Assessment of Farmers' Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices on Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance

Knowledge, attitudes, practices and risk perception of cattle farmers in Namibia to antibiotic use and resistance

The misuse of antibiotics in livestock contributes to the emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria. The development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria of animal origin is of public health concern since drug resistant pathogens in animals can spread to humans. Several countries have therefore introduced regulations to restrict the use of antibiotics in livestock. Namibia was the first African country to ban the use of antibiotics as growth promoters and restrict the use of antibiotics to the treatment of bacterial diseases with a prescription from a veterinarian. However, there are limited studies on antibiotic stewardship among farmers in the country. The aim of this study was to determine the antibiotic awareness and usage of cattle farmers in Oshikoto region Namibia. A questionnaire on antibiotic knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) was administered to 274 randomly selected cattle farmers in Namibia. To calculate the KAP scores, one mark was awarded for each correct answer and zero was awarded for incorrect or unsure responses. Respondents having ≥ 50% correct answers were considered as having good KAP scores. The KAP score ranged from 8 to 73%. Forty-three per cent of the respondents had good KAP scores. Good KAP was associated with age, farm type and education status. Semi-commercial/commercial farmers had significantly better KAP than post and homestead farmers. The findings of this study indicate that there is a need to improve antibiotic usage and resistance education programmes in order to promote rational antibiotic usage.

Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices, and Risk Perception of Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance Among Dairy Farm Owners/Workers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Introduction

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the most significant global health threats to the public, animals, and the ecosystem. Inappropriate use of antibiotics in food animals is considered a major driver of AMR in humans. This study was conducted to assess the knowledge, attitude, practices, and risk perception (KAPP) of dairy farm owners/workers in Addis Ababa about antibiotic use and resistance.

Methods

A face-to-face interview using a structured questionnaire was conducted with 281 respondents in four selected subcities of Addis Ababa. The responses provided by each participant were recoded into a binary scale based on the mean score of each domain. Pearson chi-square was used to check the association between the KAPP and sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents and logistic regression analysis was done to explore the factors associated with KAPP.

Results

Overall, more than half of the surveyed dairy farm owners/workers had good knowledge (57.7%) and appropriate practice (53.0%), while less than half of the respondents showed desirable attitudes (47.7%) and positive risk perceptions (42.7%). The findings revealed a strong association between the respondents' KAPP and education and between knowledge and risk perception and farming experience.

Conclusion

This study found that continuous education of dairy farm owners/workers regarding antimicrobial usage and antimicrobial resistance in dairy farms will increase their awareness and perception of risk as well as motivate them to adopt desirable attitudes and appropriate practices, and consequently limit inappropriate use of antimicrobials leading to mitigating emergence of AMR.

Understanding Knowledge and Attitude of Farmers towards Antibiotic Use and Antimicrobial Resistance in Jhunjhunu District, Rajasthan India

The misuse of antibiotics in veterinary practices by farmers is harming livestock production and food safety and leading to the rise of antibiotic resistance (AMR). This can also transfer resistant bacteria from animals to humans, posing a serious public health threat. However, we have not paid enough attention to understanding how farmers behave in this regard. Our study aims to explore farmers' behaviors and identify the factors that influence their choices. To conduct this study, we used a questionnaire with 40 questions and surveyed 208 farmers in Jhunjhunu district, Rajasthan. We analyzed the data using SPSS. Here are the key findings: About 58.3% of the farmers have some awareness of antibiotics, and 49.5% are aware of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Notably, as the level of education increases, so does awareness of antibiotics. Unfortunately, 63.9% of the farmers are not aware of the withdrawal time, and 64% have no idea about the presence of antibiotic residues during this period. Around 75% of farmers vaccinate their animals, but approximately 56.9% of individuals have never undergone an antibiotic sensitivity test (ABST) for milk. Around 48.6% of farmers are unaware of government testing centers. Several factors hinder farmers from implementing proper animal management practices, such as the high fees of veterinarians. When their animals become sick, their first choice is home remedies, followed by using old prescriptions. Additionally, 63.9% stop treatment once the animal looks better. A significant portion (83.8%) of farmers rely on local pharmacists for medicine. It has been determined that there is no significant correlation between education, experience, age, and the level of awareness concerning withdrawal periods, the existence of government antibiotic sensitivity test (ABST) centers, and entities responsible for sending samples for ABST. In our qualitative analysis, focus groups identified significant barriers to following best farm practices and spreading awareness about AMR. These findings suggest that addressing AMR in livestock requires a comprehensive approach. This should include targeted education and awareness programs for farmers, as well as improved access to veterinary services.

Factors influencing Scottish dairy farmers' antimicrobial usage, knowledge and attitude towards antimicrobial resistance

Understanding how farmers use antimicrobials and their awareness and beliefs about antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is essential to improve antimicrobial usage (AMU) practices and combat AMR on dairy farms. A cross-sectional online survey was carried out to identify the factors affecting attitudes, knowledge and behaviour of Scottish dairy producers regarding prudent AMU and the emergence of AMR in livestock. The survey was designed based on the earlier findings of two focus groups and was disseminated online via multiple methods (e.g., social media; farming press). Participation was voluntary and answers were obtained from 61 respondents (7.3% of the total population of Scottish dairy farmers). Logistic and ordinal regression analyses were performed to identify predictors for farmers' level of knowledge about antimicrobials and AMR, AMU behaviour and attitudes towards AMR mitigation. Associations were described with odds ratios (OR) and the associated 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Farmers were more likely to have better knowledge of antimicrobials and AMR if they had undertaken a university degree (OR = 28.28, P < 0.001), worked with mixed livestock (dairy plus sheep/beef) (OR = 4.82, P < 0.05), and trusted only veterinarians' information about responsible AMU (OR = 4.42, P < 0.05). In the survey disease scenarios, younger farmers were less likely to be classed as low antimicrobial users (OR = 0.18, P < 0.05) compared to older farmers. Respondents working on larger herds were also less likely to be low antimicrobial users compared to those working on smaller herds (OR = 0.12, P < 0.01). Conversely, farmers who did not consider economic factors (e.g., cost and withdrawal period) in antimicrobial choice were more likely to be classed as low antimicrobial users (OR = 6.17, P < 0.01). Respondents were more likely to show positive attitudes towards AMR mitigation if they worked in larger (OR = 4.67, P < 0.05) or organic dairy farms (OR = 18.35, P < 0.05). These results suggest that several practices, social, demographic, and economic factors influence dairy farmers' perception and awareness of AMR and AMU. Efforts should be made to consider these variables when developing strategies to improve AMU in dairy farming. Veterinarians and advisors should focus AMU training and AMR awareness-raising activities towards younger, less experienced farmers as well as those with a lower educational qualification (high school vs. university degree). This study can inform the development of targeted educational initiatives to encourage responsible AMU on dairy farms.

