Carbohydrates Used in Polymeric Systems for Drug Delivery: From Structures to Applications

Polymeric microneedle advancements in macromolecule drug delivery: current trends, challenges, and future perspectives

Microneedles (MNs) offer a transformative solution for delivering macromolecules, including proteins, RNA, and peptides. These are critical in treating complex diseases but face significant challenges such as immunogenicity, poor stability, high molecular weight, and delivery efficiency. Unlike conventional methods, MNs efficiently bypass biological barriers like the stratum corneum, enabling precise and minimally invasive transdermal drug delivery. This review explores various MN types such as solid, coated, hollow, hydrogel-forming, and dissolving and their therapeutic applications in cancer immunotherapy, diabetes management, and osteoporosis treatment. For instance, dissolving MNs have been employed for transdermal insulin delivery, enhancing patient compliance and therapeutic outcomes. Similarly, hydrogel MNs have shown promise in sustained drug release for immunotherapy applications. By addressing cost and scalability issues, polymeric MNs demonstrate significant potential for clinical translation, paving the way for innovations in macromolecule delivery, diagnostics, and personalised medicine. This review underscores the pivotal role of MNs in redefining drug delivery systems, offering improved efficacy, patient comfort, and accessibility.

Antibiotic Action, Drug Delivery, Biodegradability, and Wound Regeneration Characteristics of Surgical Sutures and Cutting-Edge Surgical Suture Manufacturing Technologies

(1) Background: With the emergence of various super bacteria, interest in antibacterial properties, drug delivery, and wound regeneration is increasing in the field of surgical materials. There are many studies on surgical sutures, but not many recent ones that have studied structurally subdivided functions. Accordingly, various studies on surgical sutures were classified based on the main functions that are considered important, and studies were conducted by categorizing the latest production technology into 3D printing and electrospinning. (2) Methods: Data from the literature (n = 1077) were collected from databases such as PubMed, Harvard.edu, MDPI, Google Scholar, Web of Science, ACS, Nature, and IOP Publishing. The selected 103 papers were divided into two main groups: cutting-edge characteristics of surgical sutures and the latest technologies for manufacturing surgical sutures. (3) Results: Cutting-edge characteristics of surgical sutures were divided into four major categories: antibacterial, drug delivery, biodegradability, and wound regeneration, and examined in depth. In addition, the final technologies for manufacturing surgical sutures were divided into electrospinning and 3D printing. (4) Conclusions: The results of this study can contribute to the development of multifunctional surgical sutures that promote wound regeneration through antibacterial properties, drug elution, and biodegradability.

An investigation of the mechanical properties and adsorption potentials of Fe2O3@SiO2-L-cysteine-cellulose system

In this study, the Fe2O3@SiO2-L-cysteine-cellulose system was synthesized and characterized through XRD, FT-IR, EDS, and TGA-DTA analyses. This system's adsorption performance was evaluated for removing heavy metals such as Cr, Cd, Ni, and Pb from synthetic wastewater. The magnetic core demonstrated a beneficial effect on enhancing the metal adsorption capacity of the polymer, while the magnetic properties facilitated the recyclability of the adsorbent. The adsorption of Cr(VI), Cd(II), Ni(II), and Pb(II) ions was explored under varying conditions of pH, temperature, metal ion concentration, and adsorbent dosage. Maximum adsorption capacities for Cd(II), Ni(II), and Pb(II) ions were recorded at 423.56 mg/g, 426.32 mg/g, and 422.21 mg/g, respectively, under optimal conditions of pH 6.5, metal ion concentration of 600 mg/L, an adsorbent dose of 0.07 g, and room temperature. Additionally, the adsorption capacity of the material for water, N2, and CO2 was assessed. The system exhibited excellent removal efficiency for Cr(VI) ions (˃98%) at an initial Cr(VI) concentration of 90 mg/L using 0.07 g of the adsorbent. The combination of Fe2O3@SiO2, L-cysteine, and cellulose in one adsorbent system performs distinct advantages for heavy metal adsorption such as enhanced surface area of adsorbent, preventing degradation in harsh conditions, magnetic separation and reusability of the adsorbent.

