Advances in Saponin Diversity of Panax ginseng

20S-Ginsenoside Rh2, the major bioactive saponin in Panax notoginseng flowers, ameliorates cough by inhibition of NaV1.7 and TRPV1 channel currents and downregulation of TRPV1 expression

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax notoginseng flowers, which are the buds of the traditional Chinese medicinal herb Sanqi, are widely used in China for their cough-ameliorating properties, with demonstrated therapeutic effects in the treatment of both acute and chronic coughs. However, both the antitussive mechanism and active compound basis of P. notoginseng flowers remain poorly understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We investigated the antitussive effects of P. notoginseng flowers, identified the bioactive constituents responsible for alleviating cough symptoms, and elucidated the underlying pharmacological mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analyzed the major chemical constituents of aqueous extracts of P. notoginseng flowers using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and quantitatively analyzed the key component, 20S-ginsenoside Rh2, using high-performance liquid chromatography. Using a cough reflex model in healthy mice and an ovalbumin-induced, highly sensitive guinea pig cough model, we verified the suppressive effects of P. notoginseng flowers and their saponin constituents on coughing. Furthermore, we explored the mechanisms of action of the key ion channels, NaV1.7 and TRPV1, using whole-cell patch-clamp techniques and molecular docking. Finally, the therapeutic mechanisms of P. notoginseng flowers on pathological cough were revealed using hematoxylin and eosin staining, immunohistochemistry, and western blotting.

RESULTS

The active components of P. notoginseng flowers were primarily protopanaxadiol-type saponins, among which 20S-ginsenoside Rh2 had the highest content (51.46 mg/g). In the mouse model, P. notoginseng flowers exhibited antitussive effects comparable to those of pentoxyverine citrate. Although its main saponin component, 20S-ginsenoside Rh2, showed slightly weaker effects, it still demonstrated concentration-dependent inhibition of channel activity. The whole-cell patch-clamp technique and virtual molecular docking showed that Rh2 might exert its effects by directly binding to the NaV1.7 and TRPV1 channels. In the guinea pig model, P. notoginseng flowers and their saponin components not only reduced cough frequency and prolonged the latency period before cough onset, but also significantly inhibited tracheal and pulmonary inflammation and the overexpression of TRPV1.

CONCLUSIONS

20S-Ginsenoside Rh2, the major bioactive saponin in P. notoginseng flowers, exhibits potent antitussive effects. The potential mechanism of action of 20S-Ginsenoside Rh2 in the treatment of cough may involve inhibiting NaV1.7 and TRPV1 channel currents through direct binding to core protein active sites and downregulating TRPV1 expression.

Cultivation optimization promotes ginsenoside and universal triterpenoid production by engineered yeast

Ginseng, a cornerstone of traditional herbal medicine in Asia, garnered significant attention for its therapeutic potential. Central to its pharmacological effects are ginsenosides, the primary active metabolites, many of which fall within the dammarane-type and share protopanaxadiol as a common precursor. Challenges in extracting protopanaxadiol and ginsenosides from ginseng arise due to their low concentrations in the roots. Emerging solutions involve leveraging microbial cell factories employing genetically engineered yeasts. Here, we optimized the fermentation conditions via the Design of Experiment, realizing 1.2 g/L protopanaxadiol in simple shake flask cultivations. Extrapolating the optimized setup to complex ginsenosides, like compound K, achieved 7.3-fold (0.22 g/L) titer improvements. Our adaptable fermentation conditions enable the production of high-value products, such as sustainable triterpenoids synthesis. Through synthetic biology, microbial engineering, and formulation studies, we pave the way for a scalable and sustainable production of bioactive compounds from ginseng.

Application of plant-derived products as adjuvants for immune activation and vaccine development

Vaccines are one of the most important means to prevent and control the epidemic of infectious diseases. Commercial vaccines not only include corresponding antigens, but also need vaccine adjuvants. Immune adjuvants play an increasingly important role in the research, development and manufacture of vaccines. Adjuvants combined with antigens can improve the stability, safety and immune efficiency of vaccines. Some substances that can enhance the immune response have been found in nature(mainly plants) and used as adjuvants in vaccines to improve the immune effect of vaccines. These plant-derived immune adjuvants often have the advantages of low toxicity, high stability, low price, etc., providing more possibilities for vaccine development. We summarized and analyzed the advantages, application research, particulate delivery systems, existing problems and future research focus of botanical adjuvant. It is hoped to provide new ideas for the research and development of immune adjuvants in the future.

20S-O-Glc-DM treats metabolic syndrome-induced heart failure through regulating gut flora

Heart failure is a multifactorial disease, the percentage of patients with heart failure caused by metabolic syndrome is increasing year by year. The effect of gut flora dysbiosis on metabolic syndrome and heart failure has received widespread attention in recent years. Drugs to treat the condition urgently need to be discovered. C20DM, as a precursor compound of ginsenoside, is a small molecule compound obtained by biosynthetic means and is not available in natural products. In this project, we found that C20DM could improve the diversity of gut flora and elevate the expression of intestinal tight junction proteins-Occludin, Claudin, ZO-1, which inhibited the activity of the TLR4-MyD88-NF-kB pathway, and as a result, reduced myocardial inflammation and slowed down heart failure in metabolic syndrome mice. In conclusion, our study suggests that C20DM can treat heart failure by regulating gut flora, and it may be a candidate drug for treating metabolic syndrome-induced heart failure.

Ambient mass spectrometry imaging of food natural products by angled direct analysis in real time high-resolution mass spectrometry

Direct surface analysis in ambient conditions provides information on the position and chemical composition of an object at the time of investigation. An angled sampling probe is developed in this work for direct analysis in real time (DART) ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry. The DART ion source and the interface were modified for improved surface resolution, increased ion transfer efficiency, as well as enabling two-dimensional surface scanning. The angled probe DART-MS system was used for investigating a variety of food samples including fruit peels, ginseng root, plant leaves and sections of radish. Abundant signals and distinct chemical profiles are obtained in seconds, and spatial distribution of different molecules across the sample surfaces can be observed. In addition, the developed system can quickly identify the chemical changes when the surfaces were treated. The method is capable of directly evaluating food sample surfaces with different shapes, hardness, and conditions, without any sample pretreatments.

Aerosol inhalation of total ginsenosides repairs acute lung injury and inhibits pulmonary fibrosis through SMAD2 signaling-mediated mechanism

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a progressive lung disease caused by previous acute lung injury (ALI), but there is currently no satisfactory therapy available. Aerosol inhalation of medicine is an effective way for treating PF. Total ginsenosides (TG) shows potential for the treatment of ALI and PF, but the effects of inhaled TG remain unclear.

PURPOSE

To determine the therapeutic effects of TG in ALI and PF, to assess the superiority of the inhaled form of TG over the routine form, and to clarify the mechanism of action of inhaled TG.

METHODS

Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry (UPLC-QE-MS) was applied to determine the chemoprofile of TG. A mouse model of ALI and PF was established to evaluate the effects of inhaled TG by using bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) analysis, histopathological observation, hydroxyproline assay, and immunohistochemical analysis. Primary mouse lung fibroblasts (MLF) and human lung fibroblast cell line (HFL1) were applied to determine the in vitro effects and mechanism of TG by using cell viability assay, quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) assay, and western blot (WB) analysis.

RESULTS

The UPLC-QE-MS results revealed the main types of ginsenosides in TG, including Re (14.15 ± 0.42%), Rd (8.42 ± 0.49%), Rg1 (6.22 ± 0.42%), Rb3 (3.28 ± 0.01%), Rb2 (3.09 ± 0.00%), Rc (2.33 ± 0.01%), Rg2 (2.09 ± 0.04%), Rb1 (1.43 ± 0.24%), and Rf (0.13 ± 0.06%). Inhaled TG, at dosages of 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg significantly alleviated both ALI and PF in mice. Analyses of BALF and HE staining revealed that TG modulated the levels of IFN-γ, IL-1β, and TGF-β1, reduced inflammatory cell infiltration, and restored the alveolar architecture of the lung tissues. Furthermore, HE and Masson's trichrome staining demonstrated that TG markedly decreased fibroblastic foci and collagen fiber deposition, evidenced by the reduction of blue-stained collagen fibers. Hydroxyproline assay and immunohistochemical analyses indicated that TG significantly decreased hydroxyproline level and down-regulated the expression of Col1a1, Col3a1, and α-sma. The inhaled administration of TG demonstrated enhanced efficacy over the oral route when comparable doses were used. Additionally, inhaled TG showed superior safety and therapeutic profiles compared to pirfenidone, as evidenced by a CCK8 assay, which confirmed that TG concentrations ranging from 20 to 120 μg/ml were non-cytotoxic. qPCR and WB analyses revealed that TG, at concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 μg/ml, significantly suppressed the phosphorylation of smad2 induced by TGF-β1 and down-regulated the expression of fibrotic genes and proteins, including α-sma, Col1a1, Col3a1, and FN1, suggesting an anti-fibrotic mechanism mediated by the smad2 signaling pathway. In vitro, TG's safety and efficacy were also found to be superior to those of pirfenidone.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates, for the first time, the therapeutic efficacy of inhaled TG in treating ALI and PF. Inhaled TG effectively inhibits inflammation and reduces collagen deposition, with a particular emphasis on its role in modulating the Smad2 signaling pathway, which is implicated in the anti-fibrotic mechanism of TG. The study also highlights the superiority of inhaled TG over the oral route and its favorable safety profile in comparison to pirfenidone, positioning it as an ideal alternative for ALI and PF therapy.