Attitudes and practices on antibiotic use and its emerging threats among Lebanese dairy veterinarians: a case study from a developing country

Introduction

This study aimed to explore how veterinarians (vets) rationalized their prescribing decisions for antimicrobial (AM) uses, the barriers they perceived to implement proper farm management in Lebanon, and the consecutive threats that might arise concerning the emergent spread of antimicrobial resistance in animals and the population.

Methods

Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, phone call interviews were conducted with 34 veterinarians working in different demographic regions across the country. Data were analyzed qualitatively using an inductive thematic analysis.

Results and discussion

The majority of veterinarians called for responsible antibiotic use. The prescribing decision of veterinarians was based mainly on suspected disease from field examination, farmer's reports via phone calls, and the ability of the farmer to cover antibiotic costs. Very few veterinarians referred to laboratory diagnosis before prescribing a specific AM due to many obstacles. This study uncovered the absence of a trust relationship between veterinarians and farmers in Lebanon. Veterinarians provided different insights into farming practices, reflecting that farmers, in general, lack proper knowledge and implementation of farm management and that they mainly treat the herd on their own, especially in light of the current unprecedented economic crisis that Lebanon has been facing in the last three years. Above all, veterinarians revealed that AM resistance in Lebanon is markedly spreading, which calls for a serious and instantaneous set of governmental policies and regulations.

Situational Analysis and Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Antimicrobial Use and Resistance among Broiler Poultry Farmers in Nepal

The purpose of this study was twofold: first, to conduct a situational analysis, and second, to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of broiler poultry farmers (BPF) regarding antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Data were collected from 500 BPF across 40 districts, representing 88.1% of Nepal's broiler poultry population. Among these farmers, 81.0% were male, 59.6% had up to 4 years of experience in poultry farming, and 50.8% had completed at least a high school education. The most used antimicrobials on the farms were doxycycline (23.5%), neomycin (17.1%), and colistin sulfate (9.6%) out of 27 reported antimicrobials. While the BPF exhibited limited knowledge (62.6%) and practice (55.5%) related to AMU and AMR, their overall attitude toward these issues was positive (91.6%). This study also identified significant factors influencing farmers' attitudes toward AMU and AMR. Farmers aged 31-40 showed a stronger inclination compared to other age groups (OR = 4.2, p = 0.02), and those using antimicrobials for preventive purposes had a more favorable attitude compared to those using them for other purposes (OR = 5.9, p = 0.02). In light of these findings, this study recommends the implementation of effective regulatory measures for drug usage, along with awareness programs addressing AMU and AMR to address the issue of AMR in poultry production.

Knowledge and practice of antimicrobial usage and resistance among poultry farmers: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression

A systematic review was conducted to summarize and synthesize the existing research on poultry farmers' knowledge, practices, and awareness regarding antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). It was undertaken by systematically searching databases, screening and characterizing relevant studies, extracting data, and evaluating the risk of bias. The outcomes were stratified into several subgroups, and pooled prevalence of each subgroup was calculated using a random-effect meta-analysis. Meta-regression was used for selected outcomes to further investigate the potential sources of heterogeneity across studies. Poultry farmers had knowledge and practice gaps on antimicrobial use. While most (65%; 95% CI: 50%-80%) used antimicrobials on poultry for therapeutic purposes, a portion used them to prevent disease (45%; 95% CI: 34%-55%) or boost growth (29%; 95% CI: 13%-46%) and productivity (20%; 95% CI: 6%-34%). 60% (95% CI: 50%-69%) of farmers approached veterinarians for antimicrobial advice, although many consulted drug sellers and fellow farmers. Insufficient antimicrobial residue knowledge (45%; 95% CI: 29%-62%), as well as inadequate awareness and faulty practice on withdrawal periods, were identified. Only 43% (95% CI: 34%-53%) were knowledgeable about AMR. Around half of farmers understood AMR's impacts on poultry, human health, and the environment. Meta-regression demonstrated that the source of heterogeneity for therapeutic antimicrobial use was the type of poultry farmers sampled and their educational qualifications; geographical region was significantly associated with antimicrobial usage based on farmers' experience; and the country's economic state was correlated with farmers' understanding of antimicrobial residue. This study recommends implementing legislation for judicious antimicrobial use, and farmer awareness campaigns to reinforce knowledge about prudent AMU and AMR.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Antibiotic Use and Resistance among Poultry Farmers in Nepal

The abuse and misuse of antibiotics is one of the main drivers of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Globally, AMR in food-producing animals is a significant public health concern. This study, therefore, assessed the knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to antibiotic usage (AMU) and AMR among poultry farmers in Nepal. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 605 poultry farmers from six districts of Nepal from May to June 2022 to assess the status of knowledge, attitude, as well as practices toward prudent antibiotic usage (AMU) and AMR. The majority of the participants in our study were from the Chitwan district (31.6%; n = 191/605), aged 30-44 (54.2%; n = 328/605), males (70.4%; n = 426/605), and farmers with a higher secondary (28.76%; n = 174/605) level of education. The tetracyclines (28%, n = 228/828), aminoglycosides (23%, n = 188/828), and fluoroquinolones (15%, n = 126/828) were the most used antibiotics classes among poultry farmers. Although 87.8% (n = 531/605) of poultry farmers used antibiotics, 49.8% (n = 301/605) of them were aware of AMR, and 55.7% (n = 337/605) knew that the misuse of antimicrobials could affect human and environmental health. There were significant differences in the knowledge, attitude, and practices toward prudent AMU and AMR among farmers who reared different birds. The mean knowledge, attitude, and practice score of the respondents were 7.81 ± 3.26, 5.8 ± 2.32, and 7.59 ± 3.38 when measured on a scale of 12, 10, and 15, respectively. Based on a cut-off of 75% of the maximum score, 49.4% (n = 299/605), 62.8% (n = 380/605), and 12.73% (n = 77/605) of the respondents had good knowledge, attitude, and practices toward prudent AMU and AMR, respectively. The multivariable logistic regression analyses revealed that the positive predictors of good knowledge and attitude were male gender, higher level of education, district, and the types of birds (layers). Similarly, those of the male gender (OR: 3.36; 95% CI: 1.38-8.20; p = 0.008) and those that rear layers (OR: 4.63; 95% CI: 1.75-12.25; p = 0.003) were more likely to practice prudent usage of antimicrobials. The findings of this study show poor practice toward prudent antibiotic usage despite good knowledge of AMR. This study provides essential baseline data on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of poultry farmers in Nepal and offers valuable insights that could help in the design of interventions and policies aimed at addressing illicit AMU and AMR in poultry in Nepal.

