Essential Oils: Pharmaceutical Applications and Encapsulation Strategies into Lipid-Based Delivery Systems

Essential Oil of Lippia origanoides Kunth: Nanoformulation, Anticholinesterase Activity, and Molecular Docking

This study investigates the therapeutic potential of Lippia origanoides essential oil (LOEO) in neurological and pharmaceutical applications. The chemical composition of LOEO was analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), revealing major constituents, such as carvacrol, thymol, and γ-gurjunene, known for their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. LOEO demonstrated significant acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-inhibitory activity, particularly in a nanoformulation that enhances bioavailability and stability. Additionally, the major constituent carvacrol, when tested in isolation, also exhibited AChE-inhibitory activity comparable to that of the nanoformulation. Molecular docking analysis indicated strong binding affinities between LOEO compounds and AChE, supporting its therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's. Additionally, in silico pharmacokinetic predictions revealed favorable absorption and blood-brain barrier penetration profiles for key constituents. Despite promising results, this study acknowledges the need for in vivo validation and long-term stability assessments of the nanoformulation. Future research should focus on pharmacodynamic studies and evaluating the oil's effectiveness in animal models. These findings highlight LOEO as a valuable candidate for developing natural therapies for neurodegenerative diseases.

The Western Diet and Atopic Dermatitis: The Potential Role of Nutrients, Contaminants, and Additives in Dysbiosis and Epithelial Barrier Dysfunction

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, collectively termed the exposome. Among these determinants, diet emerges as a pivotal component, with diverse nutrients, contaminants, and additives shaping immune responses, microbiota composition, and systemic inflammatory status. This literature review aimed to elucidate the interplay between dietary factors and skin dysbiosis in AD, providing insights into how these interactions may impact disease susceptibility and progression. A comprehensive search of PubMed and Scopus was conducted using relevant keywords and medical subject headings (MeSH). Studies published in English within the past 25 years were included, encompassing in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo research, as well as reviews. Priority was given to frequently cited articles, reflecting significant contributions to current understanding. Findings suggest that dietary habits influence AD by modulating both gut and skin microbiota, immune pathways, and inflammatory processes. These insights underscore the importance of considering diet within a broader exposome framework, paving the way for targeted interventions to improve AD management. Further research is needed to clarify the mechanisms and optimize nutritional strategies, potentially informing preventive and therapeutic approaches for AD.

Advancing frontiers in skin offensive odor management: from innovative diagnostics to cutting-edge treatments and emerging technologies

Skin bromhidrosis, commonly referred to as body odor, is caused by the microbial breakdown of sweat, leading to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that result in unpleasant odors. While body odor is a natural consequence of sweat production, excessive or persistent odor can significantly affect quality of life, causing social stigma and psychological distress. Traditional approaches to managing body odor, such as antiperspirants and deodorants, have limitations, necessitating the development of more advanced diagnostic tools and treatments. This review aims to explore recent advancements in the diagnosis and treatment of skin offensive odor, focusing on cutting-edge technologies and novel approaches. It highlights the interplay of the skin microbiome, sweat gland activity, and external factors in odor formation and investigates innovative solutions for long-term odor management. Emerging diagnostic techniques, such as electronic nose (E-nose) technology, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and next-generation sequencing (NGS), enable precise detection and analysis of odor-causing VOCs and microbial profiles. These tools facilitate a deeper understanding of the pathophysiology of odor production. Treatment innovations include nanotechnology-based antimicrobials (e.g., silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles), probiotic formulations for microbiome modulation, and odor-neutralizing compounds such as cyclodextrins and enzymatic neutralizers. Advanced delivery systems, including microneedle patches and nanoencapsulation, enable targeted, sustained release of active ingredients. Additionally, systemic approaches like oral probiotics and dietary interventions offer complementary strategies for managing body odor. The integration of novel diagnostics with innovative topical and systemic treatments offers promising avenues for more effective and personalized management of skin offensive odor. These advancements pave the way for improved quality of life for individuals affected by bromhidrosis, with potential for widespread application in personal care and medical contexts. Clinical trial number: Not applicable.

Essential oils and Lactobacillus metabolites as alternative antibiofilm agents against foodborne bacteria and molecular analysis of biofilm regulatory genes

The formation of biofilm by foodborne pathogens increases the risk of foodborne diseases, resulting in major health risks. Research on strategies for eliminating biofilm formation by foodborne pathogens is urgently needed. Therefore, the objective of this study was to construct a new technique for controlling foodborne bacteria and inhibiting the biosynthesis of biofilm via using natural products. The essential orange oil (EOO) and cell-free filtrate of Lactobacillus pentosus RS2 were used as antibacterial and antibiofilm agents against B. cereus RS1, the strongest biofilm-forming strain. The mixture of cell-free filtrate (CFF) and EOO (CFF/EOO) was the best antibiofilm agent under all tested conditions. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) test revealed that 400 μl ml-1 CFF and 16 μl ml-1 EOO completely inhibited the growth of B. cereus. The treatment of three commercial surfaces with CFF/EOO resulted in a high reduction in biofilm synthesis, with adhesion percentages of 33.3, 36.3, and 40.8% on stainless steel, aluminum foil, and aluminum, respectively. The aluminum surface had the greatest adhesion with B. cereus RS1 among the three tested surfaces. These results were confirmed by expression analysis of three essential coding genes, sinR, calY, and spo0A, participating in biofilm formation in B. cereus. The biofilm-negative regulator gene sinR was overexpressed, whereas the biofilm-positive regulator genes calY and spo0A were down-expressed in B. cereus RS1 after treatment with antibiofilm agents, compared with those in the untreated sample. This study revealed that CFF/EOO was more effective at activating sinR (2.099 ± 0.167-fold increase) and suppressing calY and spo0A (0.314 ± 0.058 and0.238 ± 0.04-fold decrease, respectively) compared to control. This result confirmed the biochemical estimation of biofilm formation in B. cereus after treatment with all the experimental agents. The EOO and CFF of L. pentosus RS2 can be used as strong antibacterial and antibiofilm agents against foodborne bacteria. These products reduced the biofilm formation on trade surfaces affecting the expression of three essential biofilm regulatory genes. This study considered novel research concerning the potential antibiofilm activity of EOO combined with CFF of L. pentosus and the molecular analysis of genes regulating biofilm production under stress of CFF/EOO.

Insecticidal activity of two Pelargonium essential oils and head transcriptome analysis of stored-product pest Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in response to citronellyl formate fumigation

Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) is one of the most common stored-product pests, causing enormous economic losses and developing widespread resistance to chemical insecticides. Natural products derived from essential oils (EOs) are well-known for insecticidal activity against agricultural pests, especially in the management of stored-product pests. In this study, the chemical constituents and repellent, contact and fumigation toxicity activities of two Pelargonium EOs against T. castaneum were evaluated. Moreover, the fumigation mechanism of citronellyl formate was assessed by head transcriptome sequencing and RNA interference (RNAi). A total of 28 and 39 compounds were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, accounting for 98.58 and 97.33 % of P. roseum and P. asperum EOs, and the major components were citronellol, (1S)-(1)-β-pinene and citronellyl formate. (1S)-(1)-β-Pinene exhibited strong contact toxicity activity (LD50 = 19.72 μg/adult), while citronellyl formate exhibited strong repellent and fumigation toxicity activities, with the LC50 value of 11.93 mg/L air. Under the stress of citronellyl formate, 1222 differentially expressed genes were identified, including 554 up-regulated and 668 down-regulated genes, which was further verified by qRT-PCR. Among odorant-binding proteins (OBPs), only TcGOBP70 was up-regulated, suggesting that GOBP70 is more likely to be involved in the defense of T. castaneum by recognizing, binding and transporting citronellyl formate. Additionally, RNAi against TcGOBP70 dramatically increased the contact and fumigation toxicity activities of citronellyl formate, with mortality rates of 73 and 75 %, respectively. Therefore, our findings not only provided theoretical bases for the comprehensive utilization of the Pelargonium species but also established potential targets for controlling T. castaneum adults.