Polysaccharides as therapeutic vehicles in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is highly aggressive, with rising incidence and mortality rates. It has significant therapy obstacles due to the limited clinical options, late-stage identification, dense tumor microenvironment (TME), and resistance to therapy. Recent advances might improve treatment consequences in therapy strategies that target important TME components. Moreover, new polymeric drug delivery techniques based on polysaccharides such as polymeric micelles, liposomes, and nanoparticles enhance the solubility of drugs, drug stability, and tumor-specific targeting, which increase the chances of circumventing resistance and improving the efficacy of treatment. Preclinical research has suggested that by modulating the TME and enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapy, polysaccharide-based therapy, such as RP02-1 and DPLL-functionalized amylose, may help treat PC.

Trimetallic ferrite functionalized by guaninium tartrate ionic liquid (Co0.2Zn0.6Cu0.2Fe2O4-SiO2@[GuaH]+[Tar]2‒[GuaH]+) as a novel inorganic-bioorganic nanostructure to promote aqua-mediated synthesis of polyhydroxy-substituted pyridine-dipyrimidine fused heterocycles

In this work, a Cobalt-Zinc-Copper ferrite (Co0.2Zn0.6Cu0.2Fe2O4, CZCF) was synthesized and functionalized with silica and guaninium tartrate ionic liquid (Co0.2Zn0.6Cu0.2Fe2O4-SiO2@[GuaH]+[Tar]2‒[GuaH]+). The novel bio-nanostructure was characterized by various techniques such as fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX), EDAX mapping, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric/differential thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA/DTG), vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM), high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), and zeta potential analysis. The synthesized bio-nanocomposite exhibited high catalytic activity for the aqua-mediated synthesis of polyhydroxy-substituted pyridine-dipyrimidine fused heterocycles through the one-pot pseudo four-component reaction of carbohydrates (sugars), barbituric acid, and amines under refluxing conditions. The recyclability and reusability of the bio-nanocatalyst were successfully investigated for up to three runs. Moreover, the features of the recovered Co0.2Zn0.6Cu0.2Fe2O4-SiO2@[GuaH]+[Tar]2‒[GuaH]+ were examined via the EDAX analysis and FESEM images. In the theoretical section, the interaction sites between L-tartaric acid and guanine in an aqueous medium were investigated at the B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) computational level. Additionally, the formation of more stable configurations of dimers and trimers in IL was studied from a thermodynamic point of view.

Bioengineered carbohydrate polymers for colon-specific drug release: Current trends and future prospects

The worldwide health burden of colorectal cancer is still substantial, and traditional chemotherapeutic drugs sometimes have poor selectivity, which can result in systemic toxicity and unfavorable side effects. For colon-specific medication delivery, bioengineered carbohydrate polymers have shown promise as carriers. They may enhance treatment effectiveness while minimizing systemic exposure and associated side effects. The unique properties of these manufactured or naturally occurring biopolymers, such as hyaluronic acid, chitosan, alginate, and pectin, enable targeted medicine release. These qualities can be changed to meet the physiological needs of the colon. In the context of colorectal cancer therapy, this article provides a comprehensive overview of current developments and prospective future directions in the field of bioengineered carbohydrate polymer synthesis for colon-specific drug delivery. We discuss numerous techniques for achieving colon-targeted drug release, including enzyme-sensitive polymers, pH-responsive devices, and microbiota-activated processes. To increase tumor selectivity and cellular uptake, we also examine the inclusion of active targeting approaches, such as conjugating specific ligands. Furthermore, we discuss the potential of combination treatment strategies, which use the coadministration of numerous therapeutic medications to target multiple pathways implicated in cancer growth and address drug resistance mechanisms. We address recent biomimetic advances that potentially improve the biocompatibility, cellular uptake, and tumor penetration of carbohydrate polymer-based nanocarriers. These methods involve protein corona engineering and cell membrane coating. Furthermore, we look at the possibility of intelligent and sensitive systems that may adjust their behaviors in response to certain inputs or feedback loops, allowing for precise and regulated drug distribution.

A review of the fungal polysaccharides as natural biopolymers: Current applications and future perspective

As a unique natural resource, fungi are a sustainable source of lipids, polysaccharides, vitamins, proteins, and other nutrients. As a result, they have beneficial medicinal and nutritional properties. Polysaccharides are among the most significant bioactive components found in fungi. Increasing research has revealed that fungal polysaccharides (FPS) contain a variety of bioactivities, including antitumor, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and anti-aging properties. However, the exact knowledge about FPS and their applications related to their future possibilities must be thoroughly examined to enhance a better understanding of this sustainable biopolymer source. Therefore, FPS' biological applications and their role in the food and feed industry, agriculture, and cosmetics applications were all discussed in this work. In addition, this review highlighted the mode of action of FPS on human diseases by regulating gut microbiota and discussed the mechanism of FPS as antioxidants in the living cell. The structure-activity connections of FPS were also highlighted and explored. Moreover, future perspectives were listed to pave the way for future studies of FPS applications. Hence, this study can be a scientific foundation for future FPS research and industrial applications.