Livestock producers' knowledge, attitude, and behavior (KAB) regarding antimicrobial use in Ethiopia

Introduction

Inappropriate antimicrobial use (AMU) in livestock production is an important aspect of the global burden of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In Ethiopia, a low-income country with a large and increasing livestock population, AMU in food animals is not properly regulated. Hence, farmers are fully free to use antimicrobials to their (perceived) benefit. Therefore, understanding farmers' mindsets is important to improve antimicrobial stewardship in the livestock sector.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted to assess livestock disease management practices and knowledge, attitude, and behavior (KAB) among livestock producers regarding AMU, residues, and resistance, as well as factors potentially explaining differences in KAB. We determined the KAB of livestock owners of three selected districts of central and western Ethiopia (n = 457), using a pretested questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between potential explanatory variables and the KAB scores of the respondents.

Results

The results showed that 44% of the farmers used antimicrobials in the past few years, where antibiotics (21%) and trypanocides (11%) were most widely used to manage livestock diseases. Furthermore, most farmers showed poor knowledge about AMU, residues, and AMR (94%) and unfavorable attitudes (<50% correct answers) toward contributing factors for AMR (97%). On the contrary, 80% of the respondents had overall good behavior scores (≥50% correct answers) related to AMU. Multivariate analysis results showed that having good knowledge, keeping ≥2 animal species, and the occurrence of ≥4 livestock diseases on the farm in a year were strong predictors of bad behavior scores (p < 0.05). The findings of the current investigation also revealed that the incidence of livestock diseases on the farm and a higher level of formal education significantly contributed to better knowledge and desirable attitudes but bad AMU behavior.

Conclusion

A low level of awareness about and undesirable attitudes toward AMU and AMR could potentially affect farmers' behavior toward judicious AMU, thus requiring awareness creation efforts on livestock disease management practices.

A Survey of knowledge, attitude, and practices surrounding antimicrobial use by family dairy farmers to mastitis control

This study determined the family dairy farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding the management strategy of mastitis, antibiotic use, and antimicrobial resistance in dairy farms in Türkiye. A total of 455 dairy farmers participated in face-to-face surveys from the villages of Çanakkale in Türkiye. A total of 62 questions that were divided into 5 categories were asked of the participants. Farmers (252/455; 55.4%) noted that they had not heard of any term about the expression of microbial resistance. They believe that antibiotic residues (156/455; 34,3%) do not pass into the soil and environment with animal wastes, and diseases such as mastitis (173/455; 38%) cannot be cured without antibiotics. Farmers indicated that they used antibiotic therapy in the treatment of udder diseases such as mastitis at a rate of 44.8%. Moreover, most dairy farmers (78.2%) decided to start antibiotic treatment with the decision of the veterinarian. Farmers believe that the barn environment is not as clean as necessary at a rate of 23.5%, and the necessary hygiene conditions are not followed in animal care 23.4% as the cause of mastitis. They highlighted that they detected mastitis from the redness or swelling of the udder at a rate of 38.2%. 55.8% of the farmers participating in the study had undergone analysis for the diagnosis of mastitis disease. On the other hand, 57.4% of farmers tried natural products such as olive oil, soft soap, vinegar, clay soil, honey, soapy, and yogurt, instead of antibiotics treatment for mastitis diseases. They have been relying mostly on veterinarian recommendations for AU. The use of culture and susceptibility test results for antimicrobial selection should be expanded among veterinarians. All stakeholders should be included in periodic training programs on topics such as AU, AR, preventive treatments for mastitis, vaccination, public health, and environmental health. Surveillance systems are needed to monitor AU and AR in animals, as in human medicine.

Monitoring of antimicrobial usage among adult bovines in dairy herds of Punjab, India: A quantitative analysis of pattern and frequency

The present study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial usage (AMU) pattern in dairy herds of Punjab, India. The on-farm quantification of AMU in adult bovine animals by the manual collection of empty drug containers ("bin method") along with the records of the treatment was carried out in 38 dairy farms involving 1010 adult bovines for 1 year from July 2020 to June 2021. The farm owners were asked to record the antibiotic treatments as well as to deposit empty antibiotic packaging/vials into the provided bins placed at the farms. A total of 14 different antibiotic agents in 265 commercial antibiotic products were administered to the dairy herds during the study. A total of 179 (67.55%) administered products contained antimicrobials of "critical importance" as per the World Health Organization (WHO). Mastitis (54.72%), followed by the treatment of fever (19.62%), reproductive problems (15.47%), and diarrhea (3.40%) accounted for the majority of drugs administered in the herds during the study period. The most commonly used antibiotics were enrofloxacin (89.47% herds; 21.51% products), followed by ceftriaxone (50% herds; 12.83% products), amoxicillin (50% herds; 12.83% products), oxytetracycline (55.26% herds; 11.70% products), and procaine penicillin (47.37% herds; 12.83% products). The highest quantity of AMU [in terms of antimicrobial drug use rate (ADUR)] was observed for ceftiofur, followed by ceftriaxone, procaine benzyl penicillin ceftizoxime, enrofloxacin, cefoperazone, amoxicillin and ampicillin. A total of 125 (47.17%) products contained "highest priority critically important antimicrobials" (HPCIA) and 54 (20.37%) products contained "high priority critically important antimicrobials". In terms of overall number of animal daily doses (nADD), the highest priority critically important antimicrobials (HPCIA) of the WHO such as third-generation cephalosporins and quinolones, respectively accounted for 44.64 and 22.35% of the total antibiotic use in the herds. The bin method offers an alternative to monitoring AMU as a more accessible approach for recording the actual consumption of antimicrobials. The present study, to the best of our knowledge, is the first of its kind to provide an overview of the qualitative and quantitative estimate of AMU among adult bovines from India.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices of government animal health workers on antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance in Timor-Leste

Introduction

Antibiotic resistance is a global health threat, and there is growing concern on the inappropriate use of antibiotics in the livestock sector especially in low and middle income countries. The purpose of the study was to understand the knowledge, attitudes and practices on antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance of government animal health workers in Timor-Leste.

Method

A cross-sectional survey using a census approach was conducted between August 2021 and January 2022 focusing on government animal health workers involved in field work and access to antibiotics. Interviews were face-to-face in the local Tetun language. Descriptive and regression analysis informed by causal diagrams were performed.

Result

The study found poor knowledge of antibiotics among participants, with only 8.0% (13/162) able to correctly answer questions on how antibiotics worked. Knowledge of antibiotic resistance was poor as only 29.0% (47/162) of participants had heard of antibiotic resistance and were able to accurately identify that it made antibiotics less effective. Knowledge of antibiotics and knowledge of antibiotic resistance were crudely associated with being a veterinary technician and having university education. Attitude scores were positively influenced by knowledge of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics were most commonly used in pigs, cattle and buffalo, with oxytetracycline being the most commonly used antibiotics in pigs and chicken. However, most participants reported a lack in supply of this antibiotic (137/162, 78.4%) and other antibiotics. Empiric use of antibiotics in sick animals was common, and some participants used antibiotics for parasitic diseases. Less than a fifth of participants reported ever using human antibiotics, and use of antibiotics for growth promotion was uncommon.

