Interactions between the MicroRNAs and Microbiota in Cancer Development: Roles and Therapeutic Opportunities

Sex differences in colonic gene expression and fecal microbiota composition in a mouse model of obesity-associated colorectal cancer

This study investigated the sex-specific correlation between obesity and colorectal cancer emphasizing a more pronounced association in males. Estrogen, chromosomal genes, and gut bacteria were assessed in C57BL6/J male, female and ovariectomized (OVX) female mice, subjected to either a low-fat diet (LFD) or high-fat diet (HFD) for 14 weeks. Induction of colon tumor involved azoxymethane (10 mg/kg) administration, followed by three cycles of dextran sulfate sodium. Male mice on HFD exhibited higher final body weight and increased colon tumors compared to females. Colonic mucin 2 expression was significantly higher in females. HFD-modulated differentially expressed genes numbered 290 for males, 64 for females, and 137 for OVX females. Only one up-regulated gene (Gfra3) overlapped between females and OVX females, while two down-regulated genes (Thrsp and Gbp11) overlapped between males and OVX females. Genes up-regulated by HFD in males were linked to cytokine-cytokine interaction, HIF-1 signaling pathway, central carbon metabolism in cancer. Sex-specific changes in gut microbial composition in response to HFD were observed. These findings suggest a male-specific vulnerability to HFD-induced colon tumor formation, implicating key genes and colonic bacteria in colon tumorigenesis.

Microbiota, Diet and Acute Leukaemia: Tips and Tricks on Their Possible Connections

Acute leukaemia is probably one of the most recurrent cancers in children and younger adults, with an incidence of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in 80% of cases and an incidence of acute myeloid leukaemia in 15% of cases. Yet, while incidence is common in children and adolescents, acute leukaemia is a rare disease whose aetiology still requires further analysis. Many studies have investigated the aetiology of acute leukaemia, reporting that the formation of gut microbiota may be modified by the start and development of many diseases. Considering that in patients affected by acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, there is an inherent disequilibrium in the gut microbiota before treatment compared with healthy patients, increasing evidence shows how dysbiosis of the gut microbiota provokes an inflammatory immune response, contributing to the development of cancer. Our analysis suggeststhe key role of gut microbiota in the modulation of the efficacy of leukaemia treatment as well as in the progress of many cancers, such as acute leukaemia. Therefore, in this paper, we present an examination of information found in literature regarding the role of dietary factors and gut microbiota alterations in the development of leukaemia and suggest possible future preventive and therapeutic strategies.

Microbiome and MicroRNA or Long Non-Coding RNA-Two Modern Approaches to Understanding Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of humans' most common and fatal neoplasms. Nowadays, a number of PDAC studies are being conducted in two different fields: non-coding RNA (especially microRNA and long non-coding RNA) and microbiota. It has been recently discovered that not only does miRNA affect particular bacteria in the gut microbiome that can promote carcinogenesis in the pancreas, but the microbiome also has a visible impact on the miRNA. This suggests that it is possible to use the combined impact of the microbiome and noncoding RNA to suppress the development of PDAC. Nevertheless, insufficient research has focused on bounding both approaches to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. In this article, we summarize the recent literature on the molecular basis of carcinogenesis in the pancreas, the two-sided impact of particular types of non-coding RNA and the pancreatic cancer microbiome, and possible medical implications of the discovered phenomenon.

A Machine Learning Approach to the Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Multi-Systemic Developmental Disorder Based on Retrospective Data and ADOS-2 Score

Early and accurate diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and tailored therapeutic interventions can improve prognosis. ADOS-2 is a standardized test for ASD diagnosis. However, owing to ASD heterogeneity, the presence of false positives remains a challenge for clinicians. In this study, retrospective data from patients with ASD and multi-systemic developmental disorder (MSDD), a term used to describe children under the age of 3 with impaired communication but with strong emotional attachments, were tested by machine learning (ML) models to assess the best predictors of disease development as well as the items that best describe these two autism spectrum disorder presentations. Maternal and infant data as well as ADOS-2 score were included in different ML testing models. Depending on the outcome to be estimated, a best-performing model was selected. RIDGE regression model showed that the best predictors for ADOS social affect score were gut disturbances, EEG retrievals, and sleep problems. Linear Regression Model showed that term pregnancy, psychomotor development status, and gut disturbances were predicting at best for the ADOS Repetitive and Restricted Behavior score. The LASSO regression model showed that EEG retrievals, sleep disturbances, age at diagnosis, term pregnancy, weight at birth, gut disturbances, and neurological findings were the best predictors for the overall ADOS score. The CART classification and regression model showed that age at diagnosis and weight at birth best discriminate between ASD and MSDD.

An Insight into the Arising Role of MicroRNAs in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Future Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) constitutes a frequent highly malignant form of primary liver cancer and is the third cause of death attributable to malignancy. Despite the improvement in the therapeutic strategies with the exploration of novel pharmacological agents, the survival rate for HCC is still low. Shedding light on the multiplex genetic and epigenetic background of HCC, such as on the emerging role of microRNAs, is considered quite promising for the diagnosis and the prediction of this malignancy, as well as for combatting drug resistance. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) constitute small noncoding RNA sequences, which play a key role in the regulation of several signaling and metabolic pathways, as well as of pivotal cellular functions such as autophagy, apoptosis, and cell proliferation. It is also demonstrated that miRNAs are significantly implicated in carcinogenesis, either acting as tumor suppressors or oncomiRs, while aberrations in their expression levels are closely associated with tumor growth and progression, as well as with local invasion and metastatic dissemination. The arising role of miRNAs in HCC is in the spotlight of the current scientific research, aiming at the development of novel therapeutic perspectives. In this review, we will shed light on the emerging role of miRNAs in HCC.