Dietary Influence on Drug Efficacy: A Comprehensive Review of Ketogenic Diet-Pharmacotherapy Interactions

It is widely acknowledged that the ketogenic diet (KD) has positive physiological effects as well as therapeutic benefits, particularly in the treatment of chronic diseases. Maintaining nutritional ketosis is of utmost importance in the KD, as it provides numerous health advantages such as an enhanced lipid profile, heightened insulin sensitivity, decreased blood glucose levels, and the modulation of diverse neurotransmitters. Nevertheless, the integration of the KD with pharmacotherapeutic regimens necessitates careful consideration. Due to changes in their absorption, distribution, metabolism, or elimination, the KD can impact the pharmacokinetics of various medications, including anti-diabetic, anti-epileptic, and cardiovascular drugs. Furthermore, the KD, which is characterised by the intake of meals rich in fats, has the potential to impact the pharmacokinetics of specific medications with high lipophilicity, hence enhancing their absorption and bioavailability. However, the pharmacodynamic aspects of the KD, in conjunction with various pharmaceutical interventions, can provide either advantageous or detrimental synergistic outcomes. Therefore, it is important to consider the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions that may arise between the KD and various drugs. This assessment is essential not only for ensuring patients' compliance with treatment but also for optimising the overall therapeutic outcome, particularly by mitigating adverse reactions. This highlights the significance and necessity of tailoring pharmacological and dietetic therapies in order to enhance the effectiveness and safety of this comprehensive approach to managing chronic diseases.

Different Targeting Ligands-Mediated Drug Delivery Systems for Tumor Therapy

Traditional tumor treatments have the drawback of harming both tumor cells and normal cells, leading to significant systemic toxic side effects. As a result, there is a pressing need for targeted drug delivery methods that can specifically target cells or tissues. Currently, researchers have made significant progress in developing targeted drug delivery systems for tumor therapy using various targeting ligands. This review aims to summarize recent advancements in targeted drug delivery systems for tumor therapy, focusing on different targeting ligands such as folic acid, carbohydrates, peptides, aptamers, and antibodies. The review also discusses the advantages, challenges, and future prospects of these targeted drug delivery systems.

Dysprosium-containing Cobalt Sulfide Nanoparticles as Anticancer Drug Carriers

BACKGROUND

Among various materials designed for anticancer drug transport, sulfide nanoparticles are uniquely intriguing owing to their spectral characteristics. Exploration of newer nanoscale copper sulfide particles with dysprosium doping is reported herein. It leads to a change in the physicochemical properties of the sulfide nanoparticles and hence the difference in drug release and cytotoxicity.

OBJECTIVE

We intend to purport the suitably engineered cobalt sulfide and dysprosium-doped cobalt sulfide nanoparticles that are magnetic and NIR-absorbing, as drug delivery vehicles. The drug loading and release are based on the supramolecular drug complex formation on the surface of the nanoparticles.

METHOD

The nanomaterials are synthesized employing hydrothermal procedures, coated with a biocompatible poly-β-cyclodextrin, and characterized using the methods of diffractometry, microscopy, spectroscopy, thermogravimetry and magnetometry. The sustained drug release is investigated in vitro. 5-Fluorouracil is loaded in the nanocarriers. The empty and 5-fluorouracil-loaded nanocarriers are screened for their anti-breast cancer activity in vitro on MCF-7 cells.

RESULTS

The size of the nanoparticles is below 10 nm. They show soft ferromagnetic characteristics. Further, they show broad NIR absorption bands extending up to 1200 nm, with the dysprosium-doped material displaying greater absorbance. The drug 5-fluorouracil is encapsulated in the nanocarriers and released sustainably, with the expulsion duration extending over 10 days. The IC50 of the blank and the drug-loaded cobalt sulfide are 16.24 ± 3.6 and 12.2 ± 2.6 μg mL-1, respectively. For the drug-loaded, dysprosium-doped nanocarrier, the IC50 value is 9.7 ± 0.3 μg mL-1.

