. Each 1-unit increase in DII score was associated a 40% increase in odds of a large-for-gestational age neonate (1.4; 95% CI, 1.0-2.0; P = .04), but not a small-for-gestational age neonate (1.0; 95% CI, 0.8-1.2; P = .80). There was no evidence of an interaction with gestational weight gain.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the hypothesis that an increased inflammatory milieu during pregnancy may be a risk factor for neonatal adiposity.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT02273297.

Reduced PPARγ2 expression in adipose tissue of male rat offspring from obese dams is associated with epigenetic modifications

According to the Developmental Origin of Health and Disease (DOHaD) concept, maternal obesity and accelerated growth in neonates program obesity later in life. White adipose tissue (WAT) has been the focus of developmental programming events, although underlying mechanisms remain elusive. In rodents, WAT development primarily occurs during lactation. We previously reported that adult rat offspring from dams fed a high-fat (HF) diet exhibited fat accumulation and decreased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) mRNA levels in WAT. We hypothesized that PPARγ down-regulation occurs via epigenetic malprogramming which takes place during adipogenesis. We therefore examined epigenetic modifications in the PPARγ1 and PPARγ2 promoters in perirenal (pWAT) and inguinal fat pads of HF offspring at weaning (postnatal d 21) and in adulthood. Postnatal d 21 is a period characterized by active epigenomic remodeling in the PPARγ2 promoter (DNA hypermethylation and depletion in active histone modification H3ac and H3K4me3) in pWAT, consistent with increased DNA methyltransferase and DNA methylation activities. Adult HF offspring exhibited sustained hypermethylation and histone modification H3ac of the PPARγ2 promoter in both deposits, correlated with persistent decreased PPARγ2 mRNA levels. Consistent with the DOHaD hypothesis, retained epigenetic marks provide a mechanistic basis for the cellular memory linking maternal obesity to a predisposition for later adiposity.-Lecoutre, S., Pourpe, C., Butruille, L., Marousez, L., Laborie, C., Guinez, C., Lesage, J., Vieau, D., Eeckhoute, J., Gabory, A., Oger, F., Eberlé, D., Breton, C. Reduced PPARγ2 expression in adipose tissue of male rat offspring from obese dams is associated with epigenetic modifications.

Maternal dietary free or bound fructose diversely influence developmental programming of lipogenesis

Background

Maternal dietary choices throughout preconception, pregnancy, and lactation irreversibly affect the development of fetal tissues and organs, known as fetal programming. Recommendations tend to emphasize reducing added sugars. However, the impact of maternal dietary free or bound fructose in added sugars on developmental programming of lipogenesis is unknown.

Methods

Virgin Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into five groups. Rats were given feed and plain water (control) or water containing maltodextrin (vehicle), fructose, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) containing 55% fructose, sucrose (20% w/v) for 12 weeks before mating and throughout the pregnancy and lactation periods. Body weight, water, and feed intake were measured throughout the study. At the end of the lactation period, blood was drawn to determine the fasting levels of glucose, insulin, triglycerides, and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) in blood. Triglycerides and acetyl Co-A Carboxylase-1 (ACC1) levels in livers were analyzed, and insulin resistance was calculated.

Results

The energy intake of dams in the HFCS group was higher than in the fructose group, while weight gain was less in the HFCS group than in the fructose group. HFCS resulted in greater insulin resistance in dams, whereas free fructose had a robust effect on the fetal programming of insulin resistance. Free fructose and HFCS in the maternal diet increased blood and liver triglycerides and NEFA content in pups. Furthermore, fructose and HFCS exposure increased phosphorylated ACC1 as compared to maltodextrin and control, indicating greater fatty acid synthesis in pups and dams.

Conclusion

Different types of added sugar in the maternal diet have different metabolic effects on the developmental programming of lipogenesis. Consequently, high fructose intake via processed foods may increase the risk for chronic diseases, and free fructose might contribute to developmental programming of chronic diseases more than bound fructose.

