Heavy Metals in Foods and Beverages: Global Situation, Health Risks and Reduction Methods

Assessment of lead and cadmium exposure through olive and corn oil consumption in Gonbad-Kavus, north of Iran: A public health risk analysis

Lead and cadmium are common heavy metals in oils. This study assessed their levels in commercial and traditional olive and corn oils from Gonbad-Kavus City using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry after microwave digestion. Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Hazard Index (HI) were calculated. The results from 60 oil samples showed quantifiable levels of lead and cadmium in all samples. Lead concentrations in commercial olive oil, traditional olive oil, commercial corn oil, and traditional corn oil were 13.27 ± 3.37, 17.48 ± 4.82, 19.27 ± 8.12, and 32.40 ± 6.13 μg/kg, respectively. Cadmium concentrations were 4.14 ± 0.53, 3.50 ± 0.72, 4.48 ± 1.80, and 5.77 ± 1.34 µg/kg, respectively. All lead levels were below the 80 µg/kg limit set by the Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran (ISIRI). For a 70 kg person consuming 0.147 g of corn oil and 0.328 g of olive oil daily, the metals pose no risk to health over a lifetime. No health concerns were found for oils except traditional olive oil. Corn oil showed significant lead contamination. HI values for lead and cadmium in oils were below 1, indicating no non-carcinogenic health risk. MOE values for lead in traditional olive oil were below 10,000, while other oils were above, indicating no significant risk to consumers. These findings call for a review of national standards and increased monitoring of heavy metals in vegetable oils in the region.

Evaluation of essential elements and heavy metals in dried seedless barberry fruits from the main production regions of South Khorasan, Iran

Four major regions (Birjand, Zirkoh, Darmian, and Qaen) of barberry cultivation in South Khorasan, Iran, were selected and investigated. According to the findings, the most abundant mineral elements in the barberry fruits were on average in the order of potassium > phosphorus > calcium > iron > magnesium. The greatest amounts of potassium and calcium were detected in the samples from the Zirkoh region, and the greatest amounts of phosphorus and iron were detected in the samples from the Qaen region. The amounts of zinc and copper in the Birjand, Zirkoh, and Darmian regions were recorded within the allowed range. Heavy elements arsenic and mercury were not present in the samples from all four regions. However, among the studied areas, the Birjand area had the lowest amount of lead and cadmium. According to food standards (FAO and WHO), lead concentration was to some extent greater than maximum level.

Sensing technology empowering food safety: research progress of SERS-assisted multimodal biosensing toward food hazard factors

Food is the main source of human energy and nutrition, but once it is contaminated with hazardous factors, such as biotoxins, pesticide residues, etc., it will seriously damage health. This paper reviews the research progress of biosensors based on surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) in the detection of food hazard factors. First, the basic principle, substrate and assay mode of SERS technology, as well as related design and sensing strategy mechanisms, are introduced. Then, the design idea of multimodal biosensors combining SERS with microfluidic, fluorescence, colorimetric, electrochemical (EC), molecular imprinting and other technologies is expounded to improve the analysis accuracy and specificity. Then the application results of multimodal biosensors based on SERS sensing toward food hazard factors are discussed, and the necessity of its development is illustrated. Finally, the future development direction of this field is prospected, which provides a reference for promoting the research and application of multimodal biosensors based on SERS.

Applying Monte Carlo simulation to assess health risks of potentially toxic elements in fruits and nuts grown in the capital of Iran

This study investigated harmful elements (PHEs) in three fruits (figs, oranges, persimmons) and two nuts (walnuts, hazelnuts) grown in Tehran, Iran, using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to evaluate health risks. The results showed that chromium (Cr) exceeded the 0.1 mg/kg standard in walnuts (mean = 6.15 mg/kg) and figs (mean = 5.23 mg/kg). Copper (Cu) surpassed 2 mg/kg in all produce except figs. Arsenic (As) exceeded the standard in walnuts, persimmons, and oranges, while cadmium (Cd) surpassed the limit only in persimmons. Iron (Fe) levels were significantly high, peaking in persimmons (mean = 71.79 mg/kg). Lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), and mercury (Hg) exceeded safety limits in all samples, while barium (Ba) was the most abundant metal, especially in hazelnuts and oranges. The correlation and clustering analysis indicated that the sources of PHEs may be influenced by a combination of agricultural practices, atmospheric transport, traffic emissions, historical pollution, and natural background levels. Monte Carlo simulation results show Pb poses the highest non-carcinogenic risk for children (TTHQ50th: 12.56) and adults (TTHQ50th: 5.62). Ni presents the highest carcinogenic risk (TCR50th: 1.58E-03 for children, 3.50E-03 for adults. Hence, urgent monitoring of PHEs in local produce is essential.