Novel Biomarkers for Diagnosis and Monitoring of Immune Thrombocytopenia

Lower-than-normal platelet counts are a hallmark of the acquired autoimmune illness known as immune thrombocytopenia, which can affect both adults and children. Immune thrombocytopenia patients' care has evolved significantly in recent years, but the disease's diagnosis has not, and it is still only clinically achievable with the elimination of other causes of thrombocytopenia. The lack of a valid biomarker or gold-standard diagnostic test, despite ongoing efforts to find one, adds to the high rate of disease misdiagnosis. However, in recent years, several studies have helped to elucidate a number of features of the disease's etiology, highlighting how the platelet loss is not only caused by an increase in peripheral platelet destruction but also involves a number of humoral and cellular immune system effectors. This made it possible to identify the role of immune-activating substances such cytokines and chemokines, complement, non-coding genetic material, the microbiome, and gene mutations. Furthermore, platelet and megakaryocyte immaturity indices have been emphasized as new disease markers, and prognostic signs and responses to particular types of therapy have been suggested. Our review's goal was to compile information from the literature on novel immune thrombocytopenia biomarkers, markers that will help us improve the management of these patients.

The intriguing possibility of using probiotics in allergen-specific immunotherapy

Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) can be considered the etiological therapy for allergic rhinitis and hymenoptera venom allergy. Its role is increasingly emerging in the context of IgE mediated food allergy, where the achievement of tolerance, or the permanent resolution of an allergy, represents the optimal goal of AIT. AIT treatment, indicated in adults and children with allergic rhinitis, has a preventative effect on the development of asthma and can also be used when asthma is associated to rhinitis; however, it is not the first choice for treatment of isolated asthma. While knowledge on immunological mechanisms, efficacy, and safety of AIT is known, an intriguing line of investigation has arisen on how the action of AIT is modulated by the use of probiotics, starting from awareness that the microbiome is altered in allergic conditions: the use of probiotics in inducing the stimulation of innate immunity via toll-like receptor activation, thus acting as adjuvants in AIT, is hereby examined. Therefore, by analyzing literature on AIT and probiotics, we intend to draw attention to how the role and use of AIT are emerging as being increasingly important for both the short- and long-term management of allergic diseases and how recourse probiotics may represent an additional therapeutic strategy to modulate the effectiveness of AIT. However, further investigations are needed to better identify which probiotics to use, the dosage, and the optimal duration to obtain correct immunomodulation, and how to best customize their use, including a "AIT + probiotics" strategy in the field of precision medicine.

Downregulation of miR-671-5p promotes IL-10 mRNA increase in porcine moDCs stimulated with the probiotic BB12

BACKGROUND

Previous work showed that the microRNA (miRNA) miR-671-5p was upregulated in monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) stimulated with Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB12 (BB12) with no increase in IL-10 after six hours of stimulation. In this work, we performed an in silico prediction of genes targeted by miR-671-5p and which are the terms and pathways involved with it. Also, miR-671-5p was transiently downregulated to assess its effect on IL-10 regulation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

First, we performed a Gene Ontology enrichment analysis to predict immune response terms and pathways involved with miR-671-5p. Some of the terms and pathways found were related to the immune response promoted by the probiotic, as the terms "negative regulation of the inflammatory response to an antigenic stimulus" and "cancer" were highlighted. Then, to assess the role of miR-671-5p in IL-10 regulation, moDCs were derived from porcine peripheral blood and later transfected with miR-671-5p antisense oligonucleotide (ASO). Flow cytometry was employed to evaluate the transfection efficiency. Then, the moDCs were stimulated with BB12, and the expression of IL-10 was assessed by RT-qPCR and ELISA. An increase in IL-10 transcript in miR-671-5p-ASO-transfected moDCs stimulated with BB12 was observed compared with moDCs stimulated with BB12 but not transfected. These results suggest the participation of miR-671-5p as a negative regulator of IL-10.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that miR-671-5p participates in the downregulation of IL-10, as previously predicted in silico by our work group. miR-671-5p could play an essential role in the immunomodulation promoted by the probiotic BB12.

Anti-cancer activity of human gastrointestinal bacteria

Malignant neoplasm is one of the most incurable diseases among inflammatory diseases. Researchers have been studying for decades to win over this lethal disease and provide the light of hope to humankind. The gastrointestinal bacteria of human hold a complex ecosystem and maintain homeostasis. One hundred trillion microbes are residing in the gastrointestinal tract of human. Disturbances in the microbiota of human's gastrointestinal tract can create immune response against inflammation and also can develop diseases, including cancer. The bacteria of the gastrointestinal tract of human can secrete a variety of metabolites and bioproducts which aid in the preservation of homeostasis in the host and gut. During pathogenic dysbiosis, on the other hand, numerous microbiota subpopulations may increase and create excessive levels of toxins, which can cause inflammation and cancer. Furthermore, the immune system of host and the epithelium cell can be influenced by gut microbiota. Probiotics, which are bacteria that live in the gut, have been protected against tumor formation. Probiotics are now studied to see if they can help fight dysbiosis in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy or radiotherapy because of their capacity to maintain gut homeostasis. Countless numbers of gut bacteria have demonstrated anti-cancer efficiency in cancer treatment, prevention, and boosting the efficiency of immunotherapy. The review article has briefly explained the anti-cancer immunity of gut microbes and their application in treating a variety of cancer. This review paper also highlights the pre-clinical studies of probiotics against cancer and the completed and ongoing clinical trials on cancers with the two most common and highly effective probiotics Lactobacillus and Bacillus spp.