Conclusion

There is a need to develop Timor-Leste specific treatment guidelines, strengthen veterinary diagnostic support, improve antibiotic procurement, and develop training programs to address knowledge gaps and poor practices found in this study.

Occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus in dairy farms and personnel in selected towns of West Shewa Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the foodborne disease-causing bacterial pathogens. A cross-sectional study was conducted in selected towns of the West Shewa Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia from December 2020 to April 2021. The objectives of the study were to estimate the occurrence and load of S. aureus in raw cows' milk, the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of the S. aureus isolates, and assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice of the farmers on factors of antimicrobial resistance. A total of 311 samples from raw cows' milk (212), milkers' hands (44), and milking buckets (55) swabs were collected and tested. The disc diffusion method was used to test the antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates. A questionnaire survey was conducted to assess the factors of milk contamination with S. aureus and antimicrobial resistance. The Chi-square test, one-way analysis of variance, and logistic regression analysis were used for data analyses. The result indicated that 16.72% (52/311) (95% CI: 12.75-21.34%) of the samples were positive for S. aureus. The occurrence of S. aureus was 22.73%, 16.51%, and 12.73% in milkers' hand swabs, cow milk, and milking bucket swabs, respectively. The mean count of S. aureus from raw cows' milk was 4.3± 1.45 log10 CFU/ml. About 88% of S aureus isolates were resistant to ampicillin while 82.9% and 70.7% of the isolates were susceptible to ciprofloxacin and cefotaxime respectively. The majority of the S. aureus isolates (61%) showed multi-drug resistance. The odds of S. aureus isolation from the milk of cows were significantly high in older cows (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR]: 5.54; p = 0.001), in late lactation stages (AOR: 3.6; p = 0.012), and in farms where house cleaning was done twice per week (AOR: 8.7; p = 0.001). A high percentage of farmers had insufficient knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) about the factors contributing to antimicrobial resistance. In conclusion, the poor milk hygienic practices, high rate of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and inadequate KAP of farmers about factors of AMR suggest potential public health risks thus requiring training and surveillance programs.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding antimicrobial usage, spread and resistance emergence in commercial poultry farms of Rajshahi district in Bangladesh

Background

Inappropriate and injudicious use of antimicrobials in broiler and layer farms has become a common practice in lower and middle-income countries including Bangladesh. This study aimed to assess poultry farmers’ knowledge, attitude, and practices regarding antimicrobial usage (AMU), and their beliefs in factors that affect antimicrobial resistance (AMR) spread and emergence in humans through commercial poultry farms in Bangladesh.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 204 farmers (95.6% male; mean_age = 35.14 ± 10.25 years) in the Rajshahi district of Bangladesh who were recruited from three upazilas (sub-districts) through a multistage sampling technique. Data were collected from June to November 2021 via face-to-face interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire.

Results

The proportion of farmers who reported having received information regarding AMU from veterinarians was higher in layer compared to broiler farms (65.9% vs. 44.9%, p < 0.001). A higher proportion of layer compared to broiler farmers believed that antimicrobial residues and pathogens in poultry can pass to humans through the consumption of contaminated eggs (28.1% vs. 5.8%, p < 0.05). The mean score of the farmers’ attitude towards addressing AMU was 4.49 (SD = 1.37) out of 7, with the higher score indicating a better attitude. The mean score of better attitudes towards addressing AMU was significantly higher among educated participants (bachelor’s or higher levels of education (p = 0.006). A higher proportion of layer (56.3%) farmers did not keep a record of AMU when compared to broiler farmers (37.7%) (p = 0.012). More broiler (50.7%) compared to layer (38.5%) farmers continued using the full dose of antimicrobials (p = 0.042). The most frequently used antimicrobials in broiler and layer poultry farms were Colistin (broiler vs layer: 73.9% vs. 86.75%; p = 0.024), and Ciprofloxacin (broiler vs. layer: 95.7% vs. 84.4%; p = 0.021). Farmers’ beliefs were significantly associated with the spread of AMR pathogens from contaminated eggs to humans (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

The findings reflected that majority of farmers had inadequate knowledge of AMU, less knowledgeable beliefs aboutAMU, and inappropriate AMU (e.g., poor record keeping, incomplete doses) in chicken production systems. The government should ensure education or advisory services for poultry farmers on proper AMU, enforce current veterinary laws and regulations on antimicrobials, and implement AMU surveillance systems.

Assessing farm biosecurity and farmers' knowledge and practices concerning antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in poultry and pig farms in Southern Togo

Background and Aim:

Several factors contribute to the unusual incidence of antibiotic resistance, which is now a primary public health concern. However, failure in managing preventive and therapeutic antibiotic use on farms is one of the most crucial factors. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the biosecurity of farms, farmers’ competence, and practices related to antibiotics and their resistance in poultry and pig rearing in Togo.

Materials and Methods:

Through a cross-sectional survey, 121 commercial poultry farmers and 97 commercial pig farmers were questioned to evaluate the biosecurity of farms and farmers’ competence and practices related to antibiotics and antibiotic resistance. Descriptive analyses, including the evaluation of proportions, were carried out. In addition, results from qualitative factors were evaluated in a defined grid and totaled up to assess cleanliness measures, awareness, and behavior regarding antibiotics and their resistance.

Results:

The results demonstrated that most farmers working on poultry farms had a university education, while most working on pig farms had secondary education. Most poultry (69%) and pig (44%) farms were of small sizes (<1000 animals in poultry and <10 animals in pig farming). The footbaths were used in just 51% of poultry farms and 4% of pig farms, respectively, with 37% and 82% of poultry and pig farms having inadequate levels of hygiene. In poultry farms, respiratory issues and periodic decline in egg-laying were the main problems. Simultaneously, skin disorders (scabies) and plagues (African swine fever) were the primary health constraints in pig farming. Tetracycline is the most commonly used antibiotic by farmers. However, in poultry and pig farms, 21% and 67% of farmers were unaware of antibiotics. In addition, 39% and 57% were unaware of antibiotic resistance. Poultry and pig farmers’ competence were substantially linked to their education level. Poultry farmers demonstrated better practices, including procuring antibiotics based on veterinary prescriptions (63%) and they knew where antibiotics should be bought (90%). Nevertheless, 43% of farmers asserted unpleasant activities – no application for laboratory testing (93%) and use of antibiotics for prevention (82%). In pig farming, most farmers (69%) reported inadequate incidents of the use of antibiotics.