Association of environmental metallic and metalloid contaminants with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses

AIM

The aim was to examine the relationship between exposure to environmental metallic and metalloid pollutants and cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause mortality by integrating the information currently available from systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

METHOD

PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science for systematic reviews and meta-analyses were thoroughly searched up to October 9, 2024. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of various kinds that evaluated the relationship between exposure to ambient metallic and metalloid pollutants and CVD and all-cause mortality were included. The methodological quality and the evidence quality were assessed using AMSTAR2 and GRADE, respectively.

RESULTS

We identified 25 meta-analyses and 81 health outcomes-76 unique outcomes from observational studies and 5 unique outcomes from RCTs-from 8,841 independent publications. Exposure to non-essential metallic and metalloid pollutants, including arsenic, lead, and cadmium as well as essential metallic and metalloid contaminants like copper, has been associated with an elevated risk of CVD events and CVD mortality, according to moderate-quality evidence. According to low-quality evidence, exposure to arsenic, lead, and cadmium increases the risk of CHD, while exposure to lead, cadmium, and copper is strongly associated with an increased risk of stroke and all-cause mortality. Further, zinc and selenium may be protective factors for CVD and all-cause mortality.

CONCLUSION

Despite variations in evidence gradients, environmental metallic and metalloid contaminants like arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, and copper are linked to CVD events and mortality, whereas zinc and selenium may offer protection.

Public Health Risks Associated with Food Process Contaminants - A Review

The increasing complexity of food production and processing has raised concerns regarding food process contaminants, which pose significant public health risks. Food process contaminants can be introduced during diverse phases of food processing such as drying, heating, grilling, and fermentation, resulting in the synthesis of harmful chemicals including acrylamide (AA), advanced glycation end products (AGEs), heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), furan and its naturally occurring derivatives, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), N-nitroso compounds (NOCs), 2-chloropropane-1,2-diol esters (2-MCPDE), and 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE), ethyl carbamate (EC), glycidyl esters (GE), and 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI), all of these are harmful to human health. Although these compounds can be somewhat prevented during processing, eliminating them can often be challenging due to their unknown formation mechanism. Moreover, prolonged exposure to these dangerous compounds might harm human health. There is limited understanding of the sources, formation processes, and hazards of food processing contaminants, and a lack of knowledge of the mechanisms involved in how to control their generation. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the harmful effects associated with food process contaminants generated during thermal processing and fermentation, alongside elemental process contaminants and their potential threats to human health. Furthermore, this study identifies existing knowledge gaps proposes avenues for future inquiry and emphasizes the necessity of employing a multi-disciplinary approach to alleviate the public health risks posed by food process contaminants, advocating for cooperative initiatives among food scientists, public health officials, and regulatory entities to enhance food safety and protect consumer health.

Toxic metal contamination in edible salts and its attributed human health risks: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Sodium chloride, commonly referred to as table salt, is the most widely utilized seasoning in culinary applications. Nevertheless, the most of oral salts used contain impurities. Arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) are the most common impurities found in salt. In this meta-analysis, we examined the status of Pb, Hg, Cd, and As in the salt sample consumed in Iran. For this purpose, a complete search was carried out in English (Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science) and Persian (Scientific Information Database, IranMedex, and Magiran) electronic databases to identify related articles published by July 2024. In the present meta-analysis, twelve studies with a total number of 610 salt samples were included in the analyses. According to the findings, the pooled mean levels of Hg, Pb, As, and Cd were 0.06 µg/g (95% CI: 0.04-0.08), 2.98 µg/g (95% CI: 2.35-3.61), 0.42 µg/g (95% CI: 0.19-0.66), and 0.71 µg/g (95% CI: 0.76-1.04), respectively. The levels of Cd and Pb in rock salt are higher than those found in the sea and refined salt. The hazard index (HI) values were recorded as 0.41 (95% CI: 0.235 to 0.588) for men, 0.428 (95% CI: 0.246 to 0.614) for women, and 0.594 (95% CI: 0.341 to 0.853) for children. The results of the present study show higher levels of Pb and Cd in unrefined salt compared to refined salt. Additionally, the health risk associated with exposure to Cd, Pb, As, and Hg through salt consumption is negligible in Iranian adults.