The role of miR-200 family in the regulation of hallmarks of cancer

MiRNAs are short non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally contributing to the development of different diseases including cancer. The miR-200 family consists of five members, miR-200a, miR-200b, miR-200c, miR-141, and miR-429. Their expression is dysregulated in cancer tissue and their level is altered in the body fluids of cancer patients. Moreover, the levels of miR-200 family members correlate with clinical parameters such as cancer patients' survival which makes them potentially useful as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. MiRNAs can act as either oncomiRs or tumor suppressor miRNAs depending on the target genes and their role in the regulation of key oncogenic signaling pathways. In most types of cancer, the miR-200 family acts as tumor suppressor miRNA and regulates all features of cancer. In this review, we summarized the expression pattern of the miR-200 family in different types of cancer and their potential utility as biomarkers. Moreover, we comprehensively described the role of miR-200 family members in the regulation of all hallmarks of cancer proposed by Hanahan and Weinberg with the focus on the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, invasiveness, and metastasis of tumor cells.

Modulating Microbiota as a New Strategy for Breast Cancer Prevention and Treatment

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer in women in the United States. There has been an increasing incidence and decreasing mortality rate of BC cases over the past several decades. Many risk factors are associated with BC, such as diet, aging, personal and family history, obesity, and some environmental factors. Recent studies have shown that healthy individuals and BC patients have different microbiota composition, indicating that microbiome is a new risk factor for BC. Gut and breast microbiota alterations are associated with BC prognosis. This review will evaluate altered microbiota populations in gut, breast tissue, and milk of BC patients, as well as mechanisms of interactions between microbiota modulation and BC. Probiotics and prebiotics are commercially available dietary supplements to alleviate side-effects of cancer therapies. They also shape the population of human gut microbiome. This review evaluates novel means of modulating microbiota by nutritional treatment with probiotics and prebiotics as emerging and promising strategies for prevention and treatment of BC. The mechanistic role of probiotic and prebiotics partially depend on alterations in estrogen metabolism, systematic immune regulation, and epigenetics regulation.

Colon Cancer and Obesity: A Narrative Review

Obesity has played a crucial role in the pathogenesis of various cancers, including colorectal cancer (CRC). Obesity has shown to increase the blood levels of insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), leptin, resistin, inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) which in turn acts via various signaling pathways to induce colonic cell proliferation and in turn CRC development. It has been shown that estrogen can prevent and cause CRC based on which receptor it acts. Obese patients have relatively low levels of ghrelin and adiponectin that inhibit cell proliferation which further adds to their risk of developing CRC. Obesity can alter the microbial flora of the gut in such a way as to favor carcinogenesis. Weight loss and good physical activity have been related to a reduced incidence of CRC; obese individuals should be screened for CRC and counseled about the importance of weight reduction, diet, and exercise. The best way of screening is using BMI and waist circumference (WC) to calculate the CRC risk in obese people. This study has reviewed the association between obesity and its pathophysiological association with CRC development.

Metagenomic and Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal the Differences and Associations Between the Gut Microbiome and Muscular Genes in Angus and Chinese Simmental Cattle

Gut microbiome and heredity are two important factors affecting the intramuscular fat (IMF) of cattle, excluding age, sex, and nutrition. This study aimed at deciphering these two differences by analyzing the gut microbiome and intramuscular differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the Angus and Chinese Simmental cattle. Feces and longissimus dorsi were collected from the two groups of animals (n = 20/group) for multiomics analysis. Angus holds a significantly higher diversity than Chinese Simmental, and the relative abundance of Roseburia, Prevotella, Coprococcus, etc., was obviously higher in Angus. Chinese Simmental had higher levels of isobutyrate, isovalerate, and valerate, although similar levels of acetate, propionate, and butyrate were observed for the two groups. The DEGs upregulated in Chinese Simmental were mainly involved in immune and inflammatory responses, while those in Angus were associated with the regulation of muscle system and myofibril. We finally identified 17 species, including Eubacterium rectale, etc., which were positively correlated to muscle and fat metabolism genes (MSTN, MYLPF, TNNT3, and FABP3/4) and illustrate the associations between them. Our study unveils the gut microbial differences and significant DEGs as well as their associations between the two breeds, providing valuable guidance for future mechanism research and development of intervention strategies to improve meat quality.

Comprehensive Analysis of the ILCs and Unconventional T Cells in Virus Infection: Profiling and Dynamics Associated with COVID-19 Disease for a Future Monitoring System and Therapeutic Opportunities

This review is a comprehensive analysis of the effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on Unconventional T cells and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs). COVID-19 affected patients show dysregulation of their adaptive immune systems, but many questions remain unsolved on the behavior of Unconventional cells and ILCs during infection, considering their role in maintaining homeostasis in tissue. Therefore, we highlight the differences that exist among the studies in cohorts of patients who in general were categorized considering symptoms and hospitalization. Moreover, we make a critical analysis of the presence of particular clusters of cells that express activation and exhausted markers for each group in order to bring out potential diagnostic factors unconsidered before now. We also focus our attention on studies that take into consideration recovered patients. Indeed, it could be useful to determine Unconventional T cells’ and ILCs’ frequencies and functions in longitudinal studies because it could represent a way to monitor the immune status of SARS-CoV-2-infected subjects. Possible changes in cell frequencies or activation profiles could be potentially useful as prognostic biomarkers and for future therapy. Currently, there are no efficacious therapies for SARS-CoV-2 infection, but deep studies on involvement of Unconventional T cells and ILCs in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 could be promising for targeted therapies.