A Novel Liposomal In-Situ Hydrogel Formulation of Hypericum perforatum L.: In Vitro Characterization and In Vivo Wound Healing Studies

Hypericum perforatum L. (H.P.) is a species with a well-documented history of use in wound healing practices across the globe. The objective of this study was twofold: firstly, to evaluate the in vivo efficacy of liposomal in situ gel formulations in wound healing, both clinically and histopathologically, and secondly, to determine the physicochemical characterization of liposomal in situ gel formulations. The in vitro studies will be assessed in terms of particle size, zeta potential, release kinetics, rheological behaviors, and antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The in vivo studies will be evaluated in clinical animal experiments and pathology studies. The in-situ hydrogel formulations were prepared using the physical cross-linking method with Poloxamer 188, Poloxamer 407, Ultrez 21, and Ultrez 30. The liposome formulations phospholipid 90H and lipoid S100 were prepared using the thin film solvent evaporation method. The antioxidant activity of the samples was evaluated through in vitro studies employing the DPPH antioxidant activity, ABTS+ test, and FRAP test. The antimicrobial activity of the samples was evaluated through the determination of MIC and MBC values employing the 96-well plate method. In vivo, 36 male New Zealand rabbits aged 32-36 weeks were utilized, with six rabbits in each group. The groups were composed of six distinct groups, including conventional and in situ gel liposome formulations of HHPM, three different commercial preparations, and a control group (n = 6). The HHPM-LG8 formulation developed in this study was found to be applicable in terms of all its properties. The new liposomal in situ hydrogel formulation demonstrated notable wound healing activity, a result that was supported by the formulation itself.

High-adhesion antimicrobial composite coating incorporating quaternary chitosan and tea tree oil for enhanced preservation of fruits and vegetables

This study developed high-adhesion quaternary chitosan coatings using amphiphilic HACC-oleic acid conjugates (HACC-OA) to enhance fruit and vegetable preservation. HACC-OA demonstrated improved viscosity and adhesion, providing a stable carrier for tea tree oil (TTO). The resulting TTO@HACC-OA coatings exhibited significantly reduced contact angle (43.7°) and increased retention amount on strawberry surfaces. Furthermore, TTO@HACC-OA demonstrated a lower volatilization rate of TTO (27.8 %) compared to pure TTO (49.5 %) and an enhanced synergistic antimicrobial activity (EC50 = 1.51 mg/mL) against Botrytis cinerea Pers compared to HACC alone (EC50 = 1.58 mg/mL). Preservation experiments revealed that TTO@HACC-OA effectively maintained color and firmness, reduced decay index and weight loss, delayed decline in vitamin C content of strawberries, postponed increase in total phenolic content, and mitigated malondialdehyde accumulation. Therefore, the prepared TTO@HACC-OA composite coating with excellent adhesion ability and preservation effect holds great potential for applications in fruit and vegetable preservation.

Phytochemical Profiling and Bioactive Properties of Essential Oils from Endemic Palestinian Satureja thymbrifolia

Despite several studies on the Satureja L. genus, the chemical composition and biological activities of the traditional medicinal plant Satureja thymbrifolia (White Thyme), a Palestinian endemic species, are still unknown. It grows in arid regions and is used by Bedouins as a traditional medicinal herb. This study aimed to investigate S. thymbrifolia essential oils (EOs), mainly from its phytochemical pattern and biological properties. The GC-MS study identified p-cymene (48.53 %) and thymol (23.27 %) as the leading EOs components. Compared to Trolox, the EOs showed potential anti-DPPH free radical activity and had broad-spectrum antimicrobial potentials, with MIC values ranging from 0.13±0.05 to 25±0.00 μL/mL. They were most effective against Candida albicans species. The S. thymbrifolia EOs most effectively eliminated cancer cells when tested against CaCo-2 and HeLa cell lines (IC50 values of 192.15±2.47 and 194.80±1.87 μg/mL, respectively). The present investigation is the first documented study of S. thymbrifolia EOs' phytochemical composition and bioactivities. The results revealed that S. thymbrifolia EOs have potential antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic effects. These outcomes emphasized S. thymbrifolia EO's potential dietary, pharmacological, and cosmetic applications.

Antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of kaffir lime essential oils and their active constituents against Staphylococcus aureus focusing on sortase A

Staphylococcus aureus biofilm has become a global medical concern due to rising antibiotic resistance. This study aimed to evaluate the potential activities of kaffir lime essential oils and their active compounds as alternative anti-S. aureus biofilm agents. The compositions of the essential oils were identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), and their antibacterial activity was determined through broth-microdilution and time-kill assays. Antibiofilm activities were assessed using Congo red agar (CRA) well diffusion method, pre-biofilm inhibition resazurin assay, and post-biofilm inhibition assay. Sortase A (SrtA) inhibition was also investigated using in silico and in vitro approaches. This is followed by morphological studies to observe change in biofilm formations using light and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Phytochemical analysis revealed that the kaffir lime essential oils from leaves (KLL) and peels (KLP) were primarily composed of the monoterpene aldehyde citronellal (59.13 %) and the monoterpene hydrocarbon (-)-limonene (25.69 %). However, the monoterpenoid alcohols, β-citronellol and terpinen-4-ol, which were the third most abundant compounds in KLL (5.35 %) and KLP (10.87 %), respectively, were selected for further study. All test compounds exhibited anti-Staphylococcal activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) range of 0.1-0.3 % v/v. Their inhibition above the MIC levels showed time- and concentration-independence. Among the test compounds, terpinen-4-ol revealed good antibiofilm activity by inhibiting biofilm formation rather than eradicating the established biofilm. However, terpinen-4-ol exhibited weak SrtA inhibition with docking score of 32.58 and in vitro SrtA inhibition of 46.14 ± 3.58 % at 1 % v/v. Interestingly, terpinen-4-ol caused visible damage to the bacterial cell barrier, as revealed by SEM micrographs. These findings suggest the potential use of kaffir lime oils and their active compounds to combat biofilm-forming S. aureus infection.

Optimization, characterization and biosafety of oregano, rosemary and mint oil mixture against Penicillium digitatum in citrus using L-optimal mixture design

The increasing demand for natural alternatives to synthetic fungicides has prompted research into natural products like essential oils for postharvest disease management. This study investigated the antifungal, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and genotoxic potential of essential oil mixtures derived from oregano, rosemary, and mint against Penicillium digitatum, the predominant fungal pathogen causing green mold in orange fruits. P. digitatum NPAGRASU 2024 was isolated and identified as the most abundant species (60.2%) from infected oranges. It was deposited in GenBank with gene accession number PP930644 and deposited in MIRCEN culture collection as EMCC 358874. The antimicrobial activity of individual essential oils was evaluated, with oregano exhibiting the highest antifungal activity (inhibition zone diameter of 4.2 cm) against P. digitatum. L-optimal mixture design of response surface methodology (RSM) optimization revealed a highly effective mixture (Run 8) comprising 46.26% oregano and 53.74% rosemary, with a 99.65% actual growth reduction. The oregano oil demonstrated potent antioxidant activity, reaching approximately 75% DPPH radical scavenging at 3.125 mg/mL. Cytotoxicity assessment using the MTT assay showed morphological changes and reduced cell viability in liver cells treated with the PEOs mixture at 300 µg/mL. However, the optimized mixture did not induce significant chromosomal aberrations compared to the control, suggesting minimal genotoxic effects. In vivo, evaluation on oranges revealed 60% inhibition of green mold by the 1% (v/v) optimized mixture for 7 days. Histological analysis indicated low toxicity to the liver at the highest tested concentration (1% mixture). GC-MS analysis identified major compounds like cavarcol, caryophyllene, eucalyptol, phenols and levomenthol in oregano oil, contributing to its bioactivities. This study demonstrates the potential of optimized essential oil mixtures as effective and eco-friendly alternatives for postharvest disease control.

Evaluation of Cinnamon Essential Oil and Its Emulsion on Biofilm-Associated Components of Acinetobacter baumannii Clinical Strains

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Acinetobacter baumannii, one of the most dangerous pathogens, is able to form biofilm structures and aggravate its treatment. For that reason, new antibiofilm agents are in need, and new sources of antibiofilm compounds are being sought from plants and their products. Cinnamon essential oil is associated with a wide spectrum of biological activities, but with a further improvement of its physicochemical properties it could provide even better bioavailability. The aim of this work was the evaluation of the antibiofilm properties of cinnamon essential oil and its emulsion.

METHODS

In order to evaluate the antibiofilm activity, crystal violet assay was performed to determine biofilm biomass. The main components of the biofilm matrix were measured as well as the motile capacity of the tested strains. Gene expression was monitored with RT-qPCR, while treated biofilms were observed with Raman spectroscopy.

RESULTS

A particularly strong potential against pre-formed biofilm with a decreased biomass of up to 66% was found. The effect was monitored not only with regard to the whole biofilm biomass, but also on the individual components of the biofilm matrix such as exopolysaccharides, proteins, and eDNA molecules. Protein share drops in treated biofilms demonstrated the most consistency among strains and rose to 75%. The changes in strain motility and gene expressions were investigated after the treatments were carried out. Raman spectroscopy revealed the influence of the studied compounds on chemical bond types and the components present in the biofilm matrix of the tested strains.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained from this research are promising regarding cinnamon essential oil and its emulsion as potential antibiofilm agents, so further investigation of their activity is encouraged for their potential use in biomedical applications.