Review on ginseng and its potential active substance G-Rg2 against age-related diseases: Traditional efficacy and mechanism

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

According to the Shen Nong Herbal Classic, Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is documented to possess life-prolonging effects and is extensively utilized in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of various ailments such as qi deficiency, temper deficiency, insomnia, and forgetfulness. Ginseng is commonly employed for replenishing qi and nourishing blood, fortifying the body and augmenting immunity; it has demonstrated efficacy in alleviating fatigue, enhancing memory, and retarding aging. Furthermore, it exhibits a notable ameliorative impact on age-related conditions including cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative disorders. One of its active constituents - ginsenoside Rg2 (G-Rg2) - exhibits potential therapeutic efficacy in addressing these ailments.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The aim of this review is to explore the traditional efficacy of ginseng in anti-aging diseases and the modern pharmacological mechanism of its potential active substance G-Rg2, in order to provide strong theoretical support for further elucidating the mechanism of its anti-aging effect.

METHODS

This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the traditional efficacy of ginseng and the potential mechanisms underlying the anti-age-related disease properties of G-Rg2, based on an extensive literature review up to March 12, 2024, from PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Cochrane, and Google Scholar databases. Potential anti-aging mechanisms of G-Rg2 were predicted using network pharmacology and molecular docking analysis techniques.

RESULTS

In traditional Chinese medicine theory, ginseng has been shown to improve aging-related diseases with a variety of effects, including tonifying qi, strengthening the spleen and stomach, nourishing yin, regulating yin and yang, as well as calming the mind. Its potential active ingredient G-Rg2 has demonstrated significant therapeutic potential in age-related diseases, especially central nervous system and cardiovascular diseases. G-Rg2 exhibited a variety of pharmacological activities, including anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Meanwhile, the network pharmacological analyses and molecular docking results were consistent with the existing literature review, further validating the potential efficacy of G-Rg2 as an anti-aging agent.

CONCLUSION

The review firstly explores the ameliorative effects of ginseng on a wide range of age-related diseases based on TCM theories. Secondly, the article focuses on the remarkable significance and value demonstrated by G-Rg2 in age-related cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Consequently, G-Rg2 has broad prospects for development in intervening in aging and treating age-related health problems.

Ginsenoside Re promotes proliferation of murine bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in vitro through estrogen-like action

Ginsenoside Re (GS-Re) is a major saponin monomer found in Panax ginseng Meyer. It has been shown to exhibit a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities. This study aimed to investigate the effect of GS-Re on the proliferation of murine bone marrow-derived MSCs in vitro and to assess whether its effect is dependent on the estrogen receptor-mediated signal transduction. CFU colony formation assay, cell counting, and colorimetric MTT test were employed to examine effects of GS-Re on the in vitro proliferation of MSCs and the mechanisms of the underlying effect were detected by flow cytometric analysis, immunofluorescence staining for BrdU, and Western blotting. GS-Re dose-dependently promoted the in vitro proliferation of murine bone marrow-derived MSCs over a range of concentrations of 0.5 ~ 20 µmol/L, and this effect approached the maximal level at 10 µmol/L. Increases in the expression level of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (p-ERK1/2) were observed in the passaged MSCs treated with 10 µmol/L of GS-Re. These effects of GS-Re on the MSCs were significantly counteracted by the addition of ICI 182, 780 (an estrogen receptor antagonist) to the culture media. We concluded that GS-Re is able to exert a proliferation-promoting effect on murine bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in vitro, and its action is involved in the estrogen receptor-mediated signaling.

Phytotherapy in Alzheimer's Disease-A Narrative Review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects 50-70% of patients with dementia, making it the leading cause of dementia. The condition is classified as a neurodegenerative, progressive and incurable disease. The disease is affecting more and more people around the world. AD has a multifactorial nature, spreading from beta-amyloid deposition to inflammation in patients' brains. Patients experience cognitive impairment and functional decline. Although it is a disease that occurs mainly in the elderly, it is increasingly being diagnosed in young people between the ages of 30 and 40. It not only affects the patient themself but also reduces the quality of life of their closest caregivers. According to the WHO, the treatment of AD consumes USD 1.3 trillion globally, but it is only symptomatic, as there are no drugs to prevent the onset of AD or treat the cause of its onset. Due to the numerous side effects of therapy and the lack of proactive drugs that act on the pathomechanism of AD, alternative therapies are being sought. One possible option that has many studies confirming its effect is phytotherapy. Many herbs have pharmacological properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, or neuroprotective effects, making them the future of cognitive disorders and AD treatment. This review focuses on some of the most promising herbs that have potentially potent properties and effects in AD therapy. These include Curcuma longa, Panax ginseng, Berberis and Crocus sativus. These herbs may perhaps be key in the future to make functioning and life easier for patients struggling with AD.

Ginsenosides ameliorates high altitude-induced hypoxia injury in lung and kidney tissues by regulating PHD2/HIF-1α/EPO signaling pathway

Background: The primary constituent of ginseng, known as ginsenosides (GS), has been scientifically demonstrated to possess anti-fatigue, anti-hypoxia, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. However, the effect and mechanisms of GS on tissue injury induced by high-altitude hypoxia still remain unclear. Aim of the study: This study aims to investigate the protective effect of GS on a high-altitude hypoxia model and explore its mechanism. Materials and methods: Sprague-Dawley rats were placed in a high-altitude simulation chamber for 48 h (equivalent to an altitude of 6,000 m) to establish a high-altitude hypoxia model. We assessed the anti-hypoxic efficacy of GS through blood gas analysis, complete blood count, and hemorheology analysis. We used H&E and hypoxia probe assays to evaluate the protective effect of GS on organ ischemia-induced injury. Further, we used ELISA and qPCR analysis to detect the levels of inflammatory factors and oxidative stress markers. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining were performed to determinate protein expression of hypoxia inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α), erythropoietin (EPO), and prolyl hydroxylase 2 (PHD2). Results: In the survival experiment of anoxic mice, 100 mg/kg of GS had the best anti-anoxic effect. GS slowed down the weight loss rate of rats in hypoxic environment. In the fluorescence detection of hypoxia, GS reduced the fluorescence signal value of lung and kidney tissue and alleviated the hypoxia state of tissue. Meanwhile GS improved blood biochemical and hematological parameters. We also observed that GS treatment significantly decreased oxidative stress damage in lung and kidney tissues. Further, the levels of inflammatory factors, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α were reduced by GS. Finally, GS regulated the PHD2/HIF-1α/EPO signaling pathway to improve blood viscosity and tissue hyperemia damage. Conclusion: GS could alleviate high-altitude induced lung and kidney damage by reducing the level of inflammation and oxidative stress, improving blood circulation through the PHD2/HIF-1α/EPO pathway.

Methanol-involved heterogeneous transformation of ginsenoside Rb1 to rare ginsenosides using heteropolyacids embedded in mesoporous silica with HPLC-MS investigation

Background

The biological activity and pharmacological effects of rare ginsenosides have been proven to be superior to those of the major ginsenosides, but they are rarely found in ginseng.

Methods

Ginsenoside Rb1 was chemically transformed with the involvement of methanol molecules by a synthesized heterogeneous catalyst 12-HPW@MeSi, which was obtained by the immobilization of 12-phosphotungstic acid on a mesoporous silica framework. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry was used to identify the transformation products.