Conclusion:

This study identified a crucial non-compliance with biosecurity measures and good practices toward antibiotic use on many farms. Therefore, training of farmers is mandatory for safe livestock products.

Reliability and validity evaluation of the appropriate antibiotic use self-efficacy scale for Chinese adults

Background

Antibiotic resistance is one of the greatest threats to global public health. Inappropriate use of antibiotics can lead to an increase in antibiotic resistance. Individual self-efficacy in the appropriate use of antibiotics plays a key role, especially in China where the population has easy access to antibiotics. However, there are no tools available to assess the self-efficacy of appropriate antibiotic use for Chinese adults. We aimed to translate and develop a Chinese version of the Appropriate Antibiotic Use Self-Efficacy Scale (AAUSES), and validate its reliability and validity.

Methods

A total of 659 adults were recruited to participate in the questionnaire. The original version scale was first translated into Chinese using the backward and forward translation procedures. The internal consistency reliability of the scale was measured by the Cronbach alpha coefficient, the test-retest reliability, and the corrected item-total correlation. The validity of the scale was assessed by the content validity index, exploratory factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis.

Results

The content validity index of the scale was 0.96. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) supported a 4-factor structure of the translated questionnaire, and the discriminant validity of the scale was good. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed in the model fitness index, the chi-square degree of freedom was 2.940, the goodness-of-fit index(GFI) was 0.929, the incremental fit index (IFI) was 0.908, the comparative fit index(CFI) was 0.906, root mean square error of approximation(RMSEA) was 0.077, and standardized root mean residual (SRMR) was 0.0689, and the model fitting indexes were all in the acceptable range. Cronbach alpha coefficient for the scale was 0.910. The test-retest reliability was 0.947, and the corrected item-total correlations for the items ranged from 0.488 to 0.736. Self-efficacy for appropriate antibiotic use in adults varied by education, occupation, income, place of residence, and whether or not they had heard of antibiotic resistance.

Conclusions

The results indicated that the Chinese version of the AAUSES had good reliability and validity. Therefore, it can be considered a tool to evaluate the appropriate antibiotic use self-efficacy of adults in China.

A Survey on the Rationale Usage of Antimicrobial Agents in Small Animal Clinics and Farms in Trinidad and Jamaica

The extensive and indiscriminate use of antibiotics is known to contribute to antimicrobial resistance. Unfortunately, there are no public records of antimicrobial use (frequency or dosage) administered to animals in two major CARICOM (Caribbean Community) countries: Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica. Surveillance would promote amendments and discussion on a Caribbean antimicrobial-use protocol. In this study, an online survey was conducted using cross-sectional qualitative interviews via email, targeting veterinary clinicians working in clinics and farms in Trinidad and Jamaica, to identify how antimicrobials are used in the two countries. Out of the thirty-two (32) clinicians interviewed in Trinidad, 22 (68.75%) were small animal practitioners, and 10 (45.45%) were mixed practitioners. While in Jamaica, a total of Twenty six (26) clinicians responded, of which 17 of them (65.38%) were small animal practitioners and nine (34.62%) were mixed practitioners. A total of 95.2% of clinics and farms in Jamaica and 87.1% in Trinidad did not use standard antimicrobial protocols, which could be due to the limited availability of resources. The broad-spectrum antibiotic, amoxicillin, and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid were the most commonly used drugs in small animal practices in both countries (71.9% and 53.8% in dogs), (78.1% and 65.9% in cats); amoxicillin is also used frequently in mixed animal practice in Jamaica (44.4% in goats, 33.3% in cattle and 22.2% in sheep and pigs), while procaine penicillin and streptomycin was the most frequently used in mixed practice in Trinidad (60% in cattle and goats, 50% in sheep), which could explain the potentially increased risk of antimicrobial resistance.

Comparing the Effectiveness of Different Approaches to Raise Awareness About Antimicrobial Resistance in Farmers and Veterinarians of India

Background

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health threat. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics in the animal health sector contributes to increasing rates of AMR and studies involving dairy farmers in India have found knowledge levels regarding antibiotics and AMR to be very low. The purpose of this study was to assess different methods to raise awareness and knowledge about AMR and antibiotic use among dairy farmers, paravets (veterinary assistants), and veterinarians.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted in September-December of 2018 in some parts of Haryana, Assam, Karnataka, and West Bengal. It had two parts: an intervention meeting (September–October 2018) which consisted of focus group discussions (FGD) with farmers, key informant interviews (KII) with veterinary professionals along with distribution of information packages, and then a follow-up survey (November–December 2018). The villages were randomly allocated to either one of the four intervention approaches (1-FGD/KII and information package on AMR; 2-FGD/KI and information on animal health; 3- FGD/KII and information package on animal health plus information on AMR; or 4- only the FGD/KII). A follow-up survey was done to assess the effect of interventions.

Results

In total, 274 dairy farmers and 51 veterinary professionals (21 veterinarians and 30 paravets) participated in the follow-up survey. Many of the farmers and veterinary professionals who participated in the follow-up survey had been part of the intervention meetings. The average knowledge score of farmers was 7.8. It was found that the knowledge score was higher amongst farmers who had participated in the intervention meetings (p &lt; 0.05), had received intervention approach 2 (p = 0.03) or approach 3 (p = 0.01), and amongst female farmers (p = 0.03) compared to male. The veterinary professionals had good knowledge but lacked interest in training the farmers about antimicrobial resistance.

Conclusion

Our research demonstrated that a higher percentage of farmers and veterinary professionals who attended the intervention meeting had improved knowledge. Dairy farmers should be regularly educated on antibiotic usage and how to avoid misusing them. Also, veterinary experts should be provided with tools and strategies to educate farmers on the use of antimicrobials.

A Review of Current Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics in Food Animals

The overuse of antibiotics in food animals has led to the development of bacterial resistance and the widespread of resistant bacteria in the world. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) in food animals are currently considered emerging contaminants, which are a serious threat to public health globally. The current situation of ARB and ARGs from food animal farms, manure, and the wastewater was firstly covered in this review. Potential risks to public health were also highlighted, as well as strategies (including novel technologies, alternatives, and administration) to fight against bacterial resistance. This review can provide an avenue for further research, development, and application of novel antibacterial agents to reduce the adverse effects of antibiotic resistance in food animal farms.