Low Vitamin B12 in Pregnancy Is Associated With Adipose-Derived Circulating miRs Targeting PPARγ and Insulin Resistance

CONTEXT

Low vitamin B12 during pregnancy is associated with higher maternal obesity, insulin resistance (IR), and gestational diabetes mellitus. B12 is a key cofactor in one-carbon metabolism.

OBJECTIVE

We hypothesize that B12 plays a role in epigenetic regulation by altering circulating microRNAs (miRs) during adipocyte differentiation and results in an adverse metabolic phenotype.

DESIGN, SETTINGS, AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Human preadipocyte cell line (Chub-S7) was differentiated in various B12 concentrations: control (500 nM), low B12 (0.15 nM), and no B12 (0 nM). Maternal blood samples (n = 91) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) (n = 42) were collected at delivery. Serum B12, folate, lipids, plasma one-carbon metabolites, miR profiling, miR expression, and gene expression were measured.

RESULTS

Our in vitro model demonstrated that adipocytes in B12-deficient conditions accumulated more lipids, had higher triglyceride levels, and increased gene expression of adipogenesis and lipogenesis. MiR array screening revealed differential expression of 133 miRs involving several metabolic pathways (adjusted P < 0.05). Altered miR expressions were observed in 12 miRs related to adipocyte differentiation and function in adipocytes. Validation of these data in pregnant women with low B12 confirmed increased expression of adipogenic and lipogenic genes and altered miRs in SAT and altered levels of 11 of the 12 miRs in circulation. After adjustment for other possible confounders, multiple regression analysis revealed an independent association of B12 with body mass index (β: -0.264; 95% confidence interval, -0.469 to -0.058; P = 0.013) and was mediated by four circulating miRs targeting peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and IR.

CONCLUSIONS

Low B12 levels in pregnancy alter adipose-derived circulating miRs, which may mediate an adipogenic and IR phenotype, leading to obesity.

In utero exposure to malaria is associated with metabolic traits in adolescence: The Agogo 2000 birth cohort study

OBJECTIVES

Malaria in pregnancy (MiP) contributes to fetal undernutrition and adverse birth outcomes, and may constitute a developmental origin of metabolic diseases in the offspring. In a Ghanaian birth cohort, we examined the relationships between MiP-exposure and metabolic traits in adolescence.

METHODS

MiP at delivery was assessed in 155 mother-child pairs. Among the now teenaged children (mean age, 14.8 years; 53% male), we measured fasting plasma glucose (FPG), body mass index (BMI), and systolic and diastolic blood pressure (BP). Associations of MiP with the adolescents' FPG, BMI, and BP were examined by linear regression.

RESULTS

At delivery, 45% were MiP-exposed, which increased FPG in adolescence, adjusted for mother's age at delivery, parity and familial socio-economic status (infected vs. uninfected: mean ΔFPG = 0.20 mmol/L; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.01, 0.39; p = 0.049). As a trend,this was discernible for BP, particularly for microscopic infections (mean Δsystolic BP = 5.43 mmHg; 95% CI: 0.00, 10.88; p = 0.050; mean Δdiastolic BP = 3.67 mmHg; 95% CI: -0.81, 8.14; p = 0.107). These associations were largely independent of birth weight, gestational age and teenage BMI. Adolescent BMI was not related to MiP.

CONCLUSIONS

In rural Ghana, exposure to malaria during fetal development contributes to metabolic conditions in young adulthood.

Maternal Night-Fasting Interval during Pregnancy Is Directly Associated with Neonatal Head Circumference and Adiposity in Girls but Not Boys