Results

A total of 18 transformation products were obtained and identified. Methanol was found to be involved in the formation of 8 products formed by the addition of methanol molecules to the C-24 (25), C-20 (21) or C-20 (22) double bonds of the aglycone. The transformation pathways of ginsenoside Rb1 involved deglycosylation, addition, elimination, cycloaddition, and epimerization reactions. These pathways could be elucidated in terms of the stability of the generated carbenium ion. In addition, 12-HPW@MeSi was able to maintain a 60.5% conversion rate of Rb1 after 5 cycles.

Conclusion

Tandem and high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis allowed rapid and accurate identification of the transformation products through the characteristic fragment ions and neutral loss. Rare ginsenosides with methoxyl groups grafted at the C-25 and C-20 positions were obtained for the first time by chemical transformation using the composite catalyst 12-HPW@MeSi, which also enabled cyclic heterogeneous transformation and facile centrifugal separation of ginsenosides. This work provides an efficient and recyclable strategy for the preparation of rare ginsenosides with the involvement of organic molecules.

Research progress of the mechanisms and applications of ginsenosides in promoting bone formation

BACKGROUND

Bone deficiency-related diseases caused by various factors have disrupted the normal function of the skeleton and imposed a heavy burden globally, urgently requiring potential new treatments. The multi-faceted role of compounds like ginsenosides and their interaction with the bone microenvironment, particularly osteoblasts can promote bone formation and exhibit anti-inflammatory, vascular remodeling, and antibacterial properties, holding potential value in the treatment of bone deficiency-related diseases and bone tissue engineering.

PURPOSE

This review summarizes the interaction between ginsenosides and osteoblasts and the bone microenvironment in bone formation, including vascular remodeling and immune regulation, as well as their therapeutic potential and toxicity in the broad treatment applications of bone deficiency-related diseases and bone tissue engineering, to provide novel insights and treatment strategies.

METHODS

The literature focusing on the mechanisms and applications of ginsenosides in promoting bone formation before March 2024 was searched in PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Science Direct databases. Keywords such as "phytochemicals", "ginsenosides", "biomaterials", "bone", "diseases", "bone formation", "microenvironment", "bone tissue engineering", "rheumatoid arthritis", "periodontitis", "osteoarthritis", "osteoporosis", "fracture", "toxicology", "pharmacology", and combinations of these keywords were used.

RESULTS

Ginsenoside monomers regulate signaling pathways such as WNT/β-catenin, FGF, and BMP/TGF-β, stimulating osteoblast generation and differentiation. It exerts angiogenic and anti-inflammatory effects by regulating the bone surrounding microenvironment through signaling such as WNT/β-catenin, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K/Akt, and Notch. It shows therapeutic effects and biological safety in the treatment of bone deficiency-related diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, periodontitis, osteoporosis, and fractures, and bone tissue engineering by promoting osteogenesis and improving the microenvironment of bone formation.

CONCLUSION

The functions of ginsenosides are diverse and promising in treating bone deficiency-related diseases and bone tissue engineering. Moreover, potential exists in regulating the bone microenvironment, modifying biomaterials, and treating inflammatory-related bone diseases and dental material applications. However, the mechanisms and effects of some ginsenoside monomers are still unclear, and the lack of clinical research limits their clinical application. Further exploration and evaluation of the potential of ginsenosides in these areas are expected to provide more effective methods for treating bone defects.

Identification of PgRg1-3 Gene for Ginsenoside Rg1 Biosynthesis as Revealed by Combining Genome-Wide Association Study and Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis of Jilin Ginseng Core Collection

Ginseng, an important medicinal plant, is characterized by its main active component, ginsenosides. Among more than 40 ginsenosides, Rg1 is one of the ginsenosides used for measuring the quality of ginseng. Therefore, the identification and characterization of genes for Rg1 biosynthesis are important to elucidate the molecular basis of Rg1 biosynthesis. In this study, we utilized 39,327 SNPs and the corresponding Rg1 content from 344 core ginseng cultivars from Jilin Province. We conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) combining weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), SNP-Rg1 content association analysis, and gene co-expression network analysis; three candidate Rg1 genes (PgRg1-1, PgRg1-2, and PgRg1-3) and one crucial candidate gene (PgRg1-3) were identified. Functional validation of PgRg1-3 was performed using methyl jasmonate (MeJA) regulation and RNAi, confirming that this gene regulates Rg1 biosynthesis. The spatial-temporal expression patterns of the PgRg1-3 gene and known key enzyme genes involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis differ. Furthermore, variations in their networks have a significant impact on Rg1 biosynthesis. This study established an accurate and efficient method for identifying candidate genes, cloned a novel gene controlling Rg1 biosynthesis, and identified 73 SNPs significantly associated with Rg1 content. This provides genetic resources and effective tools for further exploring the molecular mechanisms of Rg1 biosynthesis and molecular breeding.

Free Radical Scavenging Effect and Immunomodulatory Activity of Total Saponins Extract of Ginseng Fibrous Roots

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey) is known for its rich saponin compounds and tonic effects. To better utilize the medicinal value of ginseng, this study investigated the extraction process, components, free radical scavenging ability, and immunomodulatory activity of total saponins of ginseng fibrous roots. The response surface methodology was employed to optimize the extraction process of total saponins, and Q-Orbitrap high-resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was used to identify the chemical constituents in the total saponins extract of ginseng fibrous roots (GRS). The results showed that the optimal extraction process was achieved with an ethanol concentration of 68%, a material-solvent ratio of 1:25 mL/g, and an extraction time of 20 min, yielding a total saponin content of 6.34% under these conditions. The extract contained four terpenoid compounds and four polyphenolic compounds. GRS exhibited considerable scavenging activity against DPPH and ABTS radicals, with IC50 values of 0.893 and 0.210 mg/mL, respectively. Moreover, GRS restored immune suppression in mice by increasing white blood cell, red blood cell, and neutrophil counts, and improving the lymphocyte. It also promoted immune system recovery, as evidenced by elevated serum levels of IL-2, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-1β in mice. GRS is a natural compound with promising potential for developing antioxidants and immunomodulatory foods.

Recent trends in ginseng research

Ginseng, the dried root of Panax ginseng, contains ginsenosides and has long been used in Korea, China, and Japan to treat various symptoms. Many studies on the utility of ginseng have been conducted and in this paper we investigate recent trends in ginseng research. P. ginseng studies were collected from scientific databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and SciFindern) using the keywords "Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer", "ginsenosides", "genetic diversity", "biosynthesis", "cultivation", and "pharmacology". We identified 1208 studies up to and including September 2023: 549 studies on pharmacology, 262 studies on chemical components, 131 studies on molecular biology, 58 studies on cultivation, 71 studies on tissue culture, 28 studies on clinical trials, 123 reviews, and 49 studies in other fields. Many researchers focused on the characteristic ginseng component ginsenoside to elucidate the mechanism of ginseng's pharmacological action, the relationship between component patterns and cultivation areas and conditions, and gene expression.

Effects of enzymatic hydrolysis technology on the physicochemical properties and biological activities of American ginseng beverages

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) contains various biological macromolecules, such as polysaccharides, saponins, and proteins, which have various pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic effects. Consequently, the utilization of novel processing technologies developed an American ginseng beverage to meet people's health needs and the preferences of young people. This study was the first to use American ginseng as a primary raw material, utilizing a three-step enzymatic hydrolysis approach with cellulase, pectinase, amylase, maltase, and flavor protease enzymes to prepare an American ginseng beverage. The basic nutritional and active ingredient contents of the product were determined. The antioxidant activity of enzymatic beverages was evaluated by calculating the free radical clearance rates of DPPH and ABTS, and the effect of enzymatic beverages on α-glucosidase activity was also tested. The anti-inflammatory activity of RAW264.7 cells induced by LPS was evaluated by measuring the production of NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 during the enzymatic hydrolysis process. The results indicated that the nutritional components of American ginseng beverage products met the beverage industry standards. Moreover, the application of enzymatic hydrolysis technology had improved the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of American ginseng beverages. In addition, the enzymatic beverage of American ginseng exhibited certain hypoglycemic activity. Consequently, the established enzymatic hydrolysis technology provided a reference for the production of other beverage products.

Investigation of the material basis and mechanism of Lizhong decoction in ameliorating ulcerative colitis based on spectrum-effect relationship and network pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Lizhong decoction (LZD), a classical herbal prescription recorded by Zhang Zhongjing in Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, has been extensively used to treat ulcerative colitis (UC) in clinical practice for thousands of years. However, its material basis and underlying mechanism are not yet clear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to explore the material basis and potential mechanism of LZD against UC based on the spectrum-effect relationship and network pharmacology.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

First, LZD was extracted by a systematic solvent extraction method into four parts. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) technique was used to identify the compounds from different polar parts, and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis model was used to evaluate the efficacy of each fraction. Then, the spectrum-effect analyses of compounds and efficacy indicators were established via grey relational analysis (GRA), bivariate correlation analysis (BCA) and partial least squares regression (PLSR). Finally, the potential mechanism of LZD for UC therapy was explored by network pharmacology, and the results were further verified by molecular docking and reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR).