Beyond Chemistry: Investigating the Physical, Pharmacological, and Computational Aspects of Polyoxometalate Integrated Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment

Purpose

The solid lipid nanoparticles of transitional metal complexes (POMs) were prepared with natural lipids with the aim of developing a safer therapeutic approach for cancer treatment.

Methods

Natural lipids were used to create solid lipid nanoparticles containing transitional metal complexes (POMs).

Results

The nanoparticles had displayed appreciable entrapment and loading percentage of P5W30. The zeta capacitance was measured to be -32.57±6.44 mV with average particle dimension of 160.5±8.61 nm and polydispersity index (PDI) of around 0.3814±0.096. The effectiveness of P5W30-BW-SLNs in inhibiting the growth of HeLa cells was found to be higher (IC50 = 3.02±2.14 µg/mL) compared to pure P5W30 (IC50 = 7.93±5.08 µg/mL). Further examinations of DNA damage were made through comet test and flow cytometry techniques. The assessment of tumor regression and survival was conducted, and comparison was recorded. The P5W30-BW-SLNs resulted in a 72.91% increase in survival rates and a reduction in tumor burden by 2.967±0.543%. Moreover, the computational findings demonstrate a strong connection with the actual data, providing a plausible explanation for the notable chemopreventive efficacy of POM against HeLa cell lines.

Conclusion

The study's findings might pave the way for a more efficient delivery system in cancer treatment.

Rice husk- and lemongrass-derived eco-enzymes as potential food contact surface disinfectants against biofilm-forming foodborne pathogens

This study aims to evaluate the rice husk (EE-R)- and lemongrass (EE-L)-derived eco-enzymes (EE) as alternatives to chemical-based disinfectants. The EE-R's and EE-L's antimicrobial activity were tested against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus using a broth microdilution method. The antibiofilm activities of EE were determined using crystal violet staining. Lastly, the minimal contact time of EE for effectively reducing biofilm-forming pathogens (<25 CFU/ml) was assessed on various food contact surfaces (wood, glass, plastic, stainless steel, and marble). The results show that EE-R at 25%-50% concentration significantly inhibited P. aeruginosa and S. aureus while reducing the initial biofilm formation by 61% and 58%, respectively. In contrast, EE-L inhibited S. Typhimurium at a concentration of 12.5%-50% and P. aeruginosa at 25%-50%, with a strong preformed biofilm inhibition noticed for S. Typhimurium (70%). For the minimal contact time, EE-R superiorly inhibited P. aeruginosa (60 s) and S. aureus (120 s) on all contact surfaces, while EE-L needed 120 s to reduce P. aeruginosa and S. Typhimurium. These outcomes were comparable to sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl, 2.5%). The study's outcomes implicate the potential application of EE-R and EE-L as surface disinfectants against biofilm-forming bacteria, thus promoting safer food processing practices while minimizing environmental impacts.

Antibacterial Activity of Selected Essential Oil Components and Their Derivatives: A Review

Essential oils (EOs) are gaining ground and have been intensively studied due to their widespread use in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetics industries. The essential components of EOs have been recognized for diverse therapeutic activities and have gained significant attention for their potential antibacterial activities. Despite the popularity of EOs and potent biological properties, their bioactive components and their derivatives are still not comprehensively characterized. This review explores the antibacterial efficacy of selected EO components and their derivatives, focusing on monoterpenes chosen (i.e., carvacrol, menthol, and thymol) and phenylpropanoids (i.e., cinnamaldehyde and eugenol). Furthermore, this review highlights recent advancements in developing derivatives of these EO components, which have shown improved antibacterial activity with reduced toxicity. By summarizing recent studies, this review reveals the potential of these natural compounds and their derivatives as promising candidates for pharmaceuticals, food preservation, and as alternatives to synthetic antibiotics in combating bacterial resistance.

Emerging Nanoparticle-Based Diagnostics and Therapeutics for Cancer: Innovations and Challenges

Malignant growth is expected to surpass other significant causes of death as one of the top reasons for dismalness and mortality worldwide. According to a World Health Organization (WHO) study, this illness causes approximately between 9 and 10 million instances of deaths annually. Chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery are the three main methods of treating cancer. These methods seek to completely eradicate all cancer cells while having the fewest possible unintended impacts on healthy cell types. Owing to the lack of target selectivity, the majority of medications have substantial side effects. On the other hand, nanomaterials have transformed the identification, diagnosis, and management of cancer. Nanostructures with biomimetic properties have been grown as of late, fully intent on observing and treating the sickness. These nanostructures are expected to be consumed by growth in areas with profound disease. Furthermore, because of their extraordinary physicochemical properties, which incorporate nanoscale aspects, a more prominent surface region, explicit geometrical features, and the ability to embody different substances within or on their outside surfaces, nanostructures are remarkable nano-vehicles for conveying restorative specialists to their designated regions. This review discusses recent developments in nanostructured materials such as graphene, dendrimers, cell-penetrating peptide nanoparticles, nanoliposomes, lipid nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, and nano-omics in the diagnosis and management of cancer.

Current Progress and Emerging Role of Essential Oils in Drug Delivery Therapeutics

The utilization of novel drug delivery systems loaded with essential oils has gained significant attention as a promising approach for biomedical applications in recent years. Plants possess essential oils that exhibit various medicinal properties, i.e., anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti- inflammatory, anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, etc., due to the presence of various phytoconstituents, including terpenes, phenols, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and esters. An understanding of conventional and advanced extraction techniques of essential oils (EOs) from several plant sources is further required before considering or loading EOs into drug delivery systems. Therefore, this article summarizes the various extraction techniques of EOs and their existing limitations. The in-built biological applications of EOs are of prerequisite importance for treating several diseases. Thus, the mechanisms of action of EOs for anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial activities, etc., have been further explored in this article. The encapsulation of essential oils in micro or nanometric systems is an intriguing technique to render adequate stability to the thermosensitive compounds and shield them against environmental factors that might cause chemical degradation. Thus, the article further summarizes the advanced drug delivery approaches loaded with EOs and current challenges in the future outlook of EOs for biomedical applications.

Chemical Compositions, Molecular Docking, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anti-Cancer Effects of the Leaf Essential Oils Isolated from Three Species of the Rutaceae Family in Vietnam

Three species of the Rutaceae family, including Acronychia pedunculata, Euodia lepta, and Severinia monophylla have been used in traditional medicine. However, the comparison of the chemical composition, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory effects of the leaf essential oils of these species have not been investigated yet. A total of 38 compounds were identified via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, comprising 96.5-99.8 % of the total composition. Both A. pedunculata and E. lepta essential oils exhibited strong inhibitory effects against cancer cells (IC50: 59.04-97.52 μg/mL) while that of S. monophylla showed a lower anti-cancer effect (IC50>100 μg/mL). Among three essential oils, only the E. lepta leaf oil demonstrated a high anti-inflammatory effect on LPS-stimulated macrophages (IC50=6.47±0.65 μg/mL), while the others showed a moderate anti-inflammatory effect (IC50>50 μg/mL). Molecular docking studies also suggested the binding potential of the key compounds from three essential oils against inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, two proteins associated with inflammatory response, with the negative energies ranging from -41.0 to -71.9 kcal/mol. The present findings suggest the leaf essential oils from these species as potential medicines for treatment of cancer or inflammation associated diseases, especially the ones from A. pedunculata and E. lepta oils.

Carvacrol Essential Oil as a Neuroprotective Agent: A Review of the Study Designs and Recent Advances

Neurodegenerative diseases were mostly perceived as diseases of ageing populations, but now-a-days, these diseases pose a threat to populations of all age groups despite significant improvements in quality of life. Almost all essential oils (EOs) have been reported to have some neuroprotective abilities and have been used as supplements for good mental health over the centuries. This review highlights the therapeutic potential of one such monoterpene phenolic EO, carvacrol (CV), that has the potential to be used as a main therapeutic intervention for neurodegenerative disorders. Three libraries, Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect, were explored for research studies related to the neuroprotective roles of CV. All the research articles from these libraries were sorted out, with the first article tracing back to 2009, and the latest article was published in 2024. The positive effects of CV in the treatment of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases, multiple sclerosis, ischemia, and behavioural disorders have been supported with evidence. This review not only focused on study designs and the pharmacological pathways taken by CV for neuroprotection but also focused on demographics, illustrating the trend of CV research studies in certain countries and the preferences for the use of in vitro or in vivo models in studies. Our review provides useful evidence about the neuroprotective potential of CV; however, a lack of studies was observed regarding CV encapsulation in proper dosage forms, in particular nanoparticles, which could be further explored for CV delivery to the central nervous system.