A Survey on Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices of Large-Animal Farmers towards Antimicrobial Use, Resistance, and Residues in Mymensingh Division of Bangladesh

The widespread and indiscriminate use of antimicrobials in food animals is a key contributor to antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial residue, which have become a growing public and animal health concern in developing countries such as Bangladesh. This study was aimed to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of large-animal farmers towards antimicrobial use (AMU), antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and antimicrobial residue (AR) with their correlation. A cross-sectional survey was conducted with a structured and pretested questionnaire in the Mymensingh division of Bangladesh. A total of 212 large-animal farmers (dairy, beef fattening, buffalo, sheep, and goat farmers) were surveyed. Results showed that most of the farmers are male (85.8%) and belong to the 18–30 age group (37.3%). About 20.3% had no formal education, and nearly half of the participants (48.1%) received training regarding antibiotic use and resistance. Penicillin is the most common class of antibiotic used (61.8%) in the study area, followed by other antimicrobials. Only 37.7% of the farmers used antimicrobials on the recommendation of their veterinarian. Overall, 41.5%, 42.5%, and 21.7% of farmers possess adequate knowledge and a satisfactory attitude and perform desirable practices, respectively. Farmers in the 31–40 age group have adequate knowledge, attitude, and ability to implement desired practices compared to farmers in the 18–30 age group. Farmers having a graduate or post-graduate degree scored better in relation to knowledge, attitude, and practice than other farmers. Analysis revealed that farmers who received training on AMU and AMR had 10.014 times (OR = 10.014, 95% CIs: 5.252–19.094), 9.409 times (OR = 9.409, 95% CIs: 4.972–17.806), and 25.994 times (OR = 25.994, 95% CIs: 7.73–87.414) better knowledge, attitude, and performance, respectively, compared to their counterparts. A significant proportion of farmers (97.2%) dispose of leftover antibiotics inappropriately. The findings of the present study will be used to intervene in the education and training of the farmers, which will help to limit the indiscriminate and irrational use of antimicrobials, leading to reducing the chances of developing AMR.

Antibiotic Use and Resistance Knowledge Assessment of Personnel on Chicken Farms with High Levels of Antimicrobial Resistance: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Ica, Peru

Poultry farming represents Peru’s primary food animal production industry, where antimicrobial growth promoters are still commonly used, exerting selective pressure on intestinal microbial populations. Consumption and direct animal-to-human transmission have been reported, and farmworkers are at high risk of colonization with resistant bacteria. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among 54 farmworkers to understand their current antimicrobial resistance (AMR) awareness in Ica, Peru. To gain insight into the potential work-related risk of exposure to bacteria, we also measured the AMR rates in Escherichia coli isolated among 50 broiler chickens. Farmworkers were unaware of antimicrobial resistance (31.5%) or antibiotic resistance (16.7%) terms. Almost two-thirds (61%) consumed antibiotics during the previous month, and only 42.6% received a prescription from a healthcare professional. A total of 107 E. coli chicken isolates were obtained, showing a high frequency of multidrug-resistant (89.7%) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) production (71.9%). Among ESBL-producer isolates, 84.4% carried the bla_CTX-M gene. Results identified gaps in knowledge that reflect the need for interventions to increase antimicrobial awareness among poultry farmworkers. The high AMR rates among E. coli isolates highlight the need to reduce antimicrobial use in poultry farms. Our findings reveal a critical need for effective policy development and antimicrobial stewardship interventions in poultry production in Ica, Peru.

Antimicrobial use in agriculture: critical review of the factors influencing behaviour

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health emergency affecting humans and animals, diminishing the effectiveness of medication used to treat illness. The agri-food sector has attracted increased attention for imprudent antimicrobial use (AMU) and its contribution to AMR. Thus, ascertaining farmers' and veterinarians' behaviours surrounding AMU is essential to address imprudent AMU and generate behaviour change within the agri-food sector. Therefore, the aim of this critical review is to investigate, assess and collate the current body of evidence to identify psychosocial factors including knowledge, understanding, perceptions, attitudes and behaviours surrounding AMU. Database searches were limited to articles utilizing qualitative and quantitative methodologies, available in English with no restriction on publication year. Of the 1156 articles identified, 103 were retained for this review. Findings on the psychosocial aspects were thematically analysed. Five key themes emerged from the data: (i) knowledge and awareness of antimicrobials; (ii) attitudes towards antimicrobials; (iii) influential relationships; (iv) resources; and (v) factors influencing AMU. Results indicated that to overcome barriers experienced by key stakeholders, a carefully considered, evidence-based approach, incorporating behaviour change theory, is required when designing intricate interventions/strategies, in order to elicit successful and sustained AMU behaviour change.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices of animal farm owners/workers on antibiotic use and resistance in Amhara region, north western Ethiopia

Inappropriate use of antibiotics in animal and human plays a role in the emergence and spread of bacteria resistant to antibiotics which threatens human health significantly. Although extensive use of these antibiotics could contribute to the development of drug resistance, information on the knowledge, attitude and practice of antimicrobial resistance and use among animal farm owners/workers in north western Ethiopia is rare. The objective of the present study was to assess knowledge, attitude and practice of animal farm owner/workers towards antibiotic resistance and use in Amhara regional state north western Ethiopia. A cross sectional study was conducted in selected cities of Amhara regional state from January to February, 2020. Data was collected from 91 participants using structured questionnaire and analyzed using SPSSS version 23. The results showed that 96.7% of respondents gave antibiotics to treat their livestock from different sources. Most of the respondents bought their antibiotics from private pharmacies without prescription and the most frequently mentioned antibiotics used to treat animal diseases was tetracycline (76.9%), followed by ampicillin (72.5%). Although, 90.1% of the animal farm owners heard about antibiotics and antibiotic resistance from different sources, they did not know the factors contributing to the transmission of resistant bacteria to humans and the impact of antibiotic resistance on human and animals' health. Using the mean score 4.44 ± 0.15 as the cut-off, half of the animal farm owners/workers had good knowledge about antimicrobial resistance and use. 52.5% of animal farm owners/workers had positive attitudes towards wise antibiotic use and resistance with a mean score of 28.4 ± 0.5. However, 52.75% participants had poor practice with the mean score of practice 4.95 ± 0.17. Better knowledge, positive attitudes and better practices on antibiotic use and resistance were associated with farm owners/workers who engaged in higher education. Although poor awareness on antimicrobial resistance was perceived by 76.9% of respondents as very important factors that contribute to increasing antibiotic resistance, increasing the use of complementary treatments was perceived by the majority of respondents as very important strategies that contribute to reduce antibiotic use and resistance. The current study disclosed that there is low level of awareness among animal farm owners about the correct use of antibiotics and resistance. It is necessary to raise awareness, develop and implement interventions to reduce antimicrobial use and antibiotic resistance in the study area.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices on Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance among Commercial Poultry Farmers in Bangladesh