Probiotic Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG Increased Longevity and Resistance Against Foodborne Pathogens in Caenorhabditis elegans by Regulating MicroRNA miR-34

In this study, we investigated the relation of probiotic activity of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus strain GG (LGG) and expression of microRNA to immune response and longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans host model. First, we evaluated the survival rate of C. elegans due to LGG exposure and bacterial colonization in the intestine. Next, the expression of mRNA and miRNA was analyzed in C. elegans exposure to LGG for 24 h using microarray. After exposure to LGG to C. elegans, colonized LGG was observed in the intestines of C. elegans and induced to extend lifespan. Moreover, persistent LGG in the intestine significantly enhanced the resistance of C. elegans exposed to both pathogenic bacteria and prolonged the lifespan of C. elegans. Transcriptome analysis indicated that LGG affected the expression levels of genes related to the innate immune response and upregulated the abundance of genes in multiple pathways of C. elegans, including Wnt signaling, TGF-beta signaling and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. In addition, qRT-PCR analysis confirmed that the expression of antibacterial genes was increased by LGG. Moreover, as the expression of microRNA miR-34 and immune-related pathways increased by exposure to LGG, the lifespan of C. elegans increased. However, in the miR-34 mutant C. elegans, the lifespan by LGG did not increase, so it was determined that miR-34 indirectly affects immune-related pathways. There was no significant difference in the expression of PMK-1 for LGG exposure in miR-34 mutants, suggesting that miR-34 may regulate PMK-1. In conclusion, we suggest that exposure of LGG to C. elegans enhances lifespan and resistance to food-borne pathogen infection by stimulating miR-34 and indirectly promoting PMK-1 activity.

Association of three micro-RNA gene polymorphisms with the risk of cervical cancer: a meta-analysis and systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Regulation of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in micro-RNA (miRNA) on the host cells may be one of the most important factors influencing the occurrence of cervical cancer based on the prevalence of HPV infection and the development of cervical cancer. In order to explore the contribution of miRNA polymorphism to the occurrence and development of cervical cancer, we conducted an analytical study.

METHODS

We selected the polymorphisms of three widely studied miRNAs (miRNA-146a rs2910164, miRNA-499 rs3746444, and miRNA-196a2 rs11614913). Then, we conducted a meta-analysis (for the first time) to investigate their susceptibility to cervical cancer. Case control studies on the correlation between these three miRNAs and cervical cancer susceptibility were investigated by searching on from Pubmed, The Cochrane Library, Embase, CBM, CNKI, Wanfang database, and VIP database. Basic characteristics were recorded and meta-analysis of the case studies was performed using the STATA 15.1 software.

RESULTS

The miRNA-146a rs2910164 mutation significantly reduced the risk of cervical cancer in both recessive model (OR = 0.804, 95% CI = 0.652-0.992, P = 0.042; CC vs. CG+GG) and allelic model (OR = 0.845, 95% CI = 0.721-0.991, P = 0.038; C vs. G). There was no significant correlation between miRNA-499 rs3746444 and the risk of cervical cancer. The miRNA-196a2 rs11614913 mutation was significantly associated with a reduced risk of cervical cancer in homozygous model (OR = 0.641, 95% CI = 0.447-0.919, P = 0.016; TT vs. CC), dominant model (OR = 0.795, 95% CI = 0.636-0.994, P = 0.045; CT+TT vs. CC), recessive model (OR = 0.698, 95% CI = 0.532-0.917, P = 0.01; TT vs. CC+CT), and allelic models (OR = 0.783, 95% CI = 0.643-0.954, P = 0.015, T vs. C).

CONCLUSION

In summary, this meta-analysis shows that the mutant genotypes of miRNA-146a rs2910164 and miRNA-196a2 rs11614913 are associated with a reduced risk of cervical cancer. Therefore, they may be two gene regulatory points for the prevention of cervical cancer.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration number CRD42021270079.

Gut Microbiota: A Potential Target for Cancer Interventions

The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in many physiological processes in the human body. Dysbiosis can disrupt the intestinal barrier and alter metabolism and immune responses, leading to the development of diseases. Over the past few decades, evidence has accumulated linking changes in the composition of the gut microbiota to dozens of seemingly unrelated conditions, including cancer. Overall, the gut microbiota mainly affects the occurrence and development of cancer by damaging host DNA, forming and maintaining a pro-inflammatory environment, and affecting host immune responses. In addition, the gut microbiota can also affect the efficacy and toxicity of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy. Scientists attempt to improve the efficacy and decrease the toxicity of these treatment modalities by fine-tuning the gut microbiota. The aim of this review is to assist researchers and clinicians in developing new strategies for the detection and treatment of tumors by providing the latest information on the intestinal microbiome and cancer, as well as exploring potential application prospects and mechanisms of action.

Interaction of Gut Microbiome and Host microRNAs with the Occurrence of Colorectal and Breast Cancer and Their Impact on Patient Immunity

Breast and colorectal cancers are two primary malignancies on which most of the research done worldwide investigates the potential genetic and environmental risk factors and thereby tries to develop therapeutic methods to improve prognosis. Breast cancer is the most diagnosed cancer type in women, while colorectal cancer is diagnosed in males as the third most and females as the second most cancer type. Though these two cancer types are predominantly seen in adult patients worldwide, in the current context, these malignancies are diagnosed at a younger age with a significant rate of incidents than previous. Such early-onset cancers are generally present at an advanced stage of the most aggressive type with a poor prognosis. In the past, the focus of the research was mainly on studying possible candidate genes to understand the onset. However, it is now recognized that genetics, epigenetics, and other environmental factors play a pivotal role in cancer susceptibility. Thus, most studies were diversified to study the behavior of host microRNAs, and the involvement of gut microbiota and good communication between them surfaced in the occurrence and state of the disease. It is understood that the impact of these factors affects the outcome of the disease. Out of the adverse outcomes identified relating to the disease, immunosuppression is one of the most concerning outcomes in the current world, where such individuals remain vulnerable to infections. Recent studies revealed that microbiome and microRNA could create a considerable impact on immunosuppression. This review focused on the behavior of host microRNAs and gut microbiome for the onset of the disease and progression, thereby influencing an individual's immunosuppression. Understanding the interactions among microRNA, microbiome, presentation of the disease, and impact on the immune system will be immensely useful for developing future therapeutic strategies based on targeting host microRNA and the patient's gut microbiome. Therapies such as inhibitory-miRNA therapies, miRNA mimic-based therapeutics, immune checkpoint blockade therapies, and bacteria-assisted tumor-targeted therapies help modulate cancer. At the same time, it paid equal attention to potential noninvasive biomarkers in diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutics in both cancers.