Natural Solutions to Antimicrobial Resistance: The Role of Essential Oils in Poultry Meat Preservation with Focus on Gram-Negative Bacteria

The increase in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global health problem with implications on human and veterinary medicine, as well as food production. In the poultry industry, the overuse and misuse of antimicrobials has led to the development of resistant or multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains of bacteria such as Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli and Campylobacter spp., which pose a serious risk to meat safety and public health. The genetic transfer of resistance elements between poultry MDR bacteria and human pathogens further exacerbates the AMR crisis and highlights the urgent need for action. Traditional methods of preserving poultry meat, often based on synthetic chemicals, are increasingly being questioned due to their potential impact on human health and the environment. This situation has led to a shift towards natural, sustainable alternatives, such as plant-derived compounds, for meat preservation. Essential oils (EOs) have emerged as promising natural preservatives in the poultry meat industry offering a potential solution to the growing AMR problem by possessing inherent antimicrobial properties making them effective against a broad spectrum of pathogens. Their use in the preservation of poultry meat not only extends shelf life, but also reduces reliance on synthetic preservatives and antibiotics, which contribute significantly to AMR. The unique chemical composition of EOs, that contains a large number of different active compounds, minimizes the risk of bacteria developing resistance. Recent advances in nano-encapsulation technology have further improved the stability, bioavailability and efficacy of EOs, making them more suitable for commercial use. Hence, in this manuscript, the recent literature on the mechanisms of AMR in the most important Gram-negative poultry pathogens and antimicrobial properties of EOs on these meat isolates was reviewed. Additionally, chemical composition, extraction methods of EOs were discussed, as well as future directions of EOs as natural food preservatives. In conclusion, by integrating EOs into poultry meat preservation strategies, the industry can adopt more sustainable and health-conscious practices and ultimately contribute to global efforts to combat AMR.

Enhancing therapeutic effects alginate microencapsulation of thyme and calendula oils using ionic gelation for controlled drug delivery

This study focuses on encapsulating and characterizing essential oils such as thyme and calendula oils, which are known for their therapeutic properties but are limited in pharmaceutical formulations due to their low water solubility and instability, with alginate microspheres. Alginate presents an excellent option for microencapsulation due to its biocompatibility and biological degradability. The ionic gelation (IG) technique, based on the ionic binding between alginate and divalent cations, allows the formation of hydrogel materials with high water content, mechanical strength, and biocompatibility. The microspheres were characterized using FT-IR, SEM, and swelling analyses. After determining the encapsulation efficiency and drug loading capacity, the microspheres were subjected to dissolution studies under simulated digestion conditions. It was observed that the swelling percentage of the microspheres in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) ranged from ∼15% to 100%, while in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) it ranged from ∼150% to 325%. Thyme oil, with low viscosity, exhibited higher encapsulation efficiency than marigold oil. The highest encapsulation efficiency was observed in A-TO-2 microspheres, while the highest drug loading capacity was observed in A-TO-5 microspheres. During the examination of the dissolution profiles of the microspheres, dissolution rates ranging from 10.98% to 23.56% in SGF and from 52.44% to 63.20% in SIF were observed.

Phytochemical Profiling and Therapeutic Potential of Thyme (Thymus spp.): A Medicinal Herb

Thymol is a phenol monoterpene that is naturally derived from cymene and is an isomer of carvacrol. It constitutes a significant portion (10%-64%) of the essential oils found in thyme (Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae), a medicinal plant renowned for its therapeutic properties. Wild thyme is native to the Mediterranean region and has been used in cooking and medicine for a long time. In contemporary contexts, both thymol and thyme offer diverse functional applications in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries. Thymol has attracted scientific interest for its potential therapeutic applications in pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. Studies have explored its efficacy in treating respiratory, nervous, and cardiovascular disorders, highlighting its promising role in diverse therapeutic interventions. Additionally, this compound demonstrates antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antispasmodic properties. It also shows potential as a growth enhancer and has immunomodulatory properties as well. Other discussed aspects include thymol toxicity, bioavailability, metabolism, and distribution in animals and humans. This review summarizes the most significant data regarding the beneficial effects of thyme bioactive compounds and their applications as a food preservative while taking into account the thyme plant extract and its essential oil.

Quality Characteristics and Essential Oil Properties of Thymus capitatus, Mentha piperita, and Sideritis cypria Dried under Different Conditions

The drying of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) is one of the main preservation methods for these products that can prolong their shelf life, if performed properly. The current study aimed to examine the effects of different drying conditions (sun, shade, and oven drying at 42 °C) on the quality characteristics of Thymus capitatus, Mentha piperita, and Sideritis cypria; their essential oil (EO) yield; and their biological properties (antioxidant and antibacterial activities). According to the results of the current study, oven drying resulted in faster moisture loss for all investigated species and slightly darker products. For T. capitatus, sun drying resulted in higher EO carvacrol content, whereas EOs obtained from shade and oven drying (at 42 °C) presented high total phenolic content and great antimicrobial activity. For M. piperita, shade drying resulted in a higher EO yield and higher iso-menthone content, whilst the EO obtained from oven-dried mint plants presented great antibacterial activity against the investigated foodborne pathogens. S. cypria plants dried in an air-ventilated oven produced an EO rich in β-caryophyllene and α-pinene, which also presented great antioxidant and antibacterial activity. The findings of the current study indicate that traditional drying methods, such as sun and shade, can result in good-quality dried MAPs that can yield EOs with significant biological activities, along with minimum energy consumption and lower carbon dioxide production (lower environmental carbon footprint), as opposed to oven drying. However, the drying-process duration could be a limitation at the industrial scale.

Prospecting Pharmacologically Active Biocompounds from the Amazon Rainforest: In Vitro Approaches, Mechanisms of Action Based on Chemical Structure, and Perspectives on Human Therapeutic Use

The Amazon rainforest is an important reservoir of biodiversity, offering vast potential for the discovery of new bioactive compounds from plants. In vitro studies allow for the investigation of biological processes and interventions in a controlled manner, making them fundamental for pharmacological and biotechnological research. These approaches are faster and less costly than in vivo studies, providing standardized conditions that enhance the reproducibility and precision of data. However, in vitro methods have limitations, including the inability to fully replicate the complexity of a living organism and the absence of a complete physiological context. Translating results to in vivo models is not always straightforward, due to differences in pharmacokinetics and biological interactions. In this context, the aim of this literature review is to assess the advantages and disadvantages of in vitro approaches in the search for new drugs from the Amazon, identifying the challenges and limitations associated with these methods and comparing them with in vivo testing. Thus, bioprospecting in the Amazon involves evaluating plant extracts through bioassays to investigate pharmacological, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. Phenolic compounds and terpenes are frequently identified as the main bioactive agents, exhibiting antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antineoplastic activities. Chemical characterization, molecular modifications, and the development of delivery systems, such as nanoparticles, are highlighted to improve therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, the Amazon rainforest offers great potential for the discovery of new drugs; however, significant challenges, such as the standardization of extraction methods and the need for in vivo studies and clinical trials, must be overcome for these compounds to become viable medications.

Parasiticidal Properties of Nanoemulsion-Based Plant Essential Oil Formulations for Controlling Poultry Ectoparasites in Farm Conditions

Nanoemulsion-based plant essential oil formulations (NEOFs) have shown remarkable parasiticidal properties in laboratory settings, suggesting the potential for practical farm applications. This study investigates the efficacy of NEOFs-comprising clove and cinnamon essential oils (EOs)-in controlling poultry ectoparasites under real farm conditions. We evaluated the impact of NEOFs on ectoparasite populations, egg-laying performance, egg quality, leukocyte profiles in chicken blood, and potential insecticide residues in eggs. Conducted across various poultry farms, the results revealed that NEOFs achieved an over 95% ectoparasite eradication after two treatments, compared to significantly higher ectoparasite populations in untreated control groups. Egg production was notably higher in NEOF-treated flocks, and the feed conversion ratio was improved. No significant differences in leukocyte profiles were observed between the treated and control groups. In contrast, cypermethrin residues were detectable in eggs for more than eight weeks post-treatment. NEOFs achieved an over 97% ectoparasite extermination within seven days post-treatment, with farmer satisfaction averaging 4.83 out of 5.00. These findings position NEOFs as a highly effective, environmentally friendly alternative to chemical pesticides for managing poultry ectoparasites, offering a viable solution for sustainable poultry farming.

Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Potential of Eucalyptus Essential Oil-Based Nanoemulsions for Mouthwashes Application

Objective: An eucalyptus essential oil-based nanoemulsion was produced and evaluated for its antimicrobial properties against Streptococcus mutans and its cytotoxicity in the surface mucous cells of rabbits. Methods: The essential oil-based nanoemulsion was synthesized with two species of eucalyptus-Eucalyptus citriodora and Eucalyptus globulus-followed by physicochemical characterization and the determination of antimicrobial activity and cell viability. Subsequently, the mouthwash formulations (fluoride and fluoride-free) were functionalized with the nanoemulsion, and their in vitro antimicrobial actions were evaluated against S. mutans. Results: The nanoemulsion presented an average particle size of around 100 nm, a polydispersity index close to 0.3, a zeta potential between -19 and -30 mV, a pH close to 7, a spherical shape, and a cell viability above 50%. The antimicrobial activity analysis showed that the nanoemulsion was effective in the control of S. mutans. The mouthwashes functionalized with the nanoemulsion also presented bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties. Conclusions: The bio-based material produced with eucalyptus essential oil presented adequate physicochemical characteristics, with the potential to be used as an innovative material in preventive dentistry, contributing to the maintenance of oral and systemic health.

Nanoemulsions of essential oils against multi-resistant microorganisms: An integrative review

Microbial resistance to drugs continues to be a global public health issue that demands substantial investment in research and development of new antimicrobial agents. Essential oils (EO) have demonstrated satisfactory and safe antimicrobial action, being used in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food formulations. In order to improve solubility, availability, and biological action, EO have been converted into nanoemulsions (NE). This review identified scientific evidence corroborating the antimicrobial action of nanoemulsions of essential oils (NEEO) against antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Using integrative review methodology, eleven scientific articles evaluating the antibacterial or antifungal assessment of NEEO were selected. The synthesis of evidence indicates that NEEO are effective in combating multidrug-resistant microorganisms and in the formation of their biofilms. Factors such as NE droplet size, chemical composition of essential oils, and the association of NE with antibiotics are discussed. Furthermore, NEEO showed satisfactory results in vitro and in vivo evaluations against resistant clinical isolates, making them promising for the development of new antimicrobial and antivirulence drugs.

Barley β-glucan bioactive films: Promising eco-friendly materials for wound healing

Mixtures containing β-glucans were extracted from barley, under both mild and high alkaline conditions, to prepare biodegradable films (MA and HA, respectively), as natural dressings with intrinsic therapeutic properties. An in-depth characterization was performed to evaluate the impact of mild and high alkaline conditions on chemical, physicochemical, and biological features for potential use in wound treatments. Both MA and HA films exhibited a good ability to absorb water and simulate wound fluid, which helps maintain optimal tissue hydration. Moreover, their oxygen permeability (147.6 and 16.4 cm3 × μm/m2 × 24 h × Pa × 107, respectively) appeared adequate for the intended application. Biocompatibility tests showed that the films do not harm human dermal fibroblasts. Impressively, they promote cell attachment and growth, with MA having a stronger effect due to its higher β-glucan content. Furthermore, MA films can modulate macrophage behaviour in an inflamed microenvironment, reducing oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokines, while simultaneously increasing levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines. In a scratch test, HA films allowed for faster fibroblast migration within the first 16 h compared to MA. Overall, this study demonstrates that developing β-glucan based films from barley, through a sustainable and cost-effective process, holds great promise for skin applications. These films exhibit significant potential to promote wound healing and modulate inflammation.

Hydroxypropyl Cellulose Hydrogel Containing Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum Essential-Oil-Loaded Polymeric Micelles for Enhanced Treatment of Melanoma

Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum essential oil (OEO) is a natural oil with high therapeutic potential. For some applications, however, the development of novel formulations is still needed to improve the bioavailability and stability of OEO. In this study, we describe the fabrication of an original nanocomposite hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) physical hydrogel, containing OEO-loaded polymeric micelles, for topical delivery. The concentration of the main active compounds of OEO-carvacol and thymol-was determined using gas chromatography (GC) analysis. OEO was first encapsulated into Pluronic F127 micelles, and then embedded into HPC gel. Micellar and gel formulations of pure polymers and OEO-containing systems were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and rheology measurements, respectively. Selected formulations were evaluated for cytotoxicity and antiproliferative activity. The hydrogel formulation of HPC with micellar OEO (8% HPC, 2% F127, 1% OEO) exhibited sustained release of the oil and selectivity towards SH-4 tumor cells (an in vitro model of melanoma).

Nail Lacquer Containing Origanum vulgare and Rosmarinus officinalis Essential Oils and Biogenic Silver Nanoparticles for Onychomycosis: Development, Characterization, and Evaluation of Antifungal Efficacy

Onychomycosis is a common fungal nail infection for which new antifungals are needed to overcome antimicrobial resistance and the limitations of conventional treatments. This study reports the development of antifungal nail lacquers containing oregano essential oil (OEO), rosemary essential oil (REO), and biogenic silver nanoparticles (bioAgNPs). The formulations (F) were tested against dermatophytes using agar diffusion, ex vivo nail infection, and scanning electron microscopy techniques. They were evaluated for their pharmacotechnical characteristics and by FTIR-PAS to assess permeation across the nail. F-OEO and F-OEO/bioAgNPs were promising candidates for the final nail lacquer formulation, as they permeated through the nail and showed antifungal efficacy against dermatophytes-contaminated nails after 5 days of treatment. Treated nails exhibited decreased hyphae and spores compared to the untreated control; the hyphae were atypically flattened, indicating loss of cytoplasmic content due to damage to the cytoplasmic membrane. The formulations were stable after centrifugation and thermal stress, maintaining organoleptic and physicochemical characteristics. Both F-OEO and F-OEO/bioAgNPs had pH compatible with the nail and drying times (59-90 s) within the reference for nail lacquer. For the first time, OEO and bioAgNPs were incorporated into nail lacquer, resulting in a natural and nanotechnological product for onychomycosis that could combat microbial resistance.

Recent developments in the encapsulation of lavender essential oil

The unregulated and extensive application of synthetic compounds, such as preservatives, pesticides, and drugs, poses serious concerns to the environment, food security, and global health. Essential oils (EOs) are valid alternatives to these synthetic chemicals due to their therapeutic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. Lavender essential oil (LEO) can be potentially applied in food, cosmetic, textile, agricultural, and pharmaceutical industries. However, its bioactivity can be compromised by its poor stability and solubility, which severely restrict its industrial applications. Encapsulation techniques can improve the functionality of LEO and preserve its bioactivity during storage. This review reports recent advances in the encapsulation of LEO by different methods, such as liposomes, emulsification, spray drying, complex coacervation, inclusion complexation, and electrospinning. It also outlines the effects of different processing conditions and carriers on the stability, physicochemical properties, and release behavior of encapsulated LEO. Moreover, this review focuses on the applications of encapsulated LEO in different food and non-food products.

Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil in a natural product-based formulation: Antimicrobial and healing effects in Staphylococcus aureus-infected wounds

Owing to its exposed nature, the skin can be injured by various factors, including by Staphylococcus aureus, which inhabits its innate microbiota. Treatment of infected wounds presents an important challenge, making it imperative to develop new treatment options. Plant-derived formulations, such as those containing Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil (MaEO), are used for wound treatment because of their healing, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. This study presents a cream containing 2% MaEO (2% CMa) and evaluates its effects in an S. aureus-infected wound murine model. The 2% CMa was subjected to quality control testing and pH and analysis of density, organoleptic characteristics, and microbiological effects. The quality control parameters all revealed the good stability of the 2% CMa. The formulation strongly reduced the S. aureus ATCC 6538 colony-forming unit (CFU) count in an ex vivo porcine skin model. In the murine model, daily topical application of 2% CMa reduced the severity and size of S. aureus-infected wounds and the bacterial load. These effects may be due to the presence of terpinen-4-ol, which exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. Based on these findings, the formulation exhibits good quality and safety. We suggest the topical application of this formulation, which exhibited an antimicrobial effect, as an interesting treatment strategy for wound healing.

Molecular Imprinting Technology for Advanced Delivery of Essential Oils

Essential oils (EOs) hold therapeutic potential, but their conventional delivery systems have some limitations. This review focuses on the critical review and discussion of research related to EO delivery systems. The review also explores how molecular imprinting technologies (MIT) can advance EO delivery. MIT offer several techniques, namely covalent, non-covalent, and semi-covalent imprinting, creating targeted cavities that selectively bind and release EOs. These approaches promise significant advantages including increased selectivity, controlled release, and protection from environmental degradation. However, some challenges related to the stability and biocompatibility of MIPs remain unsolved. Integrating nanotechnology through methods like nanoparticle imprinting and some lithographic techniques seems promising to overcome these limitations. Some recently established models and systems used for EO-related research are paving the way for a more efficient and targeted EO delivery approach to harnessing the therapeutic power of EOs. Therefore, some recent and future research seems promising, and eventually it will increase the effectiveness of MIP-based EO delivery systems.