Background: Synchrony between daily feeding-fasting signals and circadian rhythms has been shown to improve metabolic health in animals and adult humans, but the potential programming effect on fetal growth is unknown.Objective: We examined the associations of the maternal night-fasting interval during pregnancy with offspring birth size and adiposity.Methods: This was a cross-sectional study of mother-offspring dyads within the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) cohort. For 384 mothers aged 30.8 ± 4.8 y (mean ± SD), the night-fasting interval at 26-28 wk of gestation was determined from a 3-d food diary based on the average of the fasting duration at night (1900-0659). Offspring birth weight, length, and head circumference were measured and converted to weight-for-gestational age (GA), length-for-GA, and head circumference-for-GA z scores, respectively, by using local customized percentile charts. The percentage of neonatal total body fat (TBF) was derived by using a validated prediction equation. Multivariable general linear models, stratified by child sex, were performed.Results: The mean ± SD maternal night-fasting interval was 9.9 ± 1.3 h. In infant girls, each 1-h increase in the maternal night-fasting interval was associated with a 0.22-SD (95% CI: 0.05-, 0.40-SD; P = 0.013) increase in birth head circumference-for-GA and a 0.84% (95% CI: 0.19%, 1.49%; P = 0.012) increase in TBF at birth, after adjustment for confounders. In infant boys, no associations were observed between the maternal night-fasting interval and birth size or TBF.Conclusions: An increased maternal night-fasting interval in the late second trimester of pregnancy is associated with increased birth head circumference and TBF in girls but not boys. Our findings are in accordance with previous observations that suggest that there are sex-specific responses in fetal brain growth and adiposity, and raise the possibility of the maternal night-fasting interval as an underlying influence. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01174875.

Maternal obesity programs increased leptin gene expression in rat male offspring via epigenetic modifications in a depot-specific manner

Objective

According to the Developmental Origin of Health and Disease (DOHaD) concept, maternal obesity and accelerated growth in neonates predispose offspring to white adipose tissue (WAT) accumulation. In rodents, adipogenesis mainly develops during lactation. The mechanisms underlying the phenomenon known as developmental programming remain elusive. We previously reported that adult rat offspring from high-fat diet-fed dams (called HF) exhibited hypertrophic adipocyte, hyperleptinemia and increased leptin mRNA levels in a depot-specific manner. We hypothesized that leptin upregulation occurs via epigenetic malprogramming, which takes place early during development of WAT.

Methods

As a first step, we identified in silico two potential enhancers located upstream and downstream of the leptin transcription start site that exhibit strong dynamic epigenomic remodeling during adipocyte differentiation. We then focused on epigenetic modifications (methylation, hydroxymethylation, and histone modifications) of the promoter and the two potential enhancers regulating leptin gene expression in perirenal (pWAT) and inguinal (iWAT) fat pads of HF offspring during lactation (postnatal days 12 (PND12) and 21 (PND21)) and in adulthood.

Results

PND12 is an active period for epigenomic remodeling in both deposits especially in the upstream enhancer, consistent with leptin gene induction during adipogenesis. Unlike iWAT, some of these epigenetic marks were still observable in pWAT of weaned HF offspring. Retained marks were only visible in pWAT of 9-month-old HF rats that showed a persistent “expandable” phenotype.

Conclusions

Consistent with the DOHaD hypothesis, persistent epigenetic remodeling occurs at regulatory regions especially within intergenic sequences, linked to higher leptin gene expression in adult HF offspring in a depot-specific manner.

•

The white adipose tissue is an important target of developmental programming.

•

Higher leptin gene expression occurs in offspring from obese dams in a depot-specific manner.

•

Leptin upregulation occurs via epigenetic malprogramming during development of adipose tissue.

•

Persistent genomic epigenetic remodeling occurs in adipose tissue of offspring from obese dams.

•

Intergenic regions were more affected than the leptin promoter region in offspring of obese dams.

Maternal cytokine status may prime the metabolic profile and increase risk of obesity in children

BACKGROUND

The maternal inflammation status during pregnancy has been associated with metabolic imprinting and obesity development in the child. However, the influence of the maternal Th2 cytokines, interleukin-4 (IL4), IL5 and IL13, has not been studied so far.