Mechanisms of Immunotoxicity: Stressors and Evaluators

The immune system defends the body against certain tumor cells and against foreign agents such as fungi, parasites, bacteria, and viruses. One of its main roles is to distinguish endogenous components from non-self-components. An unproperly functioning immune system is prone to primary immune deficiencies caused by either primary immune deficiencies such as genetic defects or secondary immune deficiencies such as physical, chemical, and in some instances, psychological stressors. In the manuscript, we will provide a brief overview of the immune system and immunotoxicology. We will also describe the biochemical mechanisms of immunotoxicants and how to evaluate immunotoxicity.

Construction of Competing Endogenous RNA Networks Incorporating Transcription Factors to Reveal Differences in Granulosa Cells from Patients with Endometriosis

Purpose: This study aimed to reveal the molecular differences in granulosa cells (GCs) from patients with endometriosis (EM). Methods: RNA sequencing was performed on GCs from patients with EM-related infertility (n = 3) and controls (n = 3). Differentially expressed long noncoding RNAs [differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs), |log2 FC|>4, false discovery rate (FDR) <0.05] and genes [differentially expressed genes (DEGs), |log2 FC|>1.4, FDR <0.05] in patients with EM-related infertility and controls were screened. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks of the DEGs were constructed. Then, mRNA-miRNA-lncRNA pairs based on DEGs and DELs were constructed by comprehensive bioinformatics analyses. In addition, overlapping genes identified from both the PPI and mRNA-miRNA-lncRNA pairs were selected. Finally, a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network incorporating transcription factors (TFs) was constructed. Results: A total of 25,806 lncRNAs and 19,684 mRNAs were detected, and 7 DELs and 46 DEGs were identified. Five hub genes from the PPI network were also identified. A single overlapping gene, NR4A2, from both the PPI network and mRNA-miRNA-lncRNA pairs was identified. Finally, a ceRNA network incorporating TFs, including one mRNA (NR4A2), one miRNA (hsa-miR-217), three lncRNAs (XIST, MCM3AP-AS1, and C17orf51), and five TFs (SRF, POLR2A, NRF1, MNT, and TCF7L2), was successfully constructed. Conclusions: The proposed ceRNA network and the prediction of TFs in GCs from EM-related infertility revealed differences in GCs from patients with EM. Importantly, the novel TFs, lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs involved in the ceRNA network might provide new insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms of EM-related infertility.

Therapeutic Properties of Edible Mushrooms and Herbal Teas in Gut Microbiota Modulation

Edible mushrooms are functional foods and valuable but less exploited sources of biologically active compounds. Herbal teas are a range of products widely used due to the therapeutic properties that have been demonstrated by traditional medicine and a supplement in conventional therapies. Their interaction with the human microbiota is an aspect that must be researched, the therapeutic properties depending on the interaction with the microbiota and the consequent fermentative activity. Modulation processes result from the activity of, for example, phenolic acids, which are a major component and which have already demonstrated activity in combating oxidative stress. The aim of this mini-review is to highlight the essential aspects of modulating the microbiota using edible mushrooms and herbal teas. Although the phenolic pattern is different for edible mushrooms and herbal teas, certain non-phenolic compounds (polysaccharides and/or caffeine) are important in alleviating chronic diseases. These specific functional compounds have modulatory properties against oxidative stress, demonstrating health-beneficial effects in vitro and/or In vivo. Moreover, recent advances in improving human health via gut microbiota are presented. Plant-derived miRNAs from mushrooms and herbal teas were highlighted as a potential strategy for new therapeutic effects.

MiR-21 in the Cancers of the Digestive System and Its Potential Role as a Diagnostic, Predictive, and Therapeutic Biomarker

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs. They can regulate the expression of their target genes, and thus, their dysregulation significantly contributes to the development of cancer. Growing evidence suggests that miRNAs could be used as cancer biomarkers. As an oncogenic miRNA, the roles of miR-21 as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker, and its therapeutic applications have been extensively studied. In this review, the roles of miR-21 are first demonstrated via its different molecular networks. Then, a comprehensive review on the potential targets and the current applications as a diagnostic and prognostic cancer biomarker and the therapeutic roles of miR-21 in six different cancers in the digestive system is provided. Lastly, a brief discussion on the challenges for the use of miR-21 as a therapeutic tool for these cancers is added.

Vitamin D and Microbiota: Is There a Link with Allergies?

There is increasing recognition of the importance of both the microbiome and vitamin D in states of health and disease. Microbiome studies have already demonstrated unique microbial patterns in systemic autoimmune diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Dysbiosis also seems to be associated with allergies, in particular asthma, atopic dermatitis, and food allergy. Even though the effect of vitamin D supplementation on these pathologies is still unknown, vitamin D deficiency deeply influences the microbiome by altering the microbiome composition and the integrity of the gut epithelial barrier. It also influences the immune system mainly through the vitamin D receptor (VDR). In this review, we summarize the influence of the microbiome and vitamin D on the immune system with a particular focus on allergic diseases and we discuss the necessity of further studies on the use of probiotics and of a correct intake of vitamin D.