Development, Stability, and In Vitro/In Vivo Studies of Volatile Oil Pickering Emulsion Stabilized by Modified Amber

Volatile oil stabilization strategies based on encapsulation with a large number of excipients limit further applications. The primary objective of this study is to improve the stability of volatile oils using Pickering emulsion (PE) stabilized by Chinese medicinal powder based on the principle of "integrating drug and excipient". Modified amber was acquired through surface modification, and a stable oil-in-water PE loaded with Acorus tatarinowii volatile oil (ATVO) was constructed from modified amber. The stability, including the peroxide value (PV), malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and the content and composition of volatile components in modified amber-PE (MAPE) under intense light exposure, was analyzed deeply. In addition, the in vitro release and pharmacokinetics of MAPE and ATVO were investigated. The results demonstrate that the PV and MDA content in MAPE were significantly lower than in free ATVO, and the content and composition of volatile components in MAPE were closer to those in untreated ATVO. The release kinetics of β-asarone and α-asarone in MAPE demonstrated rapid and higher release, and pharmacokinetic studies show that MAPE has better bioavailability. This research provides a distinctive Chinese medicine solution to address the vaporization of volatile oil in solid formulations.

Topically Applied Therapies for the Treatment of Skin Disease: Past, Present, and Future

The purpose of this review is to summarize essential biological, pharmaceutical, and clinical aspects in the field of topically applied medicines that may help scientists when trying to develop new topical medicines. After a brief history of topical drug delivery, a review of the structure and function of the skin and routes of drug absorption and their limitations is provided. The most prevalent diseases and current topical treatment approaches are then detailed, the organization of which reflects the key disease categories of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, microbial infections, skin cancers, and genetic skin diseases. The complexity of topical product development through to large-scale manufacturing along with recommended risk mitigation approaches are then highlighted. As such topical treatments are applied externally, patient preferences along with the challenges they invoke are then described, and finally the future of this field of drug delivery is discussed, with an emphasis on areas that are more likely to yield significant improvements over the topical medicines in current use or would expand the range of medicines and diseases treatable by this route of administration. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review of the key aspects of the skin and its associated diseases and current treatments along with the intricacies of topical formulation development should be helpful in making judicious decisions about the development of new or improved topical medicines. These aspects include the choices of the active ingredients, formulations, the target patient population's preferences, limitations, and the future with regard to new skin diseases and topical medicine approaches.

Citrus limon var. pompia Camarda var. nova: A Comprehensive Review of Its Botanical Characteristics, Traditional Uses, Phytochemical Profile, and Potential Health Benefits

Citrus limon var. pompia Camarda var. nova, commonly known as pompia, is a distinctive citrus ecotype native to Sardinia, notable for its unique botanical, phytochemical, and potential health benefits. It holds cultural significance as a traditional food product of Sardinia, recognized by the Italian Ministry of Agricultural Food and Forestry Policies. This comprehensive review examines pompia's traditional uses, taxonomic classification, pomological characteristics, phytochemical profile, and potential health benefits. Pompia phytochemical analyses reveal a rich composition of flavonoids and terpenoids, with notable concentrations of limonene, myrcene, and various oxygenated monoterpenes. Pompia essential oils are primarily extracted from its peel and leaves. Peel essential oils exhibit a high concentration of the monoterpene limonene (82%) and significantly lower quantities of myrcene (1.8%), geranial (1.7%), geraniol (1.5%), and neral (1.4%). In its rind extract, flavanones such as naringin (23.77 µg/mg), neoeriocitrin (46.53 µg/mg), and neohesperidin (44.57 µg/mg) have been found, along with gallic acid (128.3 µg/mg) and quinic acid (219.67 µg/mg). The main compounds detected in the essential oils from pompia leaves are oxygenated monoterpenes (53.5%), with limonene (28.64%), α-terpineol (41.18%), geranial (24.44%), (E)-β-ocimene (10.5%), linalool (0.56%), and neryl acetate (13.56%) being particularly prominent. In pompia juice, the presence of phenolic compounds has been discovered, with a composition more similar to lemon juice than orange juice. The primary flavonoid identified in pompia juice is chrysoeriol-6,8-di-C-glucoside (stellarin-2) (109.2 mg/L), which has not been found in other citrus juices. The compound rhoifolin-4-glucoside (17.5 mg/L) is unique to pompia juice, whereas its aglycone, rhoifolin, is found in lemon juice. Other flavonoids identified in pompia juice include diosmetin 6,8-C-diglucoside (54.5 mg/L) and isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside (79.4 mg/L). These findings support the potential of pompia in developing nutraceuticals and natural health products, further confirmed by its compounds' antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. Future research should focus on optimizing extraction methods, conducting clinical trials to evaluate efficacy and safety, and exploring sustainable cultivation practices. The potential applications of pompia extracts in food preservation, functional foods, and cosmetic formulations also warrant further investigation. Addressing these areas could significantly enhance pompia's contribution to natural medicine, food science, and biotechnology.

Development and Evaluation of Microencapsulated Oregano Essential Oil as an Alternative Treatment for Candida albicans Infections

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is characterized as a very common fungal infection that significantly affects women's health worldwide. Essential oils (EOs) are currently being evaluated as an alternative therapy. The development of efficient techniques such as micro- or nanoencapsulation for protecting and controlling release is essential to overcome the limitations of EO applications. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop and characterize oregano EO-loaded keratin microparticles (OEO-KMPs) as a potential treatment for VVC. OEO-KMPs were produced using high-intensity ultrasonic cycles and characterized in terms of morphological and physicochemical parameters. In vitro evaluation included assessing the toxicity of the OEO-KMPs and their effect against Candida albicans using microdilution and agar diffusion, while the activity against biofilm was quantified using colony forming units (CFU). The efficacy of the OEO-KMPs in an in vivo VVC mouse model was also studied. Female BALB/c mice were intravaginally infected with C. albicans, 24 h postinfection animals were treated intravaginally with 15 μL of OEO-KMPs and 24 h later vaginal fluid was analyzed for C. albicans and Lactobacillus growth (CFU mL-1). The results showed the stability of the OEO-KMPs over time, with high encapsulation efficiency and controlled release. This nanoparticle size facilitated penetration and completely inhibited the planktonic growth of C. albicans. In addition, an in vitro application of 2.5% of the OEO-KMPs eradicated mature C. albicans biofilms while preserving Lactobacillus species. In in vivo, a single intravaginal application of OEO-KMPs induced a reduction in C. albicans growth, while maintaining Lactobacillus species. In conclusion, this therapeutic approach with OEO-KMPs is promising as a potential alternative or complementary therapy for VVC while preserving vaginal microflora.

Early Life Interventions: Impact on Aging and Longevity

Across mammals, lifespans vary remarkably, spanning over a hundredfold difference. Comparative studies consistently reveal a strong inverse relationship between developmental pace and lifespan, hinting at the potential for early-life interventions (ELIs) to influence aging and lifespan trajectories. Focusing on postnatal interventions in mice, this review explores how ELIs influence development, lifespan, and the underlying mechanisms. Previous ELI studies have employed a diverse array of approaches, including dietary modifications, manipulations of the somatotropic axis, and various chemical treatments. Notably, these interventions have demonstrated significant impacts on aging and lifespan in mice. The underlying mechanisms likely involve pathways related to mitochondrial function, mTOR and AMPK signaling, cellular senescence, and epigenetic alterations. Interestingly, ELI studies may serve as valuable models for investigating the complex regulatory mechanisms of development and aging, particularly regarding the interplay among somatic growth, sexual maturation, and lifespan. In addition, prior research has highlighted the intricacies of experimental design and data interpretation. Factors such as timing, sex-specific effects, administration methods, and animal husbandry practices must be carefully considered to ensure the reliability and reproducibility of results, as well as rigorous interpretation. Addressing these factors is essential for advancing our understanding of how development, aging, and lifespan are regulated, potentially opening avenues for interventions that promote healthy aging.

Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity of Croton urticifolius Lam. Essential Oil Via Membrane Disruption

Antimicrobial resistance is a global health issue, in which microorganisms develop resistance to antimicrobial drugs, making infections more difficult to treat. This threatens the effectiveness of standard medical treatments and necessitates the urgent development of new strategies to combat resistant microbes. Studies have increasingly explored natural sources of new antimicrobial agents that harness the rich diversity of compounds found in plant species. This pursuit holds promise for the discovery of novel treatments for combating antimicrobial resistance. In this context, the chemical composition, antibacterial, and antibiofilm activities of the essential oil from Croton urticifolius Lam. leaves (CuEO) were evaluated. CuEO was extracted via hydrodistillation, and its chemical constituents were identified via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The antibacterial activity of CuEO was evaluated in a 96-well plate via the microdilution method, and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values were determined. The effect of CuEO on biofilm formation was assessed by quantifying the biomass using crystal violet staining and viable cell counting. In addition, alterations in the cellular morphology of biofilms treated with CuEO were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and laser confocal microscopy. GC/MS analysis identified 26 compounds, with elemicine (39.72%); eucalyptol (19.03%), E-caryophyllene (5.36%), and methyleugenol (4.12%) as the major compounds. In terms of antibacterial activity, CuEO showed bacteriostatic effects against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 700698, S. aureus ATCC 25923, Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228, and Escherichia coli ATCC 11303, and bactericidal activity against S. aureus ATCC 700698. In addition, CuEO significantly inhibited bacterial biofilm formation. Microscopic analysis showed that CuEO damaged the bacterial membrane by leaching out the cytoplasmic content. Therefore, the results of this study show that the essential oil of C. urticifolius may be a promising natural alternative for preventing infections caused by bacterial biofilms. This study is the first to report the antibiofilm activity of C. urticifolius essential oil.

Formulation Development and Evaluation of Cannabidiol Hot-Melt Extruded Solid Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Oral Applications

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a highly lipophilic compound with poor oral bioavailability, due to poor aqueous solubility and extensive pre-systemic metabolism. The aim of this study was to explore the potential of employing Hot Melt Extrusion (HME) technology for the continuous production of Self Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems (SEDDS) to improve the solubility and in vitro dissolution performance of CBD. Accordingly, different placebos were processed through HME in order to obtain a lead CBD loaded solid SEDDS. Two SEDDS were prepared with sesame oil, Poloxamer 188, Gelucire®59/14, PEO N80 and Soluplus®. Moreover, Vitamin E was added as an antioxidant. The SEDDS formulations demonstrated emulsification times of 9.19 and 9.30 min for F1 and F2 respectively. The formed emulsions showed smaller droplet size ranging from 150-400 nm that could improve lymphatic uptake of CBD and reduce first pass metabolism. Both formulations showed significantly faster in vitro dissolution rate (90% for F1 and 83% for F2) compared to 14% for the pure CBD within the first hour, giving an enhanced release profile. The formulations were tested for stability over a 60-day time period at 4°C, 25°C, and 40°C. Formulation F1 was stable over the 60-day time-period at 4°C. Therefore, the continuous HME technology could replace conventional methods for processing SEDDS and improve the oral delivery of CBD for better therapeutic outcomes.

Medicinal Anti-Inflammatory Patch Loaded with Lavender Essential Oil

Transdermal drug delivery offers a promising alternative for administering medications like ibuprofen, known for its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, with reduced gastrointestinal side effects compared to oral administration. This study explored the potential synergistic effects of combining ibuprofen with lavender essential oil (LEO) in transdermal patches. The composition of LEO was analyzed, revealing predominant compounds such as linalyl acetate and linalool, which are known for their analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. The physicochemical properties of the patches were investigated, indicating improved cohesion with the addition of LEO. Additionally, thermal stability assessments demonstrated enhanced stability with LEO incorporation with an increase in onset decomposition temperature from 49.0 to 67.9 °C. The antioxidant activity of patches containing LEO was significantly higher with a free radical scavenging ability of 79.13% RSA compared to 60% RSA in patches without LEO. Release and permeation studies showed that patches with LEO exhibited an increased permeation of ibuprofen through the skin with 74.40% of the drug released from LEO-containing patches compared to 36.29% from patches without LEO after 24 h. Moreover, the permeation rate was notably faster with LEO, indicating quicker therapeutic effects. The inclusion of LEO in transdermal patches containing ibuprofen holds promise for enhancing drug delivery efficiency and therapeutic effectiveness, offering a potential strategy for improved pain management with reduced side effects.

Effect of post-harvest drying period on the chemical composition of Zingiber zerumbet Sm. Rhizomes essential oil and its biological activities

Zingiber zerumbet Sm. (Family: Zingiberaceae) is an important perennial medicinal oil-bearing herb that is native to the Southeast Asia. This study examines the impact of different durations of post-harvest shade drying (ranging from 1 to 12 months) on essential oil yield and chemical composition of Z. zerumbet, in comparison to the freshly collected oil sample. This study explores how post-harvest shade drying impact the composition and longevity of Z. zerumbet rhizomes as well as its antimicrobial, antibiofilm activity. The oils were analyzed for their chemical composition analysis using a gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The post-harvest periods of drying (1-12 months) were discovered to enhance the concentration of marker constituents in the oil. The primary constituent, Zerumbone, was detected in concentrations ranging from 69.38 ± 5.63% to a maximum of 80.19 ± 1.53% as the drying duration of the rhizome was extended. The output of the essential oil was not significantly affected by drying times; however, it did have a noticeable impact on the proportions of monoterpenes. Both disc diffusion and broth microdilution assay were used in freshly collected Z. zerumbet oil for its antimicrobial potential against S. aureus, L. monocytogens, S. hominis, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, P. aeruginosa, S. intermedius, E. coli, and C. albicans. For the first time, the oil reported to exhibit antibiofilm activity against S. aureus which was validated using fluorescence microscopy, and effectively disrupts the biofilm by 47.38% revealing that essential oil was able to disintegrate the clusters of the pathogen. Z. zerumbet rhizome oil is effective to reduce food-borne microorganisms. Therefore, its essential oil, a natural source of bioactive zerumbone, may improve flavor, aroma, and preservation.

Combination of Chromatographic Analysis and Chemometric Methods with Bioactivity Evaluation of the Antibacterial Properties of Helichrysum italicum Essential Oil

Helichrysum italicum (immortelle) essential oil is one of the most popular essential oils worldwide and it has many beneficial properties, including antimicrobial. However, in this plant, the chemical diversity of the essential oil is very pronounced. The aim of this work was to process the GC-MS results of four samples of H. italicum essential oil of Serbian origin by chemometric tools, and evaluate the antimicrobial activity in vitro and in silico. Overall, 47 compounds were identified, the most abundant were γ-curcumene, α-pinene, and ar-curcumene, followed by α-ylangene, neryl acetate, trans-caryophyllene, italicene, α-selinene, limonene, and italidiones. Although the four samples of H. italicum essential oil used in this study were obtained from different producers in Serbia, they belong to the type of essential oil rich in sesquiterpenes (γ-curcumene and ar-curcumene chemotype). In vitro antimicrobial potential showed that five were sensitive among ten strains of tested microorganisms: Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Candida albicans. Therefore, these microorganism models were used further for in silico molecular docking through the mechanism of ATP-ase inhibitory activity. Results showed that among all compounds from H. italicum essential oil, neryl acetate has the highest predicted binding energy. Artificial neural network modeling (ANN) showed that two major compounds γ-curcumene and α-pinene, as well as minor compounds such as trans-β-ocimene, terpinolene, terpinene-4-ol, isoitalicene, italicene, cis-α-bergamotene, trans-α-bergamotene, italidiones, trans-β-farnesene, γ-selinene, β-selinene, α-selinene, and guaiol are responsible for the antimicrobial activity of H. italicum essential oil. The results of this study indicate that H. italicum essential oil samples rich in γ-curcumene, α-pinene, and ar-curcumene cultivated in Serbia (Balkan) have antimicrobial potential both in vitro and in silico. In addition, according to ANN modeling, the proportion of neryl acetate and other compounds detected in these samples has the potential to exhibit antimicrobial activity.

Clove Essential Oil: Chemical Profile, Biological Activities, Encapsulation Strategies, and Food Applications

Plants have proven to be important sources for discovering new compounds that are useful in the treatment of various diseases due to their phytoconstituents. Clove (Syzygium aromaticum L.), an aromatic plant widely cultivated around the world, has been traditionally used for food preservation and medicinal purposes. In particular, clove essential oil (CEO) has attracted attention for containing various bioactive compounds, such as phenolics (eugenol and eugenol acetate), terpenes (β-caryophyllene and α-humulene), and hydrocarbons. These constituents have found applications in cosmetics, food, and medicine industries due to their bioactivity. Pharmacologically, CEO has been tested against a variety of parasites and pathogenic microorganisms, demonstrating antibacterial and antifungal properties. Additionally, many studies have also demonstrated the analgesic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory effects of this essential oil. However, CEO could degrade for different reasons, impacting its quality and bioactivity. To address this challenge, encapsulation is viewed as a promising strategy that could prolong the shelf life of CEO, improving its physicochemical stability and application in various areas. This review examines the phytochemical composition and biological activities of CEO and its constituents, as well as extraction methods to obtain it. Moreover, encapsulation strategies for CEO and numerous applications in different food fields are also highlighted.