METHODS

We investigated the relationship between maternal innate (IL6, IL8, IL10 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFa)) and adaptive (interferon-γ, IL4, IL5 and IL13) blood cytokine levels at 34 weeks of gestation and children's overweight development until the age of 3 years in 407 children of the German longitudinal LINA (Lifestyle and Environmental Factors and their Influence on Newborns Allergy risk) cohort. Children's body weight and height were measured during the annual clinical visits or acquired from questionnaires. Body mass index (BMI) Z-scores were calculated according to the WHO reference data to adjust for child's age and gender. Cytokine secretion was stimulated with phytohemagglutinin or lipopolysaccharide and measured by cytometric bead assay. Furthermore, we assessed metabolic parameter in blood of 318 children at age 1 using the AbsoluteIDQ p180 Kit (Biocrates LIFE Science AG).

RESULTS

Applying logistic regression models, we found that an increase of maternal IL4 and IL13 was associated with a decreased risk for overweight development in 1- and 2-year-old children. This effect was consistent up to the age of 3 years for IL13 and mainly concerns children without maternal history of atopy. Children's acylcarnitine concentrations at 1 year were positively correlated with maternal IL13 levels and inversely associated with the BMI Z-score at age 1.

CONCLUSIONS

We were able to show for the first time that the maternal Th2 status may be linked inversely to early childhood overweight development accompanied by an altered metabolic profile of the fetus. However, our data do not support a direct mediating role of acylcarnitines on maternal IL13-induced weight development.

Offspring predisposition to obesity due to maternal-diet-induced obesity in rats is preventable by dietary normalization before mating

SCOPE

We studied in rats whether the expected detrimental effects in offspring associated to maternal dietary obesity may be reverted by obesogenic diet removal 1 month before mating.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Female rats were fed a cafeteria diet (CD) from days 10 to 100 and then a standard diet (SD) (postcafeteria rats). One month after CD removal, postcafeteria rats and a group of SD-fed female rats (controls) were mated with males. At weaning, offspring were fed SD and followed until 4 months old. CD was effective at inducing obesity in dams. Its removal led to a reduction in body weight, although, after 30 days, rats retained excess body weight and fat than controls. During lactation, postcafeteria dams showed greater body fat, and higher leptin and adiponectin levels in milk than controls. From 2 months of life, offspring of postcafeteria dams displayed lower body weight than controls, with no differences in the percentage of fat, homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance, or circulating parameters.

CONCLUSION

Removal of CD in obese rats before gestation, although without complete reversion of body weight excess, may prevent the expected detrimental effects in offspring associated to an excess fat accumulation in adulthood and the related metabolic disturbances.

Advances in TRH signaling

The activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis (HPT) is coordinated by hypophysiotropic thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) neurons present in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. Hypophysiotropic TRH neurons act as energy sensors. TRH controls the synthesis and release of thyrotropin, which activates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones; in target tissues, transporters and deiodinases control their local availability. Thyroid hormones regulate many functions, including energy homeostasis. This review discusses recent evidence that covers several aspects of TRH role in HPT axis regulation. Knowledge about the mechanisms of TRH signaling has steadily increased. New transcription factors engaged in TRH gene expression have been identified, and advances made on how they interact with signaling pathways and define the dynamics of TRH neurons response to acute and/or long-term influences. Albeit yet incomplete, the relationship of TRH neurons activity with positive energy balance has emerged. The importance of tanycytes as a central relay for the feedback control of the axis, as well as for HPT responses to alterations in energy balance, and other stimuli has been reinforced. Finally, some studies have started to shed light on the interference of prenatal and postnatal stress and nutrition on HPT axis programing, which have confirmed the axis susceptibility to early insults.

Depot- and sex-specific effects of maternal obesity in offspring's adipose tissue