New Insights into YES-Associated Protein Signaling Pathways in Hematological Malignancies: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Challenges

Simple Summary

YES-associated protein (YAP) is a co-transcriptional activator that binds to transcriptional factors to increase the rate of transcription of a set of genes, and it can intervene in the onset and progression of different tumors. Most of the data in the literature refer to the effects of the YAP system in solid neoplasms. In this review, we analyze the possibility that YAP can also intervene in hematological neoplasms such as lymphomas, multiple myeloma, and acute and chronic leukemias, modifying the phenomena of cell proliferation and cell death. The possibilities of pharmacological intervention related to the YAP system in an attempt to use its modulation therapeutically are also discussed.

Abstract

The Hippo/YES-associated protein (YAP) signaling pathway is a cell survival and proliferation-control system with its main activity that of regulating cell growth and organ volume. YAP operates as a transcriptional coactivator in regulating the onset, progression, and treatment response in numerous human tumors. Moreover, there is evidence suggesting the involvement of YAP in the control of the hematopoietic system, in physiological conditions rather than in hematological diseases. Nevertheless, several reports have proposed that the effects of YAP in tumor cells are cell-dependent and cell-type-determined, even if YAP usually interrelates with extracellular signaling to stimulate the onset and progression of tumors. In the present review, we report the most recent findings in the literature on the relationship between the YAP system and hematological neoplasms. Moreover, we evaluate the possible therapeutic use of the modulation of the YAP system in the treatment of malignancies. Given the effects of the YAP system in immunosurveillance, tumorigenesis, and chemoresistance, further studies on interactions between the YAP system and hematological malignancies will offer very relevant information for the targeting of these diseases employing YAP modifiers alone or in combination with chemotherapy drugs.

The role of the microbiome in ovarian cancer: mechanistic insights into oncobiosis and to bacterial metabolite signaling

Ovarian cancer is characterized by dysbiosis, referred to as oncobiosis in neoplastic diseases. In ovarian cancer, oncobiosis was identified in numerous compartments, including the tumor tissue itself, the upper and lower female genital tract, serum, peritoneum, and the intestines. Colonization was linked to Gram-negative bacteria with high inflammatory potential. Local inflammation probably participates in the initiation and continuation of carcinogenesis. Furthermore, local bacterial colonies in the peritoneum may facilitate metastasis formation in ovarian cancer. Vaginal infections (e.g. Neisseria gonorrhoeae or Chlamydia trachomatis) increase the risk of developing ovarian cancer. Bacterial metabolites, produced by the healthy eubiome or the oncobiome, may exert autocrine, paracrine, and hormone-like effects, as was evidenced in breast cancer or pancreas adenocarcinoma. We discuss the possible involvement of lipopolysaccharides, lysophosphatides and tryptophan metabolites, as well as, short-chain fatty acids, secondary bile acids and polyamines in the carcinogenesis of ovarian cancer. We discuss the applicability of nutrients, antibiotics, and probiotics to harness the microbiome and support ovarian cancer therapy. The oncobiome and the most likely bacterial metabolites play vital roles in mediating the effectiveness of chemotherapy. Finally, we discuss the potential of oncobiotic changes as biomarkers for the diagnosis of ovarian cancer and microbial metabolites as possible adjuvant agents in therapy.

Potential Role of microRNAs in inducing Drug Resistance in Patients with Multiple Myeloma

The prognosis for newly diagnosed subjects with multiple myeloma (MM) has significantly progressed in recent years. However, most MM patients relapse and after several salvage therapies, the onset of multidrug resistance provokes the occurrence of a refractory disease. A continuous and bidirectional exchange of information takes place between the cells of the microenvironment and neoplastic cells to solicit the demands of cancer cells. Among the molecules serving as messengers, there are microRNAs (miRNA), a family of small noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression. Numerous miRNAs are associated with drug resistance, also in MM, and the modulation of their expression or activity might be explored to reverse it. In this review we report the most recent studies concerning the relationship between miRNAs and chemoresistance to the most frequently used drugs, such as proteasome inhibitors, steroids, alkylating agents and immunomodulators. The experimental use of antagomirs or miRNA mimics have successfully been proven to counteract chemoresistance and display synergistic effects with antimyeloma drugs which could represent a fundamental moment to overcome resistance in MM treatment.

Nutraceuticals against Oxidative Stress in Autoimmune Disorders

Antioxidant mechanisms are constituted of enzymes, endogenous, and non-enzymatic, exogenous, which have the role of counterbalancing oxidative stress. Intake of these compounds occurs in the diet. Vegetables, plants, and fruits contain a wide range of alkaloids, polyphenols, and terpenoids which are called “phytochemicals”. Most of these substances are responsible for the positive properties of fruits and vegetables, which are an essential part of a healthy life with roles in ameliorating chronic illnesses and favoring longevity. Nutraceuticals are substances contained in a food or fragment of it influencing health with positive effects on health helping in precenting or treating disorders. We conducted a review illustrating the principal applications of nutraceuticals in autoimmune disorders. Literature reported several studies about exogenous dietary antioxidant supplementation in diverse autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, diabetes, and multiple sclerosis. In these pathologies, promising results were obtained in some cases. Positive outcomes were generally associated with a reduction of oxidative stress parameters and a boost to antioxidant systems, and sometimes with anti-inflammatory effects. The administration of exogenous substances through food derivates or dietary supplements following scientific standardization was demonstrated to be effective. Further bias-free and extended studies should be conducted that include ever-increasing oxidative stress biomarkers.