RESULTS

66 chemical components of LZD were identified by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS technology. The pharmacodynamic results showed that extraction parts of LZD had different therapeutic effects on UC, among which ethyl acetate and n-butanol extracts had significant anti-colitis effects, which might be the main effective fractions of LZD. Furthermore, the spectrum-effect analyses indicated that 21 active ingredients such as liquiritin apioside, neolicuroside, formononetin, ginsenoside Rg1, 6-gingesulfonic acid, licoricesaponin A3, liquiritin, glycyrrhizic acid were the main material basis for LZD improving UC. Based on the above results, network pharmacology suggested that the amelioration of LZD on UC might be closely related to the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Additionally, molecular docking technology and RT-qPCR further verified that LZD could markedly inhibit the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our study first identified the chemical compositions of LZD by using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS. Furthermore, the material basis and potential mechanism of LZD in improving UC were comprehensively elucidated via spectrum-effect relationships, network pharmacology, molecular docking and experimental verification. The proposed strategy provided a systematic approach for exploring how herbal medicines worked. More importantly, it laid the solid foundation for further clinical application and rational development of LZD.

Effects of saponins Rb1 and Re in American ginseng combined intervention on immune system of aging model

Aging is a major risk factor for the development of many pathological processes, such as reduced immunity, cancer, cardiovascular diseases or neurodegenerative diseases, while age-related chronic diseases are the most common causes of death. This paper studies the effects of American ginseng saponin Rb1 and Re alone and combined intervention on the immune system of aging mouse models, by using 30 mg/kg Rb1, 15 mg/kg Re, and Rb1 + Re (30 mg/kg Rb1 and 15 mg/kg Re (co-intervention) was used to intervene in the aging model, and immune indicators such as thymus index, spleen index, interleukin and interferon were detected to evaluate the impact of Rb1 and Re on immune function. The results show that Rb1 and Re intervention alone can increase the spleen index by 7%-12% and the thymus index by 12%-19% in the aging model. After Rb1 or Re alone intervened, the apoptotic cells in the thymus were slightly reduced, and the proportion of apoptotic cells was reduced. The combination of Rb1 + Re can promote the thymus index and spleen index to increase by 23.40% and 25.5% respectively, which is more advantageous than Rb1 or Re alone. In addition, Rb1 and Re intervention can reduce the level of interferon INF to a level comparable to that of young mice. Rb1 + Re can not only reduce the INF content, but also reduce the TNF content. The above results show that American ginseng saponin Rb1 and Re can delay the decline of the immune system in the aging model, and the combined intervention of the two is significantly better than individual intervention in the recovery of the immune system. This paper can provide theoretical basis and data support for the development of American ginseng nutritional supplements and its application in aging groups products to improve immunity.

Sustainable production of natural products using synthetic biology: Ginsenosides

Synthetic biology approaches offer potential for large-scale and sustainable production of natural products with bioactive potency, including ginsenosides, providing a means to produce novel compounds with enhanced therapeutic properties. Ginseng, known for its non-toxic and potent qualities in traditional medicine, has been used for various medical needs. Ginseng has shown promise for its antioxidant and neuroprotective properties, and it has been used as a potential agent to boost immunity against various infections when used together with other drugs and vaccines. Given the increasing demand for ginsenosides and the challenges associated with traditional extraction methods, synthetic biology holds promise in the development of therapeutics. In this review, we discuss recent developments in microorganism producer engineering and ginsenoside production in microorganisms using synthetic biology approaches.

Ginseng in white and red processed forms: Ginsenosides and cardiac side effects

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) has long been consumed as a medicinal or functional food in East Asia. It is available as dried white ginseng (WG) and steamed red ginseng (RG), which might differ in ginsenoside profiles. We compared ginsenoside types of RG and WG using UPLC-MS/MS and evaluated how they biologically affected heart of healthy rats by recording electrocardiography, measuring biochemical indicators, analyzing cardiac tissue slides, and Ca2+ signaling pathways. About 25 and 29 ginsenosides were detected in WG and RG, respectively, and the total ginsenoside content of RG contained was nearly 1.8 times higher than that of WG. Among them, ginsenoside Rg4, ginsenoside Rg6, ginsenoside Rh4, ginsenoside Rk1, ginsenoside Rg5, and protopanaxadiol were detected only in RG, while 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg2 was detected only in WG. Male SD rats treated by intraperitoneal injection of WG or RG extracts were similar to the control in terms of electrocardiography and heart histology, indicating that both may not significantly affect the rats' myocardial function. However, WG and RG may induce mild cardiac injury resulting in increased cardiac collagen and creatine kinase levels. In addition, upregulated p-CaMKII and PPARδ and downregulated SERCA2a for WG and RG treatments were further associated with increased cardiac contractility. In general, RG had less effect on the heart of healthy rats than WG, which may be due to RG having a high proportion of low-polar ginsenosides.

Pharmacological potential of ginseng and ginsenosides in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a chronic liver disease characterized by hepatic fat accumulation, while nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is an advanced form of NAFLD characterized by hepatic inflammation, fibrosis, and liver injury, resulting in liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Given the evidence that ginseng and its major bioactive components, ginsenosides, have potent anti-adipogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and anti-fibrogenic effects, the pharmacological effect of ginseng and ginsenosides on NAFLD and NASH is noteworthy. Furthermore, numerous studies have successfully demonstrated the protective effect of ginseng on these diseases, as well as the underlying mechanisms in animal disease models and cells, such as hepatocytes and macrophages. This review discusses recent studies that explore the pharmacological roles of ginseng and ginsenosides in NAFLD and NASH and highlights their potential as agents to prevent and treat NAFLD, NASH, and liver diseases caused by hepatic steatosis and inflammation.

Ginsenoside - a promising natural active ingredient with steroidal hormone activity

Ginsenosides are a class of natural products with hormone-like activity of triterpenoid saponins and have a variety of pharmacological activities such as anti-aging, immune regulation and cognitive improvement. With the great research interest in alternative medicine and natural products, they are gradually becoming research hotspots. Ginsenosides have a four-ring rigid steroid backbone similar to steroid hormones, and a series of experimental studies have shown that they can exhibit hormone-like activity by binding to nuclear receptors or affecting hormone levels, thereby affecting a wide range of inflammatory conditions, cancers, and menopause-related diseases. This review summarizes the mechanisms and potential health effects of ginsenosides exhibiting estrogen-like, glucocorticoid-like and androgen-like activities, providing an important reference for the exploration of safe phytohormone replacement therapy.

Increased Accumulation of Ginsenosides in Panax ginseng Sprouts Cultivated with Kelp Fermentates

Currently, new agri-tech has been developed and adapted for the cultivation of crops using smart farming technologies, e.g., plant factories and hydroponics. Kelp (Laminaria japonica), which has a high industrial value, was considered as an alternative to chemicals for its eco-friendly and sustainably wide use in crop cultivation. In this study, a fermented kelp (FK) was developed for use in hydroponics. The FK contained various free and protein-bound amino acid compositions produced by fermenting the kelp with Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Supplementing FK as an aeroponic medium when cultivating ginseng sprouts (GSs) elevated the total phenolic and flavonoid contents. Additionally, seven ginsenosides (Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rg2, Rb2, and Rd) in GSs cultivated with FK in a smart-farm system were identified and quantified by a high-performance liquid chromatography-evaporative light scattering detector/mass spectrometry analysis. Administering FK significantly increased the ginsenosides in the GSs compared to the control group, which was cultivated with tap water. These results indicate the FK administration contributed to the increased accumulation of ginsenosides in the GSs. Overall, this study suggests that FK, which contains abundant nutrients for plant growth, can be used as a novel nutrient solution to enhance the ginsenoside content in GSs during hydroponic cultivation.

Saponins derived from Gynostemma pentaphyllum regulate triglyceride and cholesterol metabolism and the mechanisms: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino (G. pentaphyllum) can be used for both medicinal and tea and has lipid-lowering properties. Modern research has shown that its main bioactive components are flavonoids and saponins. It has many beneficial effects such as hypolipidemic, anti-cancer, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This review aimed to summarize its anti-glycolipid metabolic models and mechanisms are reviewed to facilitate a deeper understanding of the mechanism in lowering lipids.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information related to lipid lowering in G. pentaphyllum was collated by reviewing the relevant literature in the PubMed database from 1985 to 2023.