CONCLUSION

The ultrasmall nanoparticles possess a size suitable for drug delivery and are dispersed well in the aqueous medium. The release of the loaded 5-fluorouracil is slow and sustained. The anticancer activity of the drug-loaded nanocarrier shows an increase in efficacy, and the cytotoxicity is appreciable due to the controlled release. The nanocarriers show multi-functional characteristics, i.e., magnetic and NIR-absorbing, and are promising drug delivery agents.

Exploring the diverse applications of Carbohydrate macromolecules in food, pharmaceutical, and environmental technologies

Carbohydrates are a class of macromolecules that has significant potential across several domains, including the organisation of genetic material, provision of structural support, and facilitation of defence mechanisms against invasion. Their molecular diversity enables a vast array of essential functions, such as energy storage, immunological signalling, and the modification of food texture and consistency. Due to their rheological characteristics, solubility, sweetness, hygroscopicity, ability to prevent crystallization, flavour encapsulation, and coating capabilities, carbohydrates are useful in food products. Carbohydrates hold potential for the future of therapeutic development due to their important role in sustained drug release, drug targeting, immune antigens, and adjuvants. Bio-based packaging provides an emerging phase of materials that offer biodegradability and biocompatibility, serving as a substitute for traditional non-biodegradable polymers used as coatings on paper. Blending polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) with carbohydrate biopolymers, such as starch, cellulose, polylactic acid, etc., reduces the undesirable qualities of PHA, such as crystallinity and brittleness, and enhances the PHA's properties in addition to minimizing manufacturing costs. Carbohydrate-based biopolymeric nanoparticles are a viable and cost-effective way to boost agricultural yields, which is crucial for the increasing global population. The use of biopolymeric nanoparticles derived from carbohydrates is a potential and economically viable approach to enhance the quality and quantity of agricultural harvests, which is of utmost importance given the developing global population. The carbohydrate biopolymers may play in plant protection against pathogenic fungi by inhibiting spore germination and mycelial growth, may act as effective elicitors inducing the plant immune system to cope with pathogens. Furthermore, they can be utilised as carriers in controlled-release formulations of agrochemicals or other active ingredients, offering an alternative approach to conventional fungicides. It is expected that this review provides an extensive summary of the application of carbohydrates in the realms of food, pharmaceuticals, and environment.

Carbohydrate polymers-based surface modified nano delivery systems for enhanced target delivery to colon cancer - A review

Carbohydrate polymers-based surface-modified nano-delivery systems have gained significant attention in recent years for enhancing targeted delivery to colon cancer. These systems leverage carbohydrate polymers' unique properties, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and controlled release. These properties make them suitable candidates for drug delivery applications. Nano-delivery systems loaded with bioactive compounds are well-studied for targeted colorectal cancer delivery. However, those drugs' target reach is still limited in various nano-delivery systems. To overcome this limitation, surface modification of nanoparticles with carbohydrate polymers like chitosan, pectin, alginate, and guar gum showed enhanced target-reaching capacity along with enhanced anticancer efficacy. Recently, a chitosan-decorated PLGA nanoparticle was constructed with tannic acid and vitamin E and showed long-term release of specific targets along with higher anticancer efficacy. Similarly, Chitosan-conjugated glucuronic acid-coated silica nanoparticles loaded with capecitabine were studied against colon cancer and found to be the pH-responsive controlled release of capecitabine with higher anticancer efficacy. Surface-modified carbohydrate polymers have promising potential for improving colon cancer target delivery. By leveraging the unique properties of these polymers, such as surface modification, pH responsiveness, mucoadhesion, controlled drug release, and combination therapy, researchers are working toward developing more effective and targeted treatment strategies for colon cancer.

In Vivo Application of Carboranes for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT): Structure, Formulation and Analytical Methods for Detection

Carboranes have emerged as one of the most promising boron agents in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). In this context, in vivo studies are particularly relevant, since they provide qualitative and quantitative information about the biodistribution of these molecules, which is of the utmost importance to determine the efficacy of BNCT, defining their localization and (bio)accumulation, as well as their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. First, we gathered a detailed list of the carboranes used for in vivo studies, considering the synthesis of carborane derivatives or the use of delivery system such as liposomes, micelles and nanoparticles. Then, the formulation employed and the cancer model used in each of these studies were identified. Finally, we examined the analytical aspects concerning carborane detection, identifying the main methodologies applied in the literature for ex vivo and in vivo analysis. The present work aims to identify the current strengths and weakness of the use of carboranes in BNCT, establishing the bottlenecks and the best strategies for future applications.