Probiotics and MicroRNA: Their Roles in the Host-Microbe Interactions

Probiotics are widely accepted to be beneficial for the maintenance of the gut homeostasis - the dynamic and healthy interactions between host and gut microorganisms. In addition, emerging as a key molecule of inter-domain communication, microRNAs (miRNAs) can also mediate the host-microbe interactions. However, a comprehensive description and summary of the association between miRNAs and probiotics have not been reported yet. In this review, we have discussed the roles of probiotics and miRNAs in host-microbe interactions and proposed the association of probiotics with altered miRNAs in various intestinal diseases and potential molecular mechanisms underlying the action of probiotics. Furthermore, we provided a perspective of probiotics-miRNA-host/gut microbiota axis applied in search of disease management highly associated with the gut microbiome, which will potentially prove to be beneficial for future studies.

Mechanisms of infection by SARS-CoV-2, inflammation and potential links with the microbiome

The pandemic SARS coronavirus 2 utilizes efficient mechanisms to establish infection and evade the immune system. Established infection leads to severe inflammation in susceptible patients, the main hallmark of progression to severe coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Knowledge of the mechanisms of disease has expanded rapidly. As inflammation emerges as the central pathophysiological feature in COVID-19, elucidating how the immune system, lungs and gut communicate and interact with microbial components of the ecological niches that conform the human microbiome will shed light on how inflammation and disease progression are promoted. Studying the microbiome in COVID-19 could allow scientists to identify novel approaches to prevent severe inflammation by targeting components of the human microbiome. Innovation in the aforementioned is needed to combat this pandemic.

MicroRNA let-7i Inhibits Histone Lysine Demethylase KDM5B to Halt Esophageal Cancer Progression

Recent studies have suggested that microRNA let-7i is a tumor suppressor in human cancers, including esophageal cancer, but its underlying mechanism is not yet fully understood. We investigated the role and mechanisms of let-7i in the progression of esophageal cancer. We first showed that let-7i was downregulated in esophageal cancer tissues and cells and then linked its low expression to cancer progression. Bioinformatic analysis predicted KDM5B as a target gene of let-7i, which was confirmed by a dual-luciferase reporter assay. Loss- and gain-of function approaches were adopted to examine the interactions of let-7i, KDM5B, SOX17, and GREB1 in vitro and in vivo. Overexpression of let-7i suppressed esophageal cancer cell proliferation and invasion and promoted apoptosis. Mechanistic investigation showed that let-7i targeted and inhibited KDM5B expression, whereas KDM5B enhanced H3K4me3 at the SOX17 promoter region. Overexpression of let-7i suppressed the expression of GREB1 in esophageal cancer cells by regulating the KDM5B/SOX17 axis in vivo and in vitro. Taken together, our findings reveal the tumor-suppressive properties of let-7i in esophageal cancer in association with an apparent KDM5B-dependent SOX17/GREB1 axis. This study offers a potential prognostic marker and therapeutic target for esophageal cancer.

Regulatory RNAs: A Universal Language for Inter-Domain Communication

In eukaryotes, microRNAs (miRNAs) have roles in development, homeostasis, disease and the immune response. Recent work has shown that plant and mammalian miRNAs also mediate cross-kingdom and cross-domain communications. However, these studies remain controversial and are lacking critical mechanistic explanations. Bacteria do not produce miRNAs themselves, and therefore it is unclear how these eukaryotic RNA molecules could function in the bacterial recipient. In this review, we compare and contrast the biogenesis and functions of regulatory RNAs in eukaryotes and bacteria. As a result, we discovered several conserved features and homologous components in these distinct pathways. These findings enabled us to propose novel mechanisms to explain how eukaryotic miRNAs could function in bacteria. Further understanding in this area is necessary to validate the findings of existing studies and could facilitate the use of miRNAs as novel tools for the directed remodelling of the human microbiota.

Radioprotective Agents and Enhancers Factors. Preventive and Therapeutic Strategies for Oxidative Induced Radiotherapy Damages in Hematological Malignancies

Radiation therapy plays a critical role in the management of a wide range of hematologic malignancies. It is well known that the post-irradiation damages both in the bone marrow and in other organs are the main causes of post-irradiation morbidity and mortality. Tumor control without producing extensive damage to the surrounding normal cells, through the use of radioprotectors, is of special clinical relevance in radiotherapy. An increasing amount of data is helping to clarify the role of oxidative stress in toxicity and therapy response. Radioprotective agents are substances that moderate the oxidative effects of radiation on healthy normal tissues while preserving the sensitivity to radiation damage in tumor cells. As well as the substances capable of carrying out a protective action against the oxidative damage caused by radiotherapy, other substances have been identified as possible enhancers of the radiotherapy and cytotoxic activity via an oxidative effect. The purpose of this review was to examine the data in the literature on the possible use of old and new substances to increase the efficacy of radiation treatment in hematological diseases and to reduce the harmful effects of the treatment.

Synergic Crosstalk between Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Genomic Alterations in BCR-ABL-Negative Myeloproliferative Neoplasm

Philadelphia-negative chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) have recently been revealed to be related to chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. It has been proposed that MPNs represent a human inflammation model for tumor advancement, in which long-lasting inflammation serves as the driving element from early tumor stage (over polycythemia vera) to the later myelofibrotic cancer stage. It has been theorized that the starting event for acquired stem cell alteration may occur after a chronic inflammation stimulus with consequent myelopoietic drive, producing a genetic stem cell insult. When this occurs, the clone itself constantly produces inflammatory components in the bone marrow; these elements further cause clonal expansion. In BCR-ABL1-negative MPNs, the driver mutations include JAK 2, MPL, and CALR. Transcriptomic studies of hematopoietic stem cells from subjects with driver mutations have demonstrated the upregulation of inflammation-related genes capable of provoking the development of an inflammatory state. The possibility of acting on the inflammatory state as a therapeutic approach in MPNs appears promising, in which an intervention operating on the pathways that control the synthesis of cytokines and oxidative stress could be effective in reducing the possibility of leukemic progression and onset of complications.