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become an emerging health issue globally, posing a threat to zoonotic pathogens and foodborne diseases. In Bangladesh, the poultry sector supplies the majority of the demand for animal-source protein. The irrational and excessive use of antimicrobials (AMU) has been observed in the poultry sector. The development of AMR is associated with many factors, including the knowledge and attitudes of poultry farmers. Therefore, AMR reduction requires intervention from all the stockholders, including the farmers who are considered as end users of antimicrobials. This current research conducted a cross-sectional study to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of poultry farmers on AMU and AMR in Bangladesh. We determined the KAP of poultry farmers (broiler and layer farmers) of some selected districts of the country using a tested and paper-based questionnaire. The results demonstrated that most of the respondents have insufficient KAP regarding AMU and AMR. The respondents used a variety of antimicrobials primarily in the treatment of various diseases in poultry. One-third of the farmers did not seek antimicrobials from registered vets. Instead, they depended on others or themselves. The factor score analysis further revealed that the farmers’ demographic and socioeconomic variables were significant factors influencing the KAP. An adjusted logistic regression analysis showed that older farmers with 9–12 years of farming experience and graduate-level education, engaging in medium-sized layer farming, were more likely to have correct KAP on AMU and AMR. Further, farmers from the Cox’s Bazar region showed correct knowledge, whereas farmers of the Chattogram region showed a correct attitude towards AMU and AMR. A Spearman’s rank-order correlation revealed a positive association between knowledge–attitudes and knowledge–practices. The findings of the current investigation provide baseline evidence about the KAP of poultry farmers from low-income resources and offer insights into designing interventions and policies for the use of AMU and AMR in Bangladesh.

Pigeons as Carriers of Clinically Relevant Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens-A Clinical Case Report and Literature Review

Pigeons are widespread bird species in urban regions (Columba livia forma urbana) and may carry pathogens with zoonotic potential. In recent years, more and more data indicate that these zoonotic pathogens are multidrug resistant. Our results confirmed that global trend. Three different multidrug-resistant pathogens were isolated from an oral cavity of a racing pigeon with lesions typical for pigeon pox virus infection. Staphylococcus aureus was recognized as methicillin resistant, thus resistant to all beta-lactams. Additionally, it was also resistant to many other classes of antibiotics, namely: aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, phenicols, lincosamides, and macrolides. Escherichia coli showed resistance to all antimicrobials tested, and it was classified as intermediate to amikacin. Moreover, Candida albicans resistant to clotrimazole, natamycin, flucytosine, and amphotericin and intermediate to ketoconazole, nystatin, and econazole was also isolated. This raises the question how pigeons acquire such highly resistant strains. Therefore, more data are needed concerning the resistance to antibiotics in strains from domestic and wild pigeons in Poland. Until the problem is fully understood, it will be challenging to implement adequate planning of any control measures and check their effectiveness.

Knowledge, attitude and practice of animal producers towards antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in Oromia zone, north eastern Ethiopia

Antimicrobial resistance is the failure of antimicrobial’s effect against the growth and multiplication of microorganisms. Imprudent and over antimicrobial use (AMU) aggravates antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Antimicrobials are massively used in animal production as compared with AMU in human health sectors. This research was done with the objective of assessing the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) status of animal producers towards AMU and AMR. A Cross-sectional study design and questionnaire were conducted and both qualitative and quantitative data analyses were used. The logistic regression was used to test the effect of each predictor variable on the knowledge, attitude, and practice of the participants. Out of 571 animal producers, the majority (80.2%) of them were not knowledgeable and 85.3% of the animal producers had a negative attitude towards the AMU and AMR. Likewise, the practice of 78.5% of the animal producers were practice improperly towards AMU and AMR. All the questions that were designed to assess the KAP of the animal producers were significantly associated (P<0.05) with each respective category of KAP. The educational status of animal producers was negatively correlated (OR = 0.38) with all their knowledge, attitude, and practice of AMU and AMR, but sex has a positive correlation (OR = 2.89) with both the knowledge and practice of animal producers. In conclusion, the animal producers in the Oromia zone had unsatisfactory knowledge regarding AMU and AMR. The animal producer’s attitude and their practices were negative and improper respectively. As a result, consecutive awareness creation on both AMU and AMR is recommended and integrated AMU governance in animal production is recommended to be applied.

Poultry Litter Contamination by Escherichia coli Resistant to Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human and Animal Use and Risk for Public Health in Cameroon

Residues of antimicrobials used in farm can exert selective pressure and accelerate the occurrence of multidrug resistant bacteria in litter. This study aimed to investigate the resistance profile of Escherichia coli isolated from poultry litter. A total of 101 E. coli strains was isolated from 229 litter samples collected and stored for two months in the laboratory at room temperature. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using the disk diffusion method. An overall resistance prevalence of 58.4% (95% CI: 48.8-68.0) was obtained with 59 E. coli strains resistant to various antimicrobial agents. High levels of resistance were observed with ciprofloxacin (21/59: 36%), imipenem (27/59: 45%), norfloxacin (44/59: 74%), ceftriaxone (44/59: 74%), and levofloxacin (44/59: 75%). These antimicrobials classified under the Watch group by WHO are indicators of the high AMR risk to public health in Cameroon. Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that a greater probability of high level of E. coli multidrug resistance was associated with lack of training in poultry farming (OR = 0.13, p = 0.01), less experience in poultry farming (OR = 11.66 p = 0.04), and the high frequency of digestive tract disease (OR = 0.10; p = 0.001). This study revealed that poultry litter constitutes a potential source of dissemination of resistant germs from farm animals to the environment and humans.

Understanding farmers' and veterinarians' behavior in relation to antimicrobial use and resistance in dairy cattle: A systematic review

To tackle antimicrobial resistance, it is vital that farmers' and veterinarians' antimicrobial use behaviors and attitudes toward resistance are understood so that we can identify how beliefs and motives influence practices. Current literature details qualitative and quantitative research that explores the knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of dairy farmers and veterinarians with respect to antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial practices, and the reported findings are varied and conflicting. Our objective was to conduct a systematic review to assess the evidence and knowledge gaps in the published literature. We identified articles via database searches of Embase, Medline, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science; we limited findings to published articles available in English with no publication year restrictions. Article screening was conducted at 3 levels: title, abstract, and full text. Of the 349 articles identified, 35 were retained for systematic review. Transparency of reporting was assessed for each study using the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) framework. Quality was assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme qualitative checklist. Findings relating to dairy farmers' and veterinarians' knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions on antimicrobial resistance and practices were thematically analyzed. The comprehensiveness of reporting was variable: studies reported 5 to 26 of the 32 COREQ checklist items. Five key themes emerged from the data: knowledge and awareness of antimicrobial resistance; factors influencing farmer and veterinarian decision-making; perceived barriers and facilitators to reduced antimicrobial use; perceived responsibility for antimicrobial resistance; and the role of the farmer and veterinarian relationship in reducing antimicrobial use. Awareness of prudent antimicrobial use was not uniform between studies. Many factors influence farmers' and veterinarians' decisions to use antimicrobials, including animal welfare and available resources. The farmer-veterinarian relationship is a potential barrier or facilitator of reduced antimicrobial use, depending on the perceived relationship dynamic. Encouraging collaboration between farmers and veterinarians could lead to shared responsibility for reducing antimicrobial use. This review provided a coherent picture of what is currently known and identified gaps in the current knowledge to inform future behavioral intervention research. Increased knowledge, skill development, resources, engagement, and further research to address the gaps we identified are the main recommendations to effectively overcome barriers, elicit appropriate behavior change, and achieve reduced antimicrobial use in dairy cattle.