Synthesis of Glycopolymer Micelles for Antibiotic Delivery

In this work, we designed biodegradable glycopolymers consisting of a carbohydrate conjugated to a biodegradable polymer, poly(lactic acid) (PLA), through a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) linker. The glycopolymers were synthesized by coupling alkyne end-functionalized PEG-PLA with azide-derivatized mannose, trehalose, or maltoheptaose via the click reaction. The coupling yield was in the range of 40-50% and was independent of the size of the carbohydrate. The resulting glycopolymers were able to form micelles with the hydrophobic PLA in the core and the carbohydrates on the surface, as confirmed by binding with the lectin Concanavalin A. The glycomicelles were ~30 nm in diameter with low size dispersity. The glycomicelles were able to encapsulate both non-polar (rifampicin) and polar (ciprofloxacin) antibiotics. Rifampicin-encapsulated micelles were much smaller (27-32 nm) compared to the ciprofloxacin-encapsulated micelles (~417 nm). Moreover, more rifampicin was loaded into the glycomicelles (66-80 μg/mg, 7-8%) than ciprofloxacin (1.2-2.5 μg/mg, 0.1-0.2%). Despite the low loading, the antibiotic-encapsulated glycomicelles were at least as active or 2-4 times more active than the free antibiotics. For glycopolymers without the PEG linker, the antibiotics encapsulated in micelles were 2-6 times worse than the free antibiotics.

Recent progressions in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications of chitosan nanoparticles: A comprehensive review

Nowadays, the most common approaches in the prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases are along with undeniable limitations. Thus, the ever-increasing need for using biocompatible natural materials and novel practical modalities is required. Applying biomaterials, such as chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs: FDA-approved long-chain polymer of N-acetyl-glucosamine and D-glucosamine for some pharmaceutical applications), can serve as an appropriate alternative to overcome these limitations. Recently, the biomedical applications of CS NPs have extensively been investigated. These NPs and their derivatives can not only prepare through different physical and chemical approaches but also modify with various molecules and bioactive materials. The potential properties of CS NPs, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, serum stability, solubility, non-immunogenicity, anti-inflammatory properties, appropriate pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and so forth, have made them excellent candidates for biomedical applications. Therefore, CS NPs have efficiently applied for various biomedical applications, like regenerative medicine and tissue engineering, biosensors for the detection of microorganisms, and drug delivery systems (DDS) for the suppression of diseases. These NPs possess a high level of biosafety. In summary, CS NPs have the potential ability for biomedical and clinical applications, and it would be remarkably beneficial to develop new generations of CS-based material for the future of medicine.

Sugar content and erosive potential of commonly prescribed Orodispersible tablets- An in vitro study

Background: Dental caries is a major non-communicable disease of public health concern caused due to freely available dietary sugars. We aimed to compare the sugar content and erosive potential with duration of use and drug classes of orodispersible tablets (ODTs).  Methods: We conducted an  in vitro evaluation of the total sugar content (TSC), Potential of Hydrogen (pH), solubility, and Titratable Acidity (TA) of commonly prescribed 62 ODTs. TA was measured by titrating the samples with known amount of. 0.1N sodium hydroxide (NaOH) with phenolphthalein indicator and pH was determined by digital pH meter. TSC was evaluated by phenol sulphuric acid. Solubility was assessed by filtration.  Results: Out of the 62 ODTs, majority were Antimicrobials (n=30). One-quarter of the ODTs (26%) had a mean pH below ≤5.5. No significant difference was seen in the mean pH with respect to different drug classes (p=0.082) and duration of use of ODTs. A significant difference was seen in the mean percentage solubility with respect to drug classes (p<0.001). Antimicrobials had the least percentage of solubility as compared to other drug classes. Antiemetics and proton pump inhibitors (24.33 ± 17.34) had significantly higher mean percentage sugar content than Antimicrobials (23.25 ± 17.16). No significant difference was seen in the mean TSC with respect to various drug classes (p=0.718) and between the duration of use of drugs (P=0.568) respectively. No significant difference was seen in the mean percentage TA with respect to drug class (p=0.123) and duration of use of drugs (p=0.424).   Conclusion: Overall, we can conclude that one in four ODT formulations had a pH below 5.5 (critical pH).  Only one ODT formulation did not have a sugar content. No difference was seen in the mean pH, sugar content, and TA with respect to duration of use of drugs and drug classes.