Detection of small DNA fragments by biolayer interferometry

Small molecular weight species such as miRNAs and other nucleic acid fragments are gaining an increased interest as biomarkers for relevant diseases. Also, cheap and rapid assays for their routine detection are becoming an urgent need. We have investigated the usability and convenience of a price affordable, label free and fast technique for their detection on a laboratory scale small device based on Bio-Layer Interferometry. Using a model DNA fragment (7 kDa), we have found that the technique is effectively fast and sensitive enough for the detection of nucleic acid fragments having a MW below the stated molecular size detection limit (10 kDa). The test molecule has been detected in solution at 100 nM in a direct capture experiment and up to about 10 nM following an improved approach where an enhancing probe is used to increase the apparent molecular dimensions of the analyte. The technique, following further optimizations, can be applied for the routine, cheap and fast analysis of small nucleic acid fragments that have a relevance in diagnosis and in therapy.

Fecal microRNAs as Innovative Biomarkers of Intestinal Diseases and Effective Players in Host-Microbiome Interactions

Over the past decade, short non-coding microRNAs (miRNAs), including circulating and fecal miRNAs have emerged as important modulators of various cellular processes by regulating the expression of target genes. Recent studies revealed the role of miRNAs as powerful biomarkers in disease diagnosis and for the development of innovative therapeutic applications in several human conditions, including intestinal diseases. In this review, we explored the literature and summarized the role of identified dysregulated fecal miRNAs in intestinal diseases, with particular focus on colorectal cancer (CRC) and celiac disease (CD). The aim of this review is to highlight one fascinating aspect of fecal miRNA function related to gut microbiota shaping and bacterial metabolism influencing. The role of miRNAs as “messenger” molecules for inter kingdom communications will be analyzed to highlight their role in the complex host-bacteria interactions. Moreover, whether fecal miRNAs could open up new perspectives to develop novel suitable biomarkers for disease detection and innovative therapeutic approaches to restore microbiota balance will be discussed.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors in multiple myeloma: A review of the literature

The human immune system has structures called checkpoints controlling the intensity and the duration of immune responses. In the last years, studies and research have been concentrating on creating new drugs recognized as Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors that have been launched in clinical practice to treat patients with several types of cancer, including multiple myeloma. Multiple myeloma is characterized by dysfunctions in humoral and cellular immunity altering immune surveillance and support tumor advancement to escape: in particular, the disease causes the inactivation of T-cells because of their bond with antigens shown in cancer cells. It can be stated that checkpoint inhibitors "inhibit the inhibition" of cell-mediated immunity and induce tumor cells apoptosis. In this review we have focused our attention on summarizing current information about Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors which have been developed in the last years to treat multiple myeloma; particular consideration will be dedicated to describing their mechanism of action and their potential use in therapy. Further investigations are necessary in this field to define the possibility of an effective and safe inclusion of these drugs in clinical practice.

Cancer and SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Challenges

In late December 2019, a new infectious viral disease appeared. A new betacoronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-Cov-2), has been recognized as the pathogen responsible for this infection. Patients affected by tumors are more vulnerable to infection owing to poor health status, concomitant chronic diseases, and immunosuppressive conditions provoked by both the cancer and antitumor therapies. In this review, we have analyzed some lesser known aspects of the relationship between neoplasms and SARS-CoV-2 infection, starting from the different expression of the ACE2 receptor of the virus in the various neoplastic pathologies, and the roles that different cytokine patterns could have in vulnerability to infection and the appearance of complications. This review also reports the rationale for a possible use of drugs commonly employed in neoplastic therapy, such as bevacizumab, ibrutinib, selinexor, thalidomide, carfilzomib, and PD-1 inhibitors, for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Finally, we have highlighted some diagnostic challenges in the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 infection in cancer-infected patients. The combination of these two health problems-tumors and a pandemic virus-could become a catastrophe if not correctly handled. Careful and judicious management of cancer patients with SARS-Cov-2 could support a better outcome for these patients during the current pandemic.

Linking Obesity with Colorectal Cancer: Epidemiology and Mechanistic Insights

The incidence of obesity and colorectal cancer (CRC) has risen rapidly in recent decades. More than 650 million obese and 2 billion overweight individuals are currently living in the world. CRC is the third most common cancer. Obesity is regarded as one of the key environmental risk factors for the pathogenesis of CRC. In the present review, we mainly focus on the epidemiology of obesity and CRC in the world, the United States, and China. We also summarize the molecular mechanisms linking obesity to CRC in different aspects, including nutriology, adipokines and hormones, inflammation, gut microbiota, and bile acids. The unmet medical needs for obesity-related CRC are still remarkable. Understanding the molecular basis of these associations will help develop novel therapeutic targets and approaches for the treatment of obesity-related CRC.

Secondary Resistant Mutations to Small Molecule Inhibitors in Cancer Cells

Secondary resistant mutations in cancer cells arise in response to certain small molecule inhibitors. These mutations inevitably cause recurrence and often progression to a more aggressive form. Resistant mutations may manifest in various forms. For example, some mutations decrease or abrogate the affinity of the drug for the protein. Others restore the function of the enzyme even in the presence of the inhibitor. In some cases, resistance is acquired through activation of a parallel pathway which bypasses the function of the drug targeted pathway. The Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer (COSMIC) produced a compendium of resistant mutations to small molecule inhibitors reported in the literature. Here, we build on these data and provide a comprehensive review of resistant mutations in cancers. We also discuss mechanistic parallels of resistance.