Multifolding Vertical-Flow Electrochemical Paper-Based Devices with Tunable Dual Preconcentration for Enhanced Multiplexed Assays of Heavy Metals

This work describes fully integrated multifolding electrochemical paper-based devices (ePADs) for enhanced multiplexed voltammetric determination of heavy metals (Zn(II), Cd(II), and Pb(II)) using tunable passive preconcentration. The paper devices integrate five circular sample preconcentration layers and a 3-electrode electrochemical cell. The hydrophobic barriers of the devices are drawn by pen-plotting with hydrophobic ink, while the electrodes are deposited by screen-printing. The devices exploit the wicking ability of cellulose paper to perform passive preconcentration of the target analytes, resulting in a ∼6-fold signal enhancement. For this purpose, drops of the sample are placed at the five sample pads of the preconcentration layers, the device is folded, and the target metals are eluted in a vertical-flow mode to the electrochemical cell, where they are measured directly by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV). The working electrode of the ePADs is bulk-modified with bismuth citrate; during the ASV measurements, the bismuth precursor is converted to nanodomains of metallic bismuth at the surface of the working electrode. By combining the triplex signal amplification through passive preconcentration, electrochemical preconcentration, and judicious working electrode modification with in situ generated bismuth nanoparticles, ultrasensitive and multiplexed heavy metal assays can be achieved. Due to their high degree of integration, low cost, easy and fast fabrication, and sensitivity, the multifolding ePADs are particularly suitable for on-site heavy metals' monitoring applications.

Combined application of rhizobacteria, organic and inorganic amendments reduce lead and cadmium uptake and improve growth of chickpea by modulating physiology and antioxidant status

Due to a lack of high-quality water, farmers have been compelled to use sewage water for irrigation, contaminating agricultural soils with multiple heavy metals. For the remediation of contaminated soil, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), pressmud (PM), and iron (III) oxide were used to improve the growth and phytostabilization potential of chickpea grown in contaminated soil. Contaminated soil was collected from a nearby field, receiving sewage and factory water over the last 60 years. Chickpea seeds were inoculated with metal-tolerant (lead and cadmium) rhizobacterial and rhizobial strains. It was observed that combined application of rhizobia, rhizobacteria, iron oxide, and pressmud improved shoot fresh weight (87%), root fresh weight (47.9%), root length (47.9%), nodules plant-1 (2.58 folds), photosynthetic rate (63%) and grain yield (39%) of chickpea as compared to respective untreated control in contaminated soil. Moreover, a significant decrease in the lead (75.8 and 68.1%) and cadmium (81 and 72%) concentrations due to the combined application of rhizobacteria, rhizobia, iron oxide, and pressmud was observed in shoot and root of chickpea than respective control, respectively. It can be concluded that the contaminated soil with mixed metals can be remediated, and the growth and yield of chickpea can be improved.

1-(o-Tolyl)thiourea-based deep eutectic solvent as a stationary phase in flow injection analysis system for mercury and copper determination in edible oils

In this work, a novel deep eutectic solvent (DES) composed of thymol and 1-(o Tolyl)thiourea 9/1 (mol) is presented for the first time. This DES has not been described in the literature. This DES was first used as a stationary phase in an extraction column integrated into a flow injection analysis system for the simultaneous determination of mercury and copper in edible oils. The automated approach involves passing an aqueous sample solution obtained after microwave mineralization through a microcolumn of DES retained on polytetrafluoroethylene. This leading to the extraction and concentration of the analytes. The metals are then eluted with an aqueous thiourea solution for subsequent analysis by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. The limits of detection (LODs) for mercury and copper were 3 μg L⁻1 and 2.5 μg L⁻1, respectively. The approach demonstrated high accuracy. Relative standard deviations (RSD) for repeatability and inter-day reproducibility ranged from 3 % to 11 %. Extraction recovery of both metals exceeded 95 %, indicating the high efficiency of the DES-based extraction process. Environmental assessment using the AGREEprep method yielded a favorable environmental index of 0.54, highlighting the robustness of the approach. This novel use of DES as a stationary phase in flow injection analysis system provides a robust, efficient and environmentally friendly approach to the determination of trace metals in edible oils. This method can also be applied to the analysis of other samples.

Toxic Trace Elements in Meat and Meat Products Across Asia: A Comprehensive Literature Review and Implications for Human Health

Meat and meat products are vital sources of essential nutrients for human health and development. However, an excessive or inappropriate consumption can pose significant health risks. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans" and processed meat as "carcinogenic to humans", yet the role of environmental contaminants in these products was not addressed. The present review focuses on human exposure to toxic trace elements (arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead) through meat and meat products in Asia, covering scientific literature from 1 January 2000, to 30 August 2024. Based on the citations in PubMed and Scopus databases, Asia is the region with the highest number of reported studies, with China contributing the most data. Concentrations of toxic elements in meat vary significantly depending on animal species, specific tissues consumed, and geographic origin. Correspondingly, estimated daily intakes of toxic elements from meat consumption also differ across studies. While some research highlights negligible carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks, others indicate potential health concerns due to elevated toxic element exposure in specific cases. However, similar to observations with organic pollutants, meat and meat products in Asia are not among the primary dietary sources of exposure to toxic elements for humans.