According to the Developmental Origin of Health and Disease (DOHaD) concept, alterations of nutrient supply in the fetus or neonate result in long-term programming of individual body weight (BW) setpoint. In particular, maternal obesity, excessive nutrition, and accelerated growth in neonates have been shown to sensitize offspring to obesity. The white adipose tissue may represent a prime target of metabolic programming induced by maternal obesity. In order to unravel the underlying mechanisms, we have developed a rat model of maternal obesity using a high-fat (HF) diet (containing 60% lipids) before and during gestation and lactation. At birth, newborns from obese dams (called HF) were normotrophs. However, HF neonates exhibited a rapid weight gain during lactation, a key period of adipose tissue development in rodents. In males, increased BW at weaning (+30%) persists until 3months of age. Nine-month-old HF male offspring was normoglycemic but showed mild glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, and hypercorticosteronemia. Despite no difference in BW and energy intake, HF adult male offspring was predisposed to fat accumulation showing increased visceral (gonadal and perirenal) depots weights and hyperleptinemia. However, only perirenal adipose tissue depot exhibited marked adipocyte hypertrophy and hyperplasia with elevated lipogenic (i.e. sterol-regulated element binding protein 1 (Srebp1), fatty acid synthase (Fas), and leptin) and diminished adipogenic (i.e. peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (Pparγ), 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-Hds1)) mRNA levels. By contrast, very few metabolic variations were observed in HF female offspring. Thus, maternal obesity and accelerated growth during lactation program offspring for higher adiposity via transcriptional alterations of visceral adipose tissue in a depot- and sex-specific manner.

The influence of peri-conception and first trimester dietary restriction of protein in cattle on meat quality traits of entire male progeny

Primiparous Santa Gertrudis heifers were used to evaluate the effects of gestational dietary protein content on meat quality traits of 20month old bull progeny (n=40). At -60d before AI, heifers were randomly allocated to HIGH or LOW protein diet (HPERI and LPERI). From 24dpc, half of each treatment group changed to an alternative post-conception HIGH or LOW protein diet (HPOST and LPOST). LPERI and LPOST diets resulted in higher shear force of the semitendinosus muscle than HPERI (P=0.053) and HPOST (P=0.003), respectively. Heat-soluble collagen in the semitendinosus muscle was lower (P=0.019) for LPERI than HPERI. Collagen and tenderness of the longissimus muscle were not affected by dam nutrition (P>0.05). Color, pH, sarcomere length, cooking loss, compression values, desmin and troponin-T degradation, fiber type, intramuscular fat and polyunsaturated fatty acid content were not affected by dam nutrition during the peri-conception and first trimester gestational period (P>0.05).

Maternal Obesity Promotes Diabetic Nephropathy in Rodent Offspring

Maternal obesity is known to increase the risk of obesity and diabetes in offspring. Though diabetes is a key risk factor for the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD), the relationship between maternal obesity and CKD has not been clearly defined. In this study, a mouse model of maternal obesity was employed to determine the impact of maternal obesity on development of diabetic nephropathy in offspring. Female C57BL/6 mice were fed high-fat diet (HFD) for six weeks prior to mating, during gestation and lactation. Male offspring were weaned to normal chow diet. At postnatal Week 8, offspring were randomly administered low dose streptozotocin (STZ, 55 mg/kg/day for five days) to induce diabetes. Assessment of renal damage took place at postnatal Week 32. We found that offspring of obese mothers had increased renal fibrosis, inflammation and oxidative stress. Importantly, offspring exposed to maternal obesity had increased susceptibility to renal damage when an additional insult, such as STZ-induced diabetes, was imposed. Specifically, renal inflammation and oxidative stress induced by diabetes was augmented by maternal obesity. Our findings suggest that developmental programming induced by maternal obesity has implications for renal health in offspring. Maternal obesity should be considered a risk factor for CKD.

Body Mass Index in Pregnancy Does Not Affect Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor Gamma Promoter Region (-359 to -260) Methylation in the Neonate

Background:

Obesity in pregnancy can contribute to epigenetic changes.

Aim:

To assess whether body mass index (BMI) in pregnancy is associated with changes in the methylation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR) promoter region (-359 to - 260) in maternal and neonatal leukocytes.