RESULTS

Only 101 G. pentaphyllum compounds have been initially explored for their hypolipidemic activity. There are cell models, animal models and human subjects for lipid-lowering of it. It reduced triglyceride level via PPAR/UCP-1/PGC-1α/PRDM16 and (SREBP-1c)-ACC/FAS-CPT1 signal pathways. Cholesterol-lowering effects via (SREBP-2)-HMGCR, PCSK9-LDLR and bile acid biosynthetic pathways. Activation of adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a key factor in the regulation of glycolipid metabolism in G. pentaphyllum. Other pathways of action of G. pentaphyllum in regulating glucolipid metabolism are also discussed in this paper.

CONCLUSION

To date, more than 328 saponins have been isolated and identified in Gynostemma. Further studies on these components, including molecular mechanisms and in vivo metabolic regulation, need to be further confirmed. G. pentaphyllum has the potential to be developed into drugs or functional foods, but further research is needed.

Genome-wide identification and integrated analysis of TCP genes controlling ginsenoside biosynthesis in Panax ginseng

Panax ginseng is an important medicinal plant, and ginsenosides are the main bioactive molecules of ginseng. The TCP (TBI, CYC, PCF) family is a group of transcription factors (TFs) that play an important role in plant growth and development, hormone signalling and synthesis of secondary metabolites. In our study, 78 PgTCP transcripts were identified from the established ginseng transcriptome database. A phylogenetic tree analysis showed that the 67 PgTCP transcripts with complete open reading frames were classified into three subfamilies, including CIN, PCF, and CYC/TB1. Protein structure analysis showed that PgTCP genes had bHLH structures. Chromosomal localization analysis showed that 63 PgTCP genes were localized on 17 of the 24 chromosomes of the Chinese ginseng genome. Expression pattern analysis showed that PgTCP genes differed among different lineages and were spatiotemporally specific. Coexpression network analysis indicated that PgTCP genes were coexpressed and involved in plant activities or metabolic regulation in ginseng. The expression levels of PgTCP genes from class I (PCF) were significantly downregulated, while the expression levels of PgTCP genes from class II (CIN and CYC/TB1) were upregulated, suggesting that TCP genes may be involved in the regulation of secondary metabolism in ginseng. As the PgTCP26-02 gene was found to be related to ginsenoside synthesis, its predicted protein structure and expression pattern were further analysed. Our results provide new insights into the origin, differentiation, evolution and function of the PgTCP gene family in ginseng, as well as the regulation of plant secondary metabolism.

Exploring 3-O-glycosylations of 20(R)-dammarane ginsenosides and the catalytic mechanism underlying the stereoselectivity with the combined assistance of AlphaFold 2 and molecular docking

Glycosylation at C3-OH is the favorable modification for pharmaceutical activities and diversity expansion of 20(R)-dammarane ginsenosides. The 3-O-glycosylation, exclusively occurring in 20(R)-PPD ginsenosides, has never been achieved in 20(R)-PPT ginsenosides. Herein, 3-O-glycosylation of 20(R)-PPT enabled by a glycosyltransferase (GT) OsSGT2 was achieved with the combined assistance of AlphaFold 2 and molecular docking. Firstly, we combined AlphaFold2 algorithm and molecular docking to predict interactions between 20(R)-PPT and candidate GTs. A catalytically favorable binding geometry was thus identified in the OsSGT2-20(R)-PPT complex, suggesting OsSGT2 might act on 20(R)-PPT. The enzymatic assays demonstrated that OsSGT2 reacted with varied sugar donors to form 20(R)-PPT 3-O-glycosides, exhibiting donor promiscuity. Additionally, OsSGT2 displayed acceptor promiscuity, catalyzing 3-O-glucosylation of 20(R/S)-PPT, 20(R/S)-PPD and 20(R/S)-Rh1, respectively. Protein engineering on OsSGT2 was thus performed to probe its catalytic mechanism underlying its stereoselectivity. The W207A mutant preferred 20(S)-dammarane aglycons, while F395Q/A396G(QG) displayed a conversion enhancement towards both 20(R/S)-dammarane aglycons. The QG mutant was then used to synthesize 20(R)-PPT 3-O-glucoside, which displayed a moderate angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory effect with an IC50 of 27.5 ± 4.7 μM, superior to that of its 20(S)-epimer, with the combined assistance of target fishing and reverse docking. The water solubility of 20(R)-PPT 3-O-glucoside increased as well.

Active Compounds of Panax ginseng in the Improvement of Alzheimer's Disease and Application of Spatial Metabolomics

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (P. ginseng) is one of the more common traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). It contains numerous chemical components and exhibits a range of pharmacological effects. An enormous burden is placed on people's health and life by Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative condition. Recent research has shown that P. ginseng's chemical constituents, particularly ginsenosides, have a significant beneficial impact on the prevention and management of neurological disorders. To understand the current status of research on P. ginseng to improve AD, this paper discusses the composition of P. ginseng, its mechanism of action, and its clinical application. The pathogenesis of AD includes amyloid beta protein (Aβ) generation and aggregation, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, oxidant stress, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial damage, and neurotransmitter and gut microbiota disorders. This review presents the key molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways of the active ingredients in P. ginseng involved in improving AD from the perspective of AD pathogenesis. A P. ginseng-related signaling pathway network was constructed to provide effective targets for the treatment of AD. In addition, the application of spatial metabolomics techniques in studying P. ginseng and AD is discussed. In summary, this paper discusses research perspectives for the study of P. ginseng in the treatment of AD, including a systematic and in-depth review of the mechanisms of action of the active substances in P. ginseng, and evaluates the feasibility of applying spatial metabolomics in the study of AD pathogenesis and pharmacological treatment.

Unlocking Prognostic Genes and Multi-Targeted Therapeutic Bioactives from Herbal Medicines to Combat Cancer-Associated Cachexia: A Transcriptomics and Network Pharmacology Approach

Cachexia is a devastating fat tissue and muscle wasting syndrome associated with every major chronic illness, including cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, kidney disease, AIDS, and heart failure. Despite two decades of intense research, cachexia remains under-recognized by oncologists. While numerous drug candidates have been proposed for cachexia treatment, none have achieved clinical success. Only a few drugs are approved by the FDA for cachexia therapy, but a very low success rate is observed among patients. Currently, the identification of drugs from herbal medicines is a frontier research area for many diseases. In this milieu, network pharmacology, transcriptomics, cheminformatics, and molecular docking approaches were used to identify potential bioactive compounds from herbal medicines for the treatment of cancer-related cachexia. The network pharmacology approach is used to select the 32 unique genes from 238 genes involved in cachexia-related pathways, which are targeted by 34 phytocompounds identified from 12 different herbal medicines used for the treatment of muscle wasting in many countries. Gene expression profiling and functional enrichment analysis are applied to decipher the role of unique genes in cancer-associated cachexia pathways. In addition, the pharmacological properties and molecular interactions of the phytocompounds were analyzed to find the target compounds for cachexia therapy. Altogether, combined omics and network pharmacology approaches were used in the current study to untangle the complex prognostic genes involved in cachexia and phytocompounds with anti-cachectic efficacy. However, further functional and experimental validations are required to confirm the efficacy of these phytocompounds as commercial drug candidates for cancer-associated cachexia.

Research Progress on Effects of Ginsenoside Rg2 and Rh1 on Nervous System and Related Mechanisms

Neurological-related disorders are diseases that affect the body's neurons or peripheral nerve tissue, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The development of neurological disorders can cause serious harm to the quality of life and functioning of the patient. The use of traditional therapeutic agents such as dopamine-promoting drugs, anticholinergic drugs, cholinesterase inhibitors, and NMDA receptor antagonists is often accompanied by a series of side effects such as drug resistance, cardiac arrhythmia, liver function abnormalities, and blurred vision. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find a therapeutic drug with a high safety profile and few side effects. Herbal medicines are rich in active ingredients that are natural macromolecules. Ginsenoside is the main active ingredient of ginseng, which has a variety of pharmacological effects and is considered to have potential value in the treatment of human diseases. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that ginsenosides Rg2 and Rh1 have strong pharmacological activities in the nervous system, with protective effects on nerve cells, improved resistance to neuronal injury, modulation of neural activity, resistance to cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, improvement of brain damage after eclampsia hemorrhage, improvement of memory and cognitive deficits, treatment of AD and vascular dementia, alleviation of anxiety, pain, and inhibition of ionic-like behavior. In this article, we searched the pharmacological research literature of Rg2 and Rh1 in the field of neurological diseases, summarized the latest research progress of the two ginsenosides, and reviewed the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of Rg2 and Rh1, which provided a new way of thinking for the research of the active ingredients in ginseng anti-neurological diseases and the development of new drugs.