Nutritional Risks of Heavy Metals in the Human Diet-Multi-Elemental Analysis of Energy Drinks

Background: In recent years, the consumption of energy drinks (EDs) by adolescents and young adults has increased significantly, so concerns have been raised about the potential health risks associated with excessive ED consumption. Most analyses on EDs focus on the caffeine content. Research on the content of minerals (essential and toxic) in energy drinks can be considered scarce. Therefore, there is a need for research stating the actual status of heavy metal content in commercially available energy drinks. Methods: This research presents the determination of the total concentrations of macro-elements and trace elements (TEs), such as Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, B, Zn, V, Sr, Ba, Pb, Cd, and As in nine samples of energy drinks using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) techniques. Results: The order in the content of macro-minerals in the EDs was as follows: Na > K > Mg > Ca. The results showed that ED 1, ED 3, and ED 7 samples had the highest micro-mineral concentrations. All the samples had a hazard quotient and hazard index < 1, indicating no non-carcinogenic risk from exposure to single or multiple heavy metals in both the adolescent and adult age groups. Some samples exceeded the threshold limit of acceptable cancer risk for As, Ni, and Cr in both adolescents and adults. Conclusions: This assessment showed that in addition to health implications based on the caffeine content of EDs, there might be a carcinogenic risk associated with the toxic element content of these beverages. This research also highlights notable differences in the TE levels among various ED brands, which may have important implications for consumer well-being and health.

Quantification of arsenic in real samples using a spectrophotometric cloud point extraction of the formed ion pair with astrazon orange G

A novel cloud-point extraction (CPE) procedure for the determination of ultra-trace amounts of arsenic species in real samples, purchased from the local market by spectrophotometer was developed. Inorganic arsenic species analysis in water, beverages, and foods has become increasingly important in recent years, as arsenic species are considered carcinogenic and are assessed at significant levels in samples. The technique is established on a selective ternary complex of As(V) with astrazon orange G (AOG+) in the presence of tartaric acid and polyethylene glycol tertoctylphenyl ether (Triton X-114) at pH 4.0. The calibration curve developed within range 3.0-160 ng/mL with a correlation coefficient of 0.9988 for As(V) provided a preconcentration factor of 200 and a limit of detection (3S blank/m) of 0.88 ng/mL under optimum investigation conditions. The results of molar absorptivity and Sandell sensitivity are calculated and found to be 4.38 × 105 L/mol cm and 0.018 ng cm-2, respectively. The statistical treatment of data obtained from the proposed and GF-AAS procedures are compared in terms of Student's t-tests and variance ratio F-tests has revealed no significant differences. The methodology has been effectively confirmed by assessing real samples and comparing it to the GF-AAS method statistically.

Biodegradation of chemical contamination by lactic acid bacteria: A biological tool for food safety

Chemical pollutants such as mycotoxins and pesticides exert harmful effects on human health such as inflammation, oxidative stress, and cancer. Several strategies were applied for food decontamination, including physicochemical and biological strategies. The present review comprehensively discussed the recent efforts related to the biodegradation of eight food chemical contaminants, including mycotoxins, acrylamide, biogenic amines, N-nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, bisphenol A, pesticides, and heavy metals by lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Biological detoxification by LAB such as Lactobacillus is a promising approach to remove the risks related to the presence of chemical and environmental pollutants in foodstuffs. It is a safe, efficient, environmentally friendly, and low-cost strategy to remove hazardous compounds. LAB can directly decrease these chemical pollutants by degradation or adsorption. Also, it can indirectly reduce the content of these pollutants by reducing their precursors. Hence, LAB can contribute to reducing chemical pollutants in contaminated foods and enhance food safety.

E-waste in the environment: Unveiling the sources, carcinogenic links, and sustainable management strategies

E-waste refers to the electrical and electronic equipment discarded without the intent of reuse or at the end of its functional lifespan. In 2022, approximately 62 billion kg of e-waste, equivalent to 7.8 kg per capita, was generated globally. With an alarming annual growth of approximately 2 million metric tonnes, e-waste production may exceed 82 billion kg by 2030. Improper disposal of e-waste can be detrimental to human health and the entire biosphere. E-waste encompasses a wide range of materials, including heavy metals, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS), Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Polychlorinated Dibenzo-dioxins and -furans (PCDD/Fs), Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs), and radioactive elements. E-waste, when disposed inappropriately can directly contaminate the aquatic and terrestrial environment, leading to human exposure through ingestion, inhalation, dermal absorption, and trans-placental transfer. These detrimental contaminants can directly enter the human body from the environment and may fuel carcinogenesis by modulating cell cycle proteins, redox homeostasis, and mutations. Heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, arsenic, lead, chromium, and nickel, along with organic pollutants like PAHs, PCBs, PBDEs, PFAS, and radioactive elements, play a crucial role in inducing malignancy. Effective collection, sorting, proper recycling, and appropriate disposal techniques are essential to reduce environmental contamination with e-waste-derived chemicals. Hence, this comprehensive review aims to unravel the global environmental burden of e-waste and its links to carcinogenesis in humans. Furthermore, it provides an inclusive discussion on potential treatment approaches to minimize environmental e-waste contamination.