Subjects and Methods:

In this matched, cohort study 41 pregnant women were allocated into two groups: (a) Normal weight (n = 21) and (b) overweight (n = 20). DNA was extracted from maternal and neonatal leukocytes (4000-10,000 cells) in MagNA Pure (Roche) using MagNA Pure LC DNA Isolation Kit 1 (Roche, Germany). Treatment of DNA (2 μg) was performed with sodium bisulfite (EZ DNA Methylation-Direct™ Kit; Zymo Research). Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was performed in a LightCycler 2.0 (Roche) using the SYBR^® Advantage^® qPCR Premix Kit (Clontech). The primers used for PPARγ coactivator (PPARG) M3 were 5’- aagacggtttggtcgatc-3’ (forward), and5’- cgaaaaaaaatccgaaatttaa-3’ (reverse) and those for PPARG unmethylated were: 5’-gggaagatggtttggttgatt-3’ (forward) and 5’- ttccaaaaaaaaatccaaaatttaa-3’ (reverse). Intergroup differences were calculated using the Mann-Whitney U-test, and intragroup differences, with the Wilcoxon test (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 19.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.).

Results:

Significant differences were found in BMI, pregestational weight, and postdelivery weight between groups but not in the methylation status of the PPARγ promoter region (-359 to - 260).

Conclusion:

The PPARγ promoter region (-359 to - 260) in peripheral leukocytes is unlikely to get an obesity-induced methylation in pregnancy.

Developmental programming: State-of-the-science and future directions-Summary from a Pennington Biomedical symposium

OBJECTIVE

On December 8-9, 2014, the Pennington Biomedical Research Center convened a scientific symposium to review the state-of-the-science and future directions for the study of developmental programming of obesity and chronic disease. The objectives of the symposium were to discuss: (i) past and current scientific advances in animal models, population-based cohort studies, and human clinical trials, (ii) the state-of-the-science of epigenetic-based research, and (iii) considerations for future studies.

RESULTS

This symposium provided a comprehensive assessment of the state of the scientific field and identified research gaps and opportunities for future research in order to understand the mechanisms contributing to the developmental programming of health and disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Identifying the mechanisms which cause or contribute to developmental programming of future generations will be invaluable to the scientific and medical community. The ability to intervene during critical periods of prenatal and early postnatal life to promote lifelong health is the ultimate goal. Considerations for future research including the use of animal models, the study design in human cohorts with considerations about the timing of the intrauterine exposure, and the resulting tissue-specific epigenetic signature were extensively discussed and are presented in this meeting summary.

Developmental Programming, a Pathway to Disease

Accumulating evidence suggests that insults occurring during the perinatal period alter the developmental trajectory of the fetus/offspring leading to long-term detrimental outcomes that often culminate in adult pathologies. These perinatal insults include maternal/fetal disease states, nutritional deficits/excess, stress, lifestyle choices, exposure to environmental chemicals, and medical interventions. In addition to reviewing the various insults that contribute to developmental programming and the benefits of animal models in addressing underlying mechanisms, this review focuses on the commonalities in disease outcomes stemming from various insults, the convergence of mechanistic pathways via which various insults can lead to common outcomes, and identifies the knowledge gaps in the field and future directions.

Adiposopathy and epigenetics: an introduction to obesity as a transgenerational disease

BACKGROUND

To examine the contribution of generational epigenetic dysregulation to the inception of obesity and its adiposopathic consequences.

METHODS

Sources for this review included searches of PubMed, Google Scholar, and international government/major association websites using terms including adiposity, adiposopathy, epigenetics, genetics, and obesity.

RESULTS

Excessive energy storage in adipose tissue often results in fat cell and fat organ dysfunction, which may cause metabolic and fat mass disorders. The adverse clinical manifestations of obesity are not solely due to the amount of body fat (adiposity), but are also dependent on anatomical and functional perturbations (adiposopathy or 'sick fat'). This review describes extragenetic factors and genetic conditions that promote obesity. It also serves as an introduction to epigenetic dysregulation (i.e., abnormalities in gene expression that occur without alteration in the genetic code itself), which may contribute to obesity and adiposopathic metabolic health outcomes in offspring. Within the epigenetic paradigm, obesity is a transgenerational disease, with weight lost or gained by either parent potentially impacting generational risk for obesity and its complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Epigenetics may be an important contributor to the emergence of obesity and its complications as global epidemics. Although transgenerational epigenetic influences present challenges, they may also present interventional opportunities, via justifying weight management for individuals before, during, and after pregnancy and for future generations.