Escherichia coli of Ready-to-Eat (RTE) Meats Origin Showed Resistance to Antibiotics Used by Farmers

Bacterial foodborne infections, including meat-derived infections, are globally associated with diseases and some deaths. Antibiotics are sometimes used to treat bacterial infections. The use of antibiotics by farmers contributes to the development of resistance by foodborne pathogens. This study aimed to investigate the antibiotics used by farmers and the occurrence of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli in ready-to-eat (RTE) meat sources. Data was obtained from livestock farmers through the administration of semistructured questionnaires (n = 376) to obtain information on their demographics, knowledge and antibiotic usage. The procedure in the USA Food and Drug Administration (FDA)’s Bacteriological Analytical Manual was used for E. coli detection. Antibiotic resistance test was performed using the disk diffusion method. The findings revealed that most of the farmers were male (74.5%), were aged 30−39 years (28.5%), had tertiary education (30.3%) and had 6−10 years of experience in livestock husbandry. Sheep (65.7%) were the most reared livestock, and antibiotics were mostly used to treat sick animals (36.7%). Tetracycline (27.7%) was the most common antibiotic used by farmers, followed by amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (18.6%) and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (11.7%). Most farmers (56.1%) said they had knowledge of antibiotic usage. The prevalence of E. coli in RTE meats was lowest in pork (6.0%) and highest in chevon (20.0%). E. coli isolates from RTE meats were highly resistant to teicoplanin (96.77%), tetracycline (93.55%), amoxicillin/clavulanic (70.97%), azithromycin (70.97%) and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (58.06%) but was susceptible to chloramphenicol (93.55%), ciprofloxacin (61.29%) and ceftriaxone (58.06%). The multiple antibiotic index ranged from 0.22 to 0.78. Multidrug resistance (93.55%) was high among the E. coli isolates. The resistance pattern AmcAzmTecTeSxt (amoxicillin/clavulanic acid–azithromycin–telcoplanin–tetracycline–trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole) was the most common. The use of antibiotics by farmers must be well regulated. Sellers of RTE meats also ought to take hygiene practices seriously to keep meat safe and healthy for public consumption.

Decision-Making of Swiss Farmers and the Role of the Veterinarian in Reducing Antimicrobial Use on Dairy Farms

The reduction of antimicrobials on dairy farms is a topical issue and confronts both veterinarians and farmers with major challenges. The aim of this study was to investigate dairy farmers' motivation to reduce antimicrobial use on their farms. Factors influencing dairy farmers' decision-making regarding dairy cow health were identified and the role of the veterinarian in these processes was characterized. A customized structured questionnaire was sent to all participants (n = 59) of an ongoing antimicrobial reduction project among dairy farmers in the Canton of Fribourg, Switzerland, by mail. Fifty-eight completed questionnaires were returned and evaluated (response rate 98.3%). The majority of respondents were men (56/58, 96.6%) and farm managers (55/57, 96.5%) managing their farms as their main occupation (56/57, 98.2%). Using a 5-point-Likert-scale (1 = not a reason, 5 = very important reason), respondents ranked “My veterinarian is putting pressure on us to use less antimicrobials” (median=2.5, interquartile range = 1–3) and “Other farmers also reduce antimicrobial use” (2.0, 1–3) as the least important factors affecting their motivation to reduce the use of antimicrobials in dairy cows (P < 0.001). Respondents ranked their veterinarian's opinion (4.0, 4–5) and their own feelings and knowledge (4.0, 3–4) as the two factors having significantly more importance on their decisions regarding dairy cow management (P < 0.001). The farmers indicated they were satisfied with the quality of the consultancy given by their veterinarians (4.0, 4–5) and with the quality of communication with veterinarians (4.0, 3–4). They indicated that they understood recommendations made by the veterinarian (4.0, 3.75–4) and also felt understood by the veterinarian (4.0, 3–4). However, only 25.9% (14/54) indicated they were willing to pay for good quality, farm-adapted consulting by their veterinarian. Based on these findings, veterinarians play an important role in influencing Swiss dairy farmers in decision-making concerning animal health and treatment. However, veterinarians were not viewed by farmers as important motivators for reducing antimicrobial use. Swiss veterinarians are encouraged to be aware of their influence on farmers' decisions and to use that influence to more clearly promote antimicrobial reduction on dairy farms.

Knowledge, attitudes, practices and risk perception of rural poultry farmers in Cameroon to antimicrobial use and resistance

There is wide use of antimicrobial products in rural poultry farms in most sub-Sahara African countries. However, little is known of the factors that motivate rural poultry farmers towards antimicrobial use (AMU) and their level of awareness about antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This cross sectional survey was conducted to investigate the knowledge, attitudes, practices, perception of poultry farmers in Cameroon about AMU and risk of AMR (KAPP) (n = 358). The data collection was conducted using questionnaires administered through face-to-face interview and the responses were recoded into binary scale. The sum of sufficient responses provided by each participant divided by the total number of items within the category gave a percentage of correct answers. One-way ANOVA was used to assess significant differences of mean KAPP scores across regions. Pearson correlations were used to calculate the association between KAPP scores across and within regions, while the linear regression was done to explore the relationship between demographics and farmer's dynamic characteristics. Overall, surveyed poultry farmers showed low mean score knowledge of AMU (0.30 ± 0.24) and AMR (0.26 ± 0.22), desirable attitude (0.29 ± 0.29), appropriate practice (0.58 ± 0.18) towards AMU and positive risk perception of AMR (0.37 ± 0.21). Digestive tract infections and chronic respiratory diseases were the most common reasons for antimicrobial use and for preventive purposes. Gender, experience in poultry farming and stocking density were negatively associated with practice of antimicrobial use. Inappropriate combination of antimicrobials with diuretics or tetracyclines and minerals for treatment purposes were frequently observed. The findings revealed strong positive association between educational level and KAPP score and between biosecurity measures and AMU and risk perception of AMR. Thus, continuous education of rural poultry farmers on husbandry norms, drug use and microbial resistance in animal farms will enhance their knowledge and risk perception on AMU as well as enable them adopt suitable attitude and practices to control animal and human health hazards due to AMR.