Sugar content and erosive potential of commonly prescribed Orodispersible tablets- An in vitro study

Background: Dental caries is a major non-communicable disease of public health concern caused due to freely available dietary sugars. We aimed to compare the sugar content and erosive potential with duration of use and drug classes of orodispersible tablets (ODTs).  Methods: We conducted an  in vitro evaluation of the total sugar content (TSC), Potential of Hydrogen (pH), solubility, and Titratable Acidity (TA) of commonly prescribed 62 ODTs. TA was measured by titrating the samples with known amount of. 0.1N sodium hydroxide (NaOH) with phenolphthalein indicator and pH was determined by digital pH meter. TSC was evaluated by phenol sulphuric acid. Solubility was assessed by filtration.  Results: Out of the 62 ODTs, majority were Antimicrobials (n=30). One-quarter of the ODTs (26%) had a mean pH below ≤5.5. No significant difference was seen in the mean pH with respect to different drug classes (p=0.082) and duration of use of ODTs. A significant difference was seen in the mean percentage solubility with respect to drug classes (p<0.001). Antimicrobials had the least percentage of solubility as compared to other drug classes. Antiemetics and proton pump inhibitors (24.33 ± 17.34) had significantly higher mean percentage sugar content than Antimicrobials (23.25 ± 17.16). No significant difference was seen in the mean TSC with respect to various drug classes (p=0.718) and between the duration of use of drugs (P=0.568) respectively. No significant difference was seen in the mean percentage TA with respect to drug class (p=0.123) and duration of use of drugs (p=0.424).   Conclusion: Overall, we can conclude that one in four ODT formulations had a pH below 5.5 (critical pH).  Only one ODT formulation did not have a sugar content. No difference was seen in the mean pH, sugar content, and TA with respect to duration of use of drugs and drug classes.

Carbohydrate ligands-directed active tumor targeting of combinatorial chemotherapy/phototherapy-based nanomedicine: A review

Phototherapies or light mediated therapies, including mutually photothermal and photodynamic therapy that encompass irradiation of the target organs with light, have been widely employed as minimally invasive approach associated with negligible drug resistance for eradicating multiple tumors with minimal hazards to normal organs. Despite all these advantages, many obstacles in phototherapy hinder progress toward clinical application. Therefore, researchers have developed nano-particulate delivery systems integrated with phototherapy and therapeutic cytotoxic drugs to overcome these obstacles and achieve maximum efficacy in cancer treatment. Active targeting ligands were integrated into their surfaces to improve the selectivity and tumor targeting ability, enabling easy binding and recognition by cellular receptors overexpressed on the tumor tissue compared to normal ones. This enhances intratumoral accumulation with minimal toxicity on the adjacent normal cells. Various active targeting ligands, including antibodies, aptamers, peptides, lactoferrin, folic acid and carbohydrates, have been explored for the targeted delivery of chemotherapy/phototherapy-based nanomedicine. Among these ligands, carbohydrates have been applied due to their unique features that ameliorate the bioadhesive, noncovalent conjugation to biological tissues. In this review, the up-to-date techniques of employing carbohydrates active targeting ligands will be highlighted concerning the surface modification of the nanoparticles for ameliorating the targeting ability of the chemo/phototherapy.

Cyclodextrin metal-organic framework-based protein biocomposites

Materials are needed to increase the stability and half-life of therapeutic proteins during delivery. These materials should be biocompatible and biodegradable. Here, we demonstrate that enzymes and immunoproteins can be encapsulated inside cyclodextrin based metal-organic frameworks using potassium as the metal node. The release profile can be controlled with the solubility of the cyclodextrin linker. The activity of the proteins after release is determined using catalytic and in vitro assays. The results show that cyclodextrin metal-organic framework-based protein biocomposites are a promising class of materials to deliver therapeutic proteins.

Bioengineered Carboxymethylcellulose-Peptide Hybrid Nanozyme Cascade for Targeted Intracellular Biocatalytic-Magnetothermal Therapy of Brain Cancer Cells

Glioblastoma remains the most lethal form of brain cancer, where hybrid nanomaterials biofunctionalized with polysaccharide peptides offer disruptive strategies relying