Antibacterial effects of chitosan-based hydrogels containing Trachyspermum ammi essential oil on pathogens isolated from dogs with otitis externa

BACKGROUND

Growing antibiotic resistance has made treating otitis externa (OE) increasingly challenging. On the other hand, local antimicrobial treatments, especially those that combine essential oils (EOs) with nanoparticles, tend to be preferred over systemic ones. It was investigated whether Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi) EO, combined with chitosan nanoparticles modified by cholesterol, could inhibit the growth of bacterial pathogens isolated from OE cases in dogs. In total, 57 dogs with clinical signs of OE were examined and bacteriologically tested. Hydrogels of Chitosan were synthesized by self-assembly and investigated. EO was extracted (Clevenger machine), and its ingredients were checked (GC-MS analysis) and encapsulated in chitosan-cholesterol nanoparticles. Disc-diffusion and broth Micro-dilution (MIC and MBC) examined its antimicrobial and therapeutic properties.

RESULTS

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (49.3%) was the most common bacteria isolated from OE cases, followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (14.7%), Escherichia coli (13.3%), Streptococcus canis (9.3%), Corynebacterium auriscanis (6.7%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (2.7%), Proteus mirabilis (2.7%), and Bacillus cereus (1.3%). The investigation into the antimicrobial properties of Ajwain EO encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles revealed that it exhibited a more pronounced antimicrobial effect against the pathogens responsible for OE.

CONCLUSIONS

Using chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated with EO presents an effective treatment approach for dogs with OE that conventional antimicrobial treatments have not cured. This approach not only enhances antibacterial effects but also reduces the required dosage of antimicrobials, potentially preventing the emergence of antimicrobial resistance.

Pore engineering of micro/mesoporous nanomaterials for encapsulation, controlled release and variegated applications of essential oils

Essential oils have become increasingly popular in fields of medical, food and agriculture, owing to their strongly antimicrobial, anti-inflammation and antioxidant effects, greatly meeting demand from consumers for healthy and safe natural products. However, the easy volatility and/or chemical instability of active ingredients of essential oils (EAIs) can result in the loss of activity before realizing their functions, which have greatly hindered the widely applications of EAIs. As an emerging trend, micro/mesoporous nanomaterials (MNs) have drawn great attention for encapsulation and controlled release of EAIs, owing to their tunable pore structural characteristics. In this review, we briefly discuss the recent advances of MNs that widely used in the controlled release of EAIs, including zeolites, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), mesoporous silica nanomaterials (MSNs), and provide a comprehensive summary focusing on the pore engineering strategies of MNs that affect their controlled-release or triggered-release for EAIs, including tailorable pore structure properties (e.g., pore size, pore surface area, pore volume, pore geometry, and framework compositions) and surface properties (surface modification and surface functionalization). Finally, the variegated applications and potential challenges are also given for MNs based delivery strategies for EAIs in the fields of healthcare, food and agriculture. These will provide considerable instructions for the rational design of MNs for controlled release of EAIs.

Natural-based edible nanocomposite coating for beef meat packaging

Researchers have made significant discoveries in addressing the limitations of essential oils (EOs) in food packaging using encapsulation systems combined with nanoparticles (NPs). This study aimed to develop a unique coating for beef preservation using nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). The optimal formulation of NLCs was determined based on size, zeta potential, and loading rate, achieving a content of 71.4% savory EO. A composite coating containing NPs was then created using different concentrations of NLCs (0, 0.85%, 1.7%, 2.55%, and 3.4%). The antimicrobial effectiveness of the coatings was assessed using well-diffusion assays to identify the best coating (17 mm). This optimized coating was applied to beef samples for 12 days, and extensive evaluation was conducted over time. The results demonstrated that the encapsulation percentage was higher than 98.7%. The optimal coating (CMC-OM-ZnO NPs-NLCs 3.4%) significantly reduced microbial growth (total count: over 1.6 log CFU/g), pH, thiobarbituric acid value (TBA), and total volatile nitrogen (TVN) compared with the control samples (P < 0.05). Overall, this novel bioactive packaging enriched with lipidic and inorganic nanomaterials represents an innovative way to improve meat products' oxidative and microbial stability.

Microencapsulation for Pharmaceutical Applications: A Review

In order to improve bioavailability, stability, control release, and target delivery of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), as well as to mask their bitter taste, to increase their efficacy, and to minimize their side effects, a variety of microencapsulation (including nanoencapsulation, particle size <100 nm) technologies have been widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. Commonly used microencapsulation technologies are emulsion, coacervation, extrusion, spray drying, freeze-drying, molecular inclusion, microbubbles and microsponge, fluidized bed coating, supercritical fluid encapsulation, electro spinning/spray, and polymerization. In this review, APIs are categorized by their molecular complexity: small APIs (compounds with low molecular weight, like Aspirin, Ibuprofen, and Cannabidiol), medium APIs (compounds with medium molecular weight like insulin, peptides, and nucleic acids), and living microorganisms (such as probiotics, bacteria, and bacteriophages). This article provides an overview of these microencapsulation technologies including their processes, matrix, and their recent applications in microencapsulation of APIs. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of these common microencapsulation technologies in terms of improving the efficacy of APIs for pharmaceutical treatments are comprehensively analyzed. The objective is to summarize the most recent progresses on microencapsulation of APIs for enhancing their bioavailability, control release, target delivery, masking their bitter taste and stability, and thus increasing their efficacy and minimizing their side effects. At the end, future perspectives on microencapsulation for pharmaceutical applications are highlighted.

Chitosan-Based Nanoencapsulated Essential Oils: Potential Leads against Breast Cancer Cells in Preclinical Studies

Since ancient times, essential oils (EOs) derived from aromatic plants have played a significant role in promoting human health. EOs are widely used in biomedical applications due to their medicinal properties. EOs and their constituents have been extensively studied for treating various health-related disorders, including cancer. Nonetheless, their biomedical applications are limited due to several drawbacks. Recent advances in nanotechnology offer the potential for utilising EO-loaded nanoparticles in the treatment of various diseases. In this aspect, chitosan (CS) appears as an exceptional encapsulating agent owing to its beneficial attributes. This review highlights the use of bioactive EOs and their constituents against breast cancer cells. Challenges associated with the use of EOs in biomedical applications are addressed. Essential information on the benefits of CS as an encapsulant, the advantages of nanoencapsulated EOs, and the cytotoxic actions of CS-based nanoencapsulated EOs against breast cancer cells is emphasised. Overall, the nanodelivery of bioactive EOs employing polymeric CS represents a promising avenue against breast cancer cells in preclinical studies.

Effect of Essential Oil Components on the Activity of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may impact the development of prostate cancer (PCa) by altering the steroid metabolism. Although their exact mechanism of action in controlling tumor growth is not known, EDCs may inhibit steroidogenic enzymes such as CYP17A1 or CYP19A1 which are involved in the production of androgens or estrogens. High levels of circulating androgens are linked to PCa in men and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) in women. Essential oils or their metabolites, like lavender oil and tea tree oil, have been reported to act as potential EDCs and contribute towards sex steroid imbalance in cases of prepubertal gynecomastia in boys and premature thelarche in girls due to the exposure to lavender-based fragrances. We screened a range of EO components to determine their effects on CYP17A1 and CYP19A1. Computational docking was performed to predict the binding of essential oils with CYP17A1 and CYP19A1. Functional assays were performed using the radiolabeled substrates or Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry and cell viability assays were carried out in LNCaP cells. Many of the tested compounds bind close to the active site of CYP17A1, and (+)-Cedrol had the best binding with CYP17A1 and CYP19A1. Eucalyptol, Dihydro-β-Ionone, and (-)-α-pinene showed 20% to 40% inhibition of dehydroepiandrosterone production; and some compounds also effected CYP19A1. Extensive use of these essential oils in various beauty and hygiene products is common, but only limited knowledge about their potential detrimental side effects exists. Our results suggest that prolonged exposure to some of these essential oils may result in steroid imbalances. On the other hand, due to their effect on lowering androgen output and ability to bind at the active site of steroidogenic cytochrome P450s, these compounds may provide design ideas for novel compounds against hyperandrogenic disorders such as PCa and PCOS.

Lipid-based nanocarriers for enhanced delivery of plant-derived bioactive molecules: a comprehensive review

Bioactive compounds derived from plants have been investigated for treating various pathological conditions. However, the utilization of these compounds has challenges such as instability, low solubility and bioavailability. To overcome these challenges, the encapsulation of bioactive molecules with in a novel nano carrier system enabling effective delivery and clinical translation has become essential. Lipid-based nanocarriers provide versatile platforms for encapsulating and delivering bioactive compounds and overcome the challenges. These novel carriers can improve solubility, stability, improved drug retention and therapeutic efficacy of plant derived bioactive compounds. The current review evaluates the challenges in delivery of plant bioactives and highlights the potential of various lipid-based nano carriers designed to improve its therapeutic efficacy.