Neuroprotective Effects of Dammarane Sapogenins Against lipopolysaccharide-induced Cognitive Impairment, Neuroinflammation and Synaptic Dysfunction

Neuroinflammation is a critical driver in the pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative disorders. Dammarane sapogenins (DS), a deglycosylated product of ginsenoside, possess a variety of potent biological activities. The present study aimed to explore the neuroprotective effects of DS in a rat model of neuroinflammation induced by intracerebroventricular injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Our study revealed that DS pretreatment effectively improved LPS-induced associative learning and memory impairments in the active avoidance response test and spatial learning and memory in Morris water maze test. DS also remarkably inhibited LPS-induced neuroinflammation by suppressing microglia overactivation, pro-inflammatory cytok ine release (TNF-α and IL-1β) and reducing neuronal loss in the CA1 and DG regions of the hippocampus. Importantly, pretreatment with DS reversed LPS-induced upregulation of HMGB1 and TLR4 and inhibited their downstream NF-κB signaling activation, as evidenced by increased IκBα and decreased p-NF-κB p65 levels. Furthermore, DS ameliorated LPS-induced synaptic dysfunction by decreasing MMP-9 and increasing NMDAR1 expression in the hippocampus. Taken together, this study suggests that DS could be a promising treatment for preventing cognitive impairments caused by neuroinflammation.

Biotransformation of American Ginseng Stems and Leaves by an Endophytic Fungus Umbelopsis sp. and Its Effect on Alzheimer's Disease Control

BACKGROUND

Common ginsenosides can be transformed into rare ginsenosides through microbial fermentation, and some rare ginsenosides can prevent Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study aimed to transform common ginsenosides into rare ginsenosides through solid-state fermentation of American ginseng stems and leaves (AGSL) by an endophytic fungus and to explore whether fermented saponin extracts prevent AD.

METHODS

The powders of AGSL were fermented in a solid state by endophytic fungus. Total saponins were extracted from fermentation products using the methanol extraction method. The types of saponins were analyzed by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS). The Aβ42 concentration and β-secretase activity were measured by ELISA for the prevention of AD.

RESULTS

After AGSL was fermented by an endophytic fungus NSJG, the total saponin concentration of the fermented extract G-SL was higher than the unfermented CK-SL. Rare ginsenoside Rh1 was newly produced and the yield of compound K (561.79%), Rh2 (77.48%), and F2 (40.89%) was increased in G-SL. G-SL had a higher inhibition rate on Aβ42 concentration (42.75%) and β-secretase activity (42.22%) than CK-SL, possibly because the rare ginsenoside Rh1, Rh2, F2, and compound K included in it have a strong inhibitory effect on AD.

CONCLUSION

The fermented saponin extracts of AGSL show more inhibition effects on AD and may be promising therapeutic drugs or nutrients for AD.

Amino Acid Derivatives of Ginsenoside AD-2 Induce HepG2 Cell Apoptosis by Affecting the Cytoskeleton

AD-2 (20(R)-dammarane-3β, 12β, 20, 25-tetrol, 25-OH-PPD) was structurally modified to introduce additional amino groups, which can better exert its anti-tumor effects in MCF-7, A549, LoVo, HCT-116, HT -29, and U-87 cell lines. We investigated the cellular activity of 15 different AD-2 amino acid derivatives on HepG2 cells and the possible mechanism of action of the superior derivative 6b. An MTT assay was used to detect the cytotoxicity of the derivatives. Western blotting was used to study the signaling pathways. Flow cytometry was used to detect cell apoptosis and ghost pen peptide staining was used to identify the changes in the cytoskeleton. The AD-2 amino acid derivatives have a better cytotoxic effect on the HepG2 cells than AD-2, which may be achieved by promoting the apoptosis of HepG2 cells and influencing the cytoskeleton. The derivative 6b shows obvious anti-HepG2 cells activity through affecting the expression of apoptotic proteins such as MDM2, P-p53, Bcl-2, Bax, Caspase 3, Cleaved Caspase 3, Caspase 8, and NSD2. According to the above findings, the amino acid derivatives of AD-2 may be developed as HepG2 cytotoxic therapeutic drugs.

Metabolomics approach to growth-age discrimination in mountain-cultivated ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Mountain-cultivated ginseng is typically harvested after 10 years, while ginseng aged over 15 years is considered wild ginseng. This study aims to differentiate mountain-cultivated ginseng by age, as the fraudulent practice of selling low-aged cultivated ginseng disguised as high-aged one is damaging the market. In this study, LC-MS analyzed 98 ginseng samples, and multivariate statistical analysis identified patterns between samples to select influential components. Machine learning models were developed to identify ginseng samples of different ages. The untargeted metabolomic analysis clearly divided samples aged 4-20 years into three age groups. Twenty-two potential age-dependent biomarkers were discovered to differentiate the three sample groups. Three machine learning models were used to predict new samples, and the optimal model was selected. Some biomarkers could determine age phases according to the differentiation of mountain-cultivated ginseng samples. These biomarkers were thoroughly analyzed for variation trends. The machine learning models established using the screened biomarkers successfully predicted the age group of new samples.

The anti-aging mechanism of ginsenosides with medicine and food homology

With the acceleration of global aging and the rise in living standards, the achievement of healthy aging is becoming an imperative issue globally. Ginseng, a medicinal plant that has a long history of dietary intake and remarkable medicinal value, has become a research hotspot in the field of food and medicine. Ginsenosides, especially protopanaxadiol-type saponins and protopanaxatriol-type saponins, are among the most important active ingredients in ginseng. Ginsenosides have been found to exhibit powerful and diverse pharmacological activities, such as antiaging, antitumor, antifatigue and immunity enhancement activities. Their effects in antiaging mainly include (1) promotion of metabolism and stem cell proliferation, (2) protection of skin and nerves, (3) modulation of intestinal flora, (4) maintenance of mitochondrial function, and (5) enhancement of telomerase activity. The underlying mechanisms are primarily associated with the intervention of the signaling pathways in apoptosis, inflammation and oxidative stress. In this review, the mechanism of action of ginsenosides in antiaging as well as the potential values of developing ginsenoside-based functional foods and antiaging drugs are discussed.

Ginsenosides in endometrium-related diseases: Emerging roles and mechanisms

Ginsenosides, agents extracted from an important herb (ginseng), are expected to provide new therapies for endometrium-related diseases. Based on the molecular types of ginsenosides, we reviewed the main pharmacological effects of ginsenosides against endometrium-related diseases (e.g., endometrial cancers, endometriosis, and endometritis). The mechanism of action of ginsenosides involves inducing apoptosis of endometrium-related cells, promoting autophagy of endometrium-related cells, regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in endometrium-related cells, and activating the immune system to kill cells associated with endometrial diseases. We hope to provide a theoretical foundation for the treatment of endometrium-related diseases by ginsenosides.

Optimization of Fermentation Conditions and Product Identification of a Saponin-Producing Endophytic Fungus

BACKGROUND

Some fungal endophytes isolated from P. ginseng may present a new method of obtaining saponins. This experiment aimed to optimize the total saponin yield produced through in vitro fermentation by an endophytic fungus and analyze its saponin species in the fermented extract.

METHODS

Fermentation protocols were optimized with a uniform design and verified through regression analysis to maximize the total saponin yield. The saponin types under optimal fermentation conditions were then identified and analyzed using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.

RESULTS

The Trametes versicolor strain NSJ105 (gene accession number: OR144428) isolated from wild ginseng could produce total saponins. The total saponin yield could be increased more than two-fold through the optimization of fermentation conditions. The concentration of the total saponins achieved by the verified protocol 105-DP was close to the predicted value. The fermentation conditions of the 105-DP protocol were as follows: potato concentration 97.3 mg/mL, glucose concentration 20.6 mg/mL, inoculum volume 2.1%, fermentation broth pH 2.1, fermentation temperature 29.2 °C, and fermentation time 6 d. It was detected and analyzed that the fermented extract of 105-DP contained the ginsenosides Rf and Rb3.

CONCLUSION

The endophytic fungus Trametes versicolor strain NSJ105 has potential application value in saponin production.