Do Crops Grown at Urban Dumpsites Contain Metals at Levels that Pose Unacceptable Health Risks to Consumers?

Excessive dietary metal intake from crops grown on contaminated urban dumpsites poses a global health risk to consumers. We evaluated the health risk to adult and child consumers from dietary exposure to metals and metalloids in crops cultivated at the Mbale (Uganda) dumpsite centre. Thirteen crop types grown on the dumpsite soil were sampled and analyzed for concentrations of 11 metals: Fe, Al, Zn, Mn, Cu, Pb, Cr, Hg, Co, Ni, Cd, and two metalloids: Se and As. Different proportions of the crops were combined into 12 meal classes to simulate the diets of residents and estimate noncancer and cancer risks. The findings indicated that most individual crop types and simulated diets lacked sufficient selenium for bodily functions. Furthermore, their metal accumulations exceeded the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits (mg/kg) for Al (20), Fe (100), Ni (10), Cu (20), Mn (10), Pb (0.3), Se (0.05), and Zn (99.4). The four most abundant metals in the various crop types and diets were Al, Fe, Mn, and Zn. A positive correlation between the metals in the crops indicated a common origin, which could possibly be the dumpsite soil. The chronic dietary intake (CDI) of metals was higher in children, and thus children faced higher noncancer and cancer risks compared with adults. The overall CDI values for each metal ranged from 0.000718 to 2.171 in adults, and 0.00125 to 3.781662 in children, which is approximately 1.74 times higher in children than in adult consumers. The noncancer and cancer risks ranged from moderate to high with Co, Cr, Fe, Mn, and Zn being mostly responsible for the high noncancer risks, and Al being the predominant contributor to cancer risks. The total noncancer risk levels equally ranged from moderate (1.4-3.3) for adults, and moderate to high (2.4-5.7) for children; the cancer risks were moderate to high in adults, with Al contributing to between 68% and 92% of the total risks across the 12 meal classes. Overall, CDI values and noncancer and cancer risks were all higher in children than in adults. The vegetables Amaranthus hybridus, Vigna unguiculate, Amaranthus dubius, and Cucurbita maxima significantly contributed to the high noncancer risk to both adults and children, particularly when they constituted 40% or more of the meal. Four additional vegetables (Cocorhrous olitorous, Brassica oleracea, Amaranthus cruentus, and Gynandropsis gynandra) also posed a high risk to children when consumed in large quantities. Our results highlight the urgent need to develop regulatory frameworks and/or rigorously enforce existing land and food governance policies to protect consumers' health from unsafe metal concentrations in crops grown on dumpsites. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:2628-2644. © 2024 The Author(s). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Crosstalk Between the Spleen and Other Organs/Systems: Downstream Signaling Events

The aim of this review was to gather pieces of information from available critically evaluated published articles concerning any interplay in which the spleen could be involved. For many years, the spleen has been alleged as an unnecessary biological structure, even though splenomegaly is an objective finding of many illnesses. Indeed, the previous opinion has been completely changed. In fact, the spleen is not a passive participant in or a simple bystander to a relationship that exists between the immune system and other organs. Recently, it has been evidenced in many preclinical and clinical studies that there are close associations between the spleen and other parts of the body, leading to various spleen–organ axes. Among them, the gut–spleen axis, the liver–spleen axis, the gut–spleen–skin axis, the brain–spleen axis, and the cardio-splenic axis are the most explored and present in the medical literature. Such recent sources of evidence have led to revolutionary new ideas being developed about the spleen. What is more, these observations may enable the identification of novel therapeutic strategies targeted at various current diseases. The time has come to make clear that the spleen is not a superfluous body part, while health system operators and physicians should pay more attention to this organ. Indeed, much work remains to be performed to assess further roles that this biological structure could play.

Mitigating toxic metals contamination in foods: Bridging knowledge gaps for addressing food safety

Background

Reducing exposure to harmful substances in food is highly desired, especially for infants, young children, and pregnant women. A workshop focused on understanding and reducing toxic metal contamination in food was conducted involving leading scientists, educators, practitioners, and key stakeholders in conjunction with the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture.

Scope and approach

The goal of this review and the workshop was to advance the current knowledge of major toxic metals concerning food safety, viz. arsenic (As), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and chromium (Cr), preventive measures, identify critical knowledge gaps, and the need for research, extension, and education. Being a part of the "Closer to Zero (C2Z)" initiative of the USDA, FDA, and other federal agencies, the workshop adopted a "One Health" approach to mitigate dietary exposure and environmental pollution of hazardous elements.

Key findings and conclusions

The experts discussed the accumulation of toxic metals in food crops and drinking water in relation to soil biogeochemistry, plant uptake, and multidisciplinary factors such as food processing, detection, regulatory standards, etc. To forward food safety, this workshop critically examined toxic metals contamination, exposure and toxicity along the farm-to-fork-to-human continuum, research gaps, prevailing regulations, and sustainable remediation approaches, and offered significant recommendations. This review paper provides perspective on key findings of the workshop relative to addressing this important aspect of food safety, emphasizing interdisciplinary research that can effectively investigate and understand the complex and dynamic relationships between soil biogeochemistry, the microbiome, plant tolerance and accumulation strategies, uniform standards for acceptable and safe toxic element levels in food and water, and raising public awareness. This article also provides a foundation for decision-making regarding toxic metal fate and effects, including risk management strategies, in the face of modern industrialization and a changing climate.

A multi-year heavy metal analysis of 72 dark chocolate and cocoa products in the USA

Introduction

Contamination of cocoa containing products, such as dark chocolate, with heavy metals including lead, cadmium and arsenic has been reported in the US. However, a formal exploration into the significance of this contamination, nor multi-year trends in the degree or scope remain unresolved.

Methods

From 2014 to 2022, 72 consumer cocoa-containing products were purchased and analyzed for heavy metal contamination with lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As) in 4 distinct cohorts (2014, 2016, 2019, 2022). The thresholds used to assess heavy metal contamination were set to Prop 65 maximum allowable dose levels (MADLs) of 0.5 mcg/day, 4.1 mcg/day, 10 mcg/day for Pb, Cd, and As, respectively.

Results and discussion

Our analysis reports that 43, 35, and 0% of the products tested exceed Prop 65 MADLs for heavy metal concentrations, respectively, of Pb, Cd, and As, while 97.2% (70 of 72) fall below US FDA IRL limits established for Pb. Median concentrations of each metal tested were lower than even the conservative Prop 65 MADLs, indicating a potentially large effect of product outliers. This indicates that heavy metal contamination-in more than half of products tested-may not pose any appreciable risk for the average person when consumed as a single serving; however, consuming some of the products tested, or more than one serving per day in combination with non-cocoa derived sources heavy metals, may add up to exposure that would exceed the Prop 65 MADLs. Notably, "organic" products were significantly more likely to demonstrate higher levels of both Cd and Pb.

Navigating the development of silver nanoparticles based food analysis through the power of artificial intelligence

In the ongoing pursuit of enhancing food safety and quality through advanced technologies, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) stand out for their antimicrobial properties. Despite being overshadowed by other nanoparticles in food sensing applications, AgNPs possess inherent qualities that make them effective tools for rapid and selective contaminant detection in food matrices. This review aims to reinvigorate the interest in AgNPs in the food industry, emphasizing their sensing mechanism and the transformative potential of integrating them with artificial intelligence (AI) for enhanced food safety monitoring. It discusses key AI tools and principles in the food industry, demonstrating their positive impact on food analytical chemistry. The interplay between AI and biosensors offers many advantages and adaptability to dynamic analytical challenges, significantly improving food safety monitoring and potentially redefining the landscape of food safety and quality assurance.

Assessing Mineral Content and Heavy Metal Exposure in Abruzzo Honey and Bee Pollen from Different Anthropic Areas

Honey and bee pollen offer potential health benefits due to their nutrient and bioactive molecules, but they may also harbor contaminants such as heavy metals. This study aimed to assess the content of different metals, including Mg, Al, K, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, Cu, As, Rb, Sr, Cd, Cs, Tl, Pb and U, in honey and bee pollen collected from different Abruzzo region (Italy) areas (A1, A2, A3, A4), characterized by different anthropic influences described by Corine Land Cover maps. Differences were observed in the mineral and heavy metal content associated with the influence of biotic and abiotic factors. Honeys were found to be safe in regard to non-carcinogenic risk in all the consumer categories (THQm < 1). A particular carcinogenic risk concern was identified for toddlers associated with Cr (LCTR > 1 × 10-4) in A1, A2 and A3 apiaries. Pb and Ni represent potential non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks in children and adults due to bee pollen consumption, showing high values of THQm and LCTR. The results suggest the advantages of utilizing bee products to screen mineral and heavy metal content, providing valuable insights into environmental quality and potential health risks.

Metals on the Menu-Analyzing the Presence, Importance, and Consequences

Metals are integral components of the natural environment, and their presence in the food supply is inevitable and complex. While essential metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, zinc, and copper are crucial for various physiological functions and must be consumed through the diet, others, like lead, mercury, and cadmium, are toxic even at low concentrations and pose serious health risks. This study comprehensively analyzes the presence, importance, and consequences of metals in the food chain. We explore the pathways through which metals enter the food supply, their distribution across different food types, and the associated health implications. By examining current regulatory standards for maximum allowable levels of various metals, we highlight the importance of ensuring food safety and protecting public health. Furthermore, this research underscores the need for continuous monitoring and management of metal content in food, especially as global agricultural and food production practices evolve. Our findings aim to inform dietary recommendations, food fortification strategies, and regulatory policies, ultimately contributing to safer and more nutritionally balanced diets.

Metal concentrations and KIM-1 levels in school-aged children: a cross-sectional study

Environmental exposure to heavy metals and metalloids, originating from sources such as mining and manufacturing activities, has been linked to adverse renal effects. This cross-sectional study assessed children's exposure to these elements and its association with urinary kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1). We analyzed data from 99 school-aged children residing in nine localities within the state of Colima, Mexico, during the latter half of 2023. Levels of 23 metals/metalloids and urinary KIM-1 were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Detectable levels of these contaminants were found in over 91% of participants, with varied exposure profiles observed across locations ( p = 0.019). After adjusting for confounding factors like gender, age, and locality, higher levels of six metals/metalloids (boron, cadmium, cesium, lithium, selenium, zinc) were significantly associated with increased KIM-1 levels. Tailored mitigation efforts are crucial to protect children from regional pollutant burdens. However, limitations exist, as our study did not capture all potential factors influencing heavy metal/metalloid and KIM-1 levels.

Arithmetic vs. Weighted Means in Fish Fillets Mercury Analyses

Mercury (Hg) analyses in species of fish are performed for two reasons: (1) to safeguard human health; and (2) to assess environmental quality, since different environmental changes may increase the Hg concentrations in fish. These analyses are important since both natural and human activities can increase these Hg concentrations, which can vary extensively, depending on the species, age and catching location. Hg-contaminated fish or other marine foodstuffs can be only detected by chemical analysis. If the aim of Hg analysis is to protect the health of marine food consumers, researcher workers must consider the location where the fish were caught and interpret the results accordingly. Health and environmental officials must appreciate that in specific places, local people may have a daily diet consisting entirely of fish or other marine foods, and these individuals should not be exposed to high concentrations of Hg. Regional and national health and environmental officials should follow the recent guidance of international organizations when drawing their final conclusions about whether the products are safe or unsafe to eat. Correct statistical calculations are not always carried out; so, too high Hg amounts could be presented, and fish eaters could be protected. This work has been conducted to show the differences in Hg concentrations between weighted (weighted with fish weights) and arithmetic means. Thus, the mean that is only weighted also includes the Hg content in fishes; so, the exposure to Hg can be evaluated.

Microalgae as future food: Rich nutrients, safety, production costs and environmental effects

The improvement of food security and nutrition has attracted wide attention, and microalgae as the most promising food source are being further explored. This paper comprehensively introduces basic and functional nutrients rich in microalgae by elaborated tables incorporating a wide variety of studies and summarizes factors influencing their accumulation effects. Subsequently, multiple comparisons of nutrients were conducted, indicating that microalgae have a high protein content. Moreover, controllable production costs and environmental friendliness prompt microalgae into the list that contains more promising and reliable future food. However, microalgae and -based foods approved and sold are limited strictly, showing that safety is a key factor affecting dietary consideration. Notably, sensory profiles and ingredient clarity play an important role in improving the acceptance of microalgae-based foods. Finally, based on the bottleneck in the microalgae food industry, suggestions for its future development were discussed.

Development of a Whole-Cell System Based on the Use of Genetically Modified Protoplasts to Detect Nickel Ions in Food Matrices

Heavy metals are dangerous contaminants that constitute a threat to human health because they persist in soils and are easily transferred into the food chain, causing damage to human health. Among heavy metals, nickel appears to be one of the most dangerous, being responsible for different disorders. Public health protection requires nickel detection in the environment and food chains. Biosensors represent simple, rapid, and sensitive methods for detecting nickel contamination. In this paper, we report on the setting up a whole-cell-based system, in which protoplasts, obtained from Nicotiana tabacum leaves, were used as transducers to detect the presence of heavy metal ions and, in particular, nickel ions. Protoplasts were genetically modified with a plasmid containing the Green Fluorescent Protein reporter gene (GFP) under control of the promoter region of a sunflower gene coding for a small Heat Shock Protein (HSP). Using this device, the presence of heavy metal ions was detected. Thus, the possibility of using this whole-cell system as a novel tool to detect the presence of nickel ions in food matrices was assessed.

Exposure to heavy metallic and trace essential elements and risk of diminished ovarian reserve in reproductive age women: A case-control study

The associations between metallic elements and ovarian reserve function have remained uncertain yet. In this case-control study, we involved 149 women with diminished ovarian reserve (DOR) and 151 women with normal ovarian reserve, and assessed the levels of six heavy metallic (Cr, Cd, As, Hg, Pb, and Mn) and seven trace essential (Se, Fe, Zn, Co, Mo, Cu, I) elements in their follicular fluid with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Associations were examined with logistic regressions and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR). As a result, we found that the medium and the highest tertiles of Pb were significantly associated with an increased likelihood of DOR compared to the lowest tertile, while the medium or/an the highest tertiles of Cu, I, and Fe showed significantly lower likelihoods of DOR compared to the lowest tertiles. Cu and Pb showed significantly non-linear associations with ovarian reserve markers such as follicle-stimulating, anti-mullerian hormone levels, and antral follicle count. With the rising overall concentrations of heavy metals, the likelihood of DOR increased although not significant. There was a trend of a "U-shaped" association across the whole concentration range of trace essential elements and the likelihood of DOR. Our study revealed that avoiding heavy metallic elements and properly supplementing trace essential elements are conducive to ovarian function.

Assessment of heavy metals and human health risk associated with the consumption of crops cultivated in industrial areas of Maputo, Mozambique

This study aimed to evaluate heavy metals concentrations in soils and vegetables (cabbage, lettuce, and cassava) cultivated at Matola and Beluluane Industrial Parks, and to assess health risks linked to their consumption through estimated daily intake, hazard index (HI), and incremental lifetime cancer risk. Concentrations of Al, As, Co, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn were determined in the two sites. Soil concentrations of As at Beluluane site and As, Cd, and Cr at Matola site exceeded reference limits of the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization, showing heavy metal contamination. At Beluluane site, all studied vegetables presented As and Pb levels higher than reference limits, Cd concentrations were higher than the reference limit in cabbage, lettuce, and cassava leaves. At Matola site crops concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, and Pb exceeded the reference limits. Zinc exceeded the reference limit in all crops except in cabbage. HIs for vegetables from Beluluane exceeded 1.0 in cabbage (2.66), lettuce (2.27), and cassava leaves (2.37). Likewise, at Matola, HIs exceeded 1.0 in lettuce (1.67), cassava leaves (1.65), and root tubers (13). We found that vegetables cultivated in industrial parks present high carcinogenic risk due to heavy metal contamination, rendering them unsuitable for human consumption.

Tracing of Di-Ethylhexyl Phthalate in the Tequila Production Process

The purpose of this study was to determine the origin, presence, and fate of the endocrine disruptor di-ethylhexil phthalate (DEHP) during tequila production. For this, three tequila factories (small, medium, and large) were monitored. DEHP concentrations in water, agave, additives, lubricating greases, neoprene seals, and materials of each stage process were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. DEHP mass balances were performed to identify the processes with significant changes in the inputs/outputs. DEHP was detected in agave at up to 0.08 ± 0.03 mg kg-1, water 0.02 ± 0.01 mg kg-1, lubricant greases 131.05 ± 2.80 mg kg-1, and neoprene seals 369.11 ± 22.52 mg kg-1. Whereas, tequila produced in the large, medium, and small factories contained 0.05 ± 0.01, 0.24 ± 0.04, and 1.43 ± 0.48 mg kg-1 DEHP, respectively. Furthermore, in waste materials (vinasses and bagasse) released, 534.26 ± 349.02, 947.18 ± 65.84, and 5222.60 ± 2836.94 mg of DEHP was detected for every 1000 L of tequila produced. The most significant increase in DEHP occurred during the sugar extraction and distillation stages. Results demonstrate that main raw materials, such as agave and water, contain DEHP, but lubricant greases and neoprene seals are the major sources of DEHP contamination. Identification of the contamination sources can help the tequila industry to take actions to reduce it, protect consumer health and the environment, and prevent circular contamination.

Metals in Cow Milk and Soy Beverages: Is There a Concern?

Nowadays, there is an increased consumption of plant-based protein beverages like soy beverages (SBs) as substitutes for cow milk (CM). Both accumulate toxic metals like lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and manganese (Mn), which, although essential, are neurotoxic at high levels. Metals can also perturb the normal development of children. This work aimed to evaluate these metal concentrations in CM and SB purchased on the Portuguese market. After validation of the method, linearity of calibration curves, work range, detection and quantification limits, and selectivity, metals were determined in 14 CM and 14 SB brands using atomic absorption spectrometry. The values were compared between CM and SB and with permissible limit values. Soy beverages had significantly (p < 0.05) higher concentrations of Cd (5.6 ± 4.2 µg/L) and Mn (117.4 ± 30.3) µg/L) than CM (2.15 ± 1.84 µg/L and 5.93 ± 1.21 µg/L, respectively); the Pb concentrations in CM (19.3 ± 12.1 µg/L) were not significantly (p > 0.05) higher than in SB (13.4 ± 9.6 µg/L). These values were similar to other studies and close to but under permissible limit values. Nevertheless, due to the toxicity and bioaccumulation of metals, the fact that these foods are routinely ingested by all ages, mainly children, and represent key ingredients in many processed foods, including baby foods, we suggest strict surveying of metal levels in CM and SBs.