Evolutionary roles of polyploidization-derived structural variations in the phenotypic diversification of Panax species

Genomic structural variations (SVs) are widespread in plant and animal genomes and play important roles in phenotypic novelty and species adaptation. Frequent whole genome duplications followed by (re)diploidizations have resulted in high diversity of genome architecture among extant species. In this study, we identified abundant genomic SVs in the Panax genus that are hypothesized to have occurred through during the repeated polyploidizations/(re)diploidizations. Our genome-wide comparisons demonstrated that although these polyploidization-derived SVs have evolved at distinct evolutionary stages, a large number of SV-intersecting genes showed enrichment in functionally important pathways related to secondary metabolites, photosynthesis and basic cellular activities. In line with these observations, our metabolic analyses of these Panax species revealed high diversity of primary and secondary metabolites both at the tissue and interspecific levels. In particular, genomic SVs identified at ginsenoside biosynthesis genes, including copy number variation and large fragment deletion, appear to have played important roles in the evolution and diversification of ginsenosides. A further herbivore deterrence experiment demonstrated that, as major triterpenoidal saponins found exclusively in Panax, ginsenosides provide protection against insect herbivores. Our study provides new insights on how polyploidization-derived SVs have contributed to phenotypic novelty and plant adaptation.

Advances in the biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides

Rare ginsenosides are the deglycosylated secondary metabolic derivatives of major ginsenosides, and they are more readily absorbed into the bloodstream and function as active substances. The traditional preparation methods hindered the potential application of these effective components. The continuous elucidation of ginsenoside biosynthesis pathways has rendered the production of rare ginsenosides using synthetic biology techniques effective for their large-scale production. Previously, only the progress in the biosynthesis and biotechnological production of major ginsenosides was highlighted. In this review, we summarized the recent advances in the identification of key enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of rare ginsenosides, especially the glycosyltransferases (GTs). Then the construction of microbial chassis for the production of rare ginsenosides, mainly in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was presented. In the future, discovery of more GTs and improving their catalytic efficiencies are essential for the metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides. This review will give more clues and be helpful for the characterization of the biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides. KEY POINTS: • The key enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of rare ginsenosides are summarized. • The recent progress in metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides is presented. • The discovery of glycosyltransferases is essential for the microbial production of rare ginsenosides in the future.

β-Glucosidase and Its Application in Bioconversion of Ginsenosides in Panax ginseng

Ginsenosides are a group of bioactive compounds isolated from Panax ginseng. Conventional major ginsenosides have a long history of use in traditional medicine for both illness prevention and therapy. Bioconversion processes have the potential to create new and valuable products in pharmaceutical and biological activities, making them both critical for research and highly economic to implement. This has led to an increase in the number of studies that use major ginsenosides as a precursor to generate minor ones using β-glucosidase. Minor ginsenosides may also have useful properties but are difficult to isolate from raw ginseng because of their scarcity. Bioconversion processes have the potential to create novel minor ginsenosides from the more abundant major ginsenoside precursors in a cost-effective manner. While numerous bioconversion techniques have been developed, an increasing number of studies have reported that β-glucosidase can effectively and specifically generate minor ginsenosides. This paper summarizes the probable bioconversion mechanisms of two protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT) types. Other high-efficiency and high-value bioconversion processes using complete proteins isolated from bacterial biomass or recombinant enzymes are also discussed in this article. This paper also discusses the various conversion and analysis methods and their potential applications. Overall, this paper offers theoretical and technical foundations for future studies that will be both scientifically and economically significant.

Two new dammarane-type ginsenosides from Panax ginseng

Two new dammarane-type ginsenosides elucidated as 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-20-O-[α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-20(S)-protopanaxadiol, named Ginsenoside Rb6(2); (Z)-6-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-dammar-20(22), 24-diene-3β, 6α, 12β-triol, named (20Z)-Ginsenoside Rh4 (4); along with five known ginsenosides(1, 3, 5, 6, 7) were isolated from the radix and rhizome of wild ginseng (Panax ginseng). The structures were determined by chemical and comprehensive spectroscopic analysis, including 1D, 2D NMR, HR-ESI-MS and hydrolysis reaction.

A Focused Review on Molecular Signalling Mechanisms of Ginsenosides Anti-Lung Cancer and Anti-inflammatory Activities

BACKGROUND

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a cultivated medicinal herb that has been widely available in the Asian region since the last century. Ginseng root is used worldwide in Oriental medicine. Currently, the global mortality and infection rates for lung cancer and inflammation are significantly increasing. Therefore, various preventative methods related to the activity of ginsenosides have been used for lung cancer as well as inflammation.

METHODS

Web-based searches were performed on Web of Science, Springer, PubMed, and Scopus. A cancer statistical analysis was also conducted to show the current ratio of affected cases and death from lung cancer around the world.

RESULTS

Ginsenosides regulate the enzymes that participate in tumor growth and migration, such as nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), extracellular signalregulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2), the gelatinase network metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2/9) and activator protein 1 (AP-1). In addition, ginsenosides also possess anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the formation of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α) (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and controlling the activities of inflammatory signalling pathways, such as NF-κB, Janus kinase2/signal transducer, and activator of transcription 3 (Jak2/Stat3).

CONCLUSION

In several in vitro and in vivo models, P. ginseng showed potential beneficial effects in lung cancer and inflammation treatment. In this review, we provide a detailed and up-to-date summary of research evidence for antilung cancer and anti-inflammatory protective effects of ginsenosides and their potential molecular mechanisms.

Characterization of ginsenoside structural isomers from mixtures using in situ methylation with direct analysis in real-time ionization tandem mass spectrometry

Characterization of structural isomers of bioactive molecules is important for recognizing their functions, but it has been challenging due to their highly similar structures. As the main bioactive constituents of Panax ginseng, ginsenosides have different structural isomers attributed to the aglycone structure and glycosylation sites as well as stereochemistry of sugar groups attached. This work demonstrated a simple and robust in situ methylation reaction with tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) using ambient ionization source of direct analysis in real time (DART) to characterize saponin structural isomers. The DART ion source provides favorable conditions to methylate hydroxyl groups of ginsenoside instantaneously with TMAH, and it can ionize the methylated products at the same time. Methylated ginsenoside stereoisomers even with subtle structure differences generated very different mass signals from full-scan MS and tandem MS. High-resolution mass spectrometry aided the assignment of molecular structures of the various precursor and fragment ions from different ginsenosides, which provided structural information for both the aglycone skeleton and the sugar moieties in ginsenosides. The presented method was successfully used for the identification of ginsenosides in Panax ginseng, and saponin isomers were characterized without the need for chromatographic separation and/or tedious offline sample pretreatment.

Production of ginsenoside compound K by microbial cell factory using synthetic biology-based strategy: a review

Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is a major intestinal bacterial metabolite of the protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside family that can be absorbed in the systemic circulation. CK possesses diverse and important pharmacological properties. The low production and high cost of traditional manufacturing methods based on the extraction and biotransformation of total ginsenosides from ginseng have limited their medical application. However, considerable progress has been made in the area of de novo CK production via microbial cell factories using synthetic biology-based strategies. By introducing key enzymes responsible for CK biosynthesis into microbial cells, CK was produced via a series of in vivo enzymatic reactions that utilize the inherent precursors in microbial cells. After systematic optimization using various metabolic engineering strategies, the yield of CK increased significantly and exceeded the traditional plant extraction-biotransformation method, implying the commercial feasibility of this approach. This review summarizes recent novel advancements in the production of CK using microbial cell factories.

In-vitro evaluation of immunomodulatory activity of sulphation-modified total ginsenosides derivative-3

Background

Ginseng has been used in biomedicine to prevent and treat decreased physical and mental capacities. Total ginsenosides (TG) from ginseng root which have antitumor and immune-enhancing properties, are the principal active components of Panax ginseng, while the sulphation-modified TG derivative-3 (SMTG-d3) was expected to enhance the anticancer activity in conventional medicinal treatments.

Methods

The chlorosulphonic acid-pyridine technique, used for the sulfation modification of TG to improve their biological activity, and the infrared spectroscopic characteristics of TG and SMTG-d3 were investigated, and the effects of SMTG-d3 on immunocytes and cytokines relevant to tumor treatment were assessed. The MTT assay was used to assess the effect of TG and SMTG-d3 on the cytotoxicity and T-lymphocytic proliferation against mouse splenocytes. The LDH method was employed to evaluate NK activity induced by TG or SMTG-d3. The production levels of splenocytes-secreted IL-2 and IFN-γ and peritoneal macrophages-secreted TNF-α were determined using mouse ELISA kits.

Results and discussion

It showed that the ideal conditions for the sulfation modification of TG: the volume ratio of chlorosulfonic acid to pyridine lower than 1:2.5; controlled amount of chlorosulfonic acid; and a yield of 51.5% SMTG-d3 (2 h, < 45°C). SMTG-d3 showed two characteristic absorption peaks at 1,230 cm^-1 and 810 cm^-1, indicating the formation of sulfuric acid esters and the presence of sulfuric acid groups. SMTG-d3 exhibited higher antitumor immunological activity than TG by promoting the proliferation of T lymphocytes and the production of IFN-γ and TNF-α, thus enhancing NK cell activity, and reducing cytotoxicity. The findings imply sulfated modification represents an effective method of enhancing the immunomodulatory activities of TG and could be used as the basis for developing new drug target compounds; SMTG-d3 can serve as an antitumor immunomodulator and can be considered an effective and prospective herbal formulation in clinical applications.

Hydroponic Ginseng ROOT Mediated with CMC Polymer-Coated Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Cellular Apoptosis via Downregulation of BCL-2 Gene Expression in A549 Lung Cancer Cell Line

The unique and tailorable physicochemical features of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) synthesized from green sources make them attractive for use in cancer treatment. Hydroponic-cultured ginseng-root-synthesized ZnO-NPs (HGRCm-ZnO NPs) were coated with O-carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) polymer, which stabilized and enhanced the biological efficacy of the nanoparticles. Nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV-Vis spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The flower-shaped nanoparticles were crystalline in nature with a particle size of 28 nm. To evaluate if these NPs had anti-lung cancer activity, analysis was performed on a human lung carcinoma cell line (A549). HGRCm-ZnO nanoparticles showed less toxicity to normal keratinocytes (HaCaTs), at concentrations up to 20 µg/mL, than A549 cancer cells. Additionally, these NPs showed dose-dependent colony formation and cell migration inhibition ability, which makes them more promising for lung cancer treatment. Additionally, Hoechst and propidium iodide dye staining also confirmed that the NP formulation had apoptotic activity in cancer cells. Further, to evaluate the mechanism of cancer cell death via checking the gene expression, HGRCm ZnO NPs upregulated the BAX and Caspase 3 and 9 expression levels but downregulated Bcl-2 expression, indicating that the nanoformulation induced mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis. Moreover, these preliminary results suggest that HGRCm ZnO NPs can be a potential candidate for future lung cancer treatment.

Shengmai san-derived compound prescriptions: A review on chemical constituents, pharmacokinetic studies, quality control, and pharmacological properties

BACKGROUND

Shengmai San Formula (SMS), composed of Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Ophiopogon Radix and Schisandra chinensis Fructus, was a famous formula in Tradition Chinese Medicine (TCM). With the expansion of clinical applications, SMS was developed to different dosage forms, including Shengmai Yin Oral liquid (SMY), Shengmai Capsule (SMC), Shengmai Granule (SMG), Shengmai Injection (SMI) and Dengzhan Shengmai Capsule (DZSMC). These above SMS-derived compound prescriptions (SSCPs) play an important role in the clinical treatment. This review is aimed to providing a comprehensive perspective of SSCP.

METHODS

The relevant literatures were collected from classical TCM books and a variety of databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Springer Link, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang Data.

RESULTS

The chemical constituents of SSCPs, arrived from the individual medicinal materials including Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Ophiopogon Radix, Schisandra chinensis Fructus, Erigerontis Herba, were firstly summarized respectively. Then the pharmacokinetics studies, quality control, and pharmacological properties of SSCPs were all reviewed. The active compounds, pharmacokinetics characterizes, quality control markers, the effects and mechanisms of pharmacology of the different dosage forms of SSCPs were summarized. Furthermore, the research deficiencies of SSCPs and an innovative research paradigm for Chinese materia medica (CMM) formula were proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

SMS, as a famous CMM formula, has great values in drug research and in clinical treatment especially for cardiocerebrovascular diseases. This article firstly make a comprehensive and systematic review on SMS.

Research progress on antiviral constituents in traditional Chinese medicines and their mechanisms of action

CONTEXT

Viruses have the characteristics of rapid transmission and high mortality. At present, western medicines still lack an ideal antiviral. As natural products, many traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) have certain inhibitory effects on viruses, which has become the hotspot of medical research in recent years.

OBJECTIVE

The antiviral active ingredients and mechanisms of TCM against viral diseases was studied in combination with the pathogenesis of viral diseases and antiviral effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

English and Chinese literature from 1999 to 2021 was collected from databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier, Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2020 (CP), and CNKI (Chinese). Traditional Chinese medicines (TCM), active ingredients, antiviral, mechanism of action, and anti-inflammatory effect were used as the key words.

RESULTS

The antiviral activity of TCM is clarified to put forward a strategy for discovering active compounds against viruses, and provide reference for screening antivirus drugs from TCM. TCM can not only directly kill viruses and inhibit the proliferation of viruses in cells, but also prevent viruses from infecting cells and causing cytophilia. It can also regulate the human immune system, enhance human immunity, and play an indirect antiviral role.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Based on the experimental study and antiviral mechanism of TCM, this paper can provide analytical evidence that supports the effectiveness of TCM in treating virus infections, as well as their mechanisms against viruses. It could be helpful to provide reference for the research and development of innovative TCMs with multiple components, multiple targets and low toxicity.

Molecular Docking and Dynamics Simulation Studies of Ginsenosides with SARS-CoV-2 Host and Viral Entry Protein Targets

Despite the contemporary advancements in the field of science and medicine, combating the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is extremely challenging in many aspects as the virus keeps spreading and mutating rapidly. As there is no effective and conclusive drug therapy to date, it is crucial to explore plant-based natural compounds for their potential to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2). Recent research highly focuses on screening various phytochemicals to elucidate their anti-viral efficacy. However, very few studies were published investigating the anti-viral efficacy of ginsenosides. Hence, the main aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory potential of the available 122 ginsenosides from Panax ginseng against SARS-CoV-2-related proteins using a molecular docking and molecular dynamics approach. The major bioactive compounds “ginsenosides” of P. ginseng were docked to six vital SAR-CoV-2 host entry-related proteins such as ACE2, Spike RBD, ACE2 and Spike RBD complex, Spike (pre-fused), Spike (post-fused), and HR domain, with lowest binding energies of −9.5 kcal/mol, −8.1 kcal/mol, −10.4 kcal/mol, −10.4 kcal/mol, −9.3 kcal/mol, and −8.2 kcal/mol, respectively. Almost all the ginsenosides have shown low binding energies and were found to be favourable for efficient docking and resultant inhibition of the viral proteins. However, ACE2 has shown the highest interaction capability. Hence, the top five ginsenosides with the highest binding energy with ACE2 were subjected to MD, post MD analysis, and MM/PBSA calculations. MD simulation results have shown higher stability, flexibility, and mobility of the selected compounds. Additionally, MM-PBSA also affirms the docking results. The results obtained from this study have provided highly potential candidates for developing natural inhibitors against COVID-19.

The anti-aging effects of Renshen Guben on thyrotoxicosis mice: Improving immunosenescence, hypoproteinemia, lipotoxicity, and intestinal flora

With the rapid aging of the population, the control of age-related disease susceptibility and prognosis faces greater challenges. There is an urgent need for a strategy to maintain the vitality of elderly people. In this study, the effect of Renshen Guben (RSGB) oral liquid was investigated on an accelerated aging mice model of thyrotoxicosis by conventional detection methods combined with multiomics technology. The results showed that RSGB increased the number of neutrophils and lymphocytes, enhanced the function of lymphocytes, and increased the levels of complement and antimicrobial peptides, which indicated that RSGB improved the immunity of thyrotoxicosis mice at the cellular and molecular levels. RSGB corrected malnutrition in thyrotoxicosis mice by improving anemia, hypoalbuminemia, ion transporters, and vitamin-binding proteins. RSGB significantly reduced the lipotoxicity by reducing the level of fatty acids, triglyceride, sphingolipids, and glucocorticoids, thus increasing the level of docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and bile acids, which contributed to improve immunosenescence. The intestinal defense ability of thyrotoxicosis mice was enhanced with the increase of bile acids and lactic acid bacteria by the RSGB treatment. The plant metabolomics analysis showed that there were various active components in RSGB oral liquid and medicated serum, including terpenoids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannin, alkaloids, organic acids, phenolamines, amino acids, and others. They have antioxidant, immune regulation, and anti-aging effects, which was the material basis of RSGB. Totally, RSGB protected the thyrotoxicosis mice against aging by improving immunosenescence, hypoproteinemia, lipotoxicity, and the intestinal flora. It will be beneficial for improving the disease susceptibility and prognosis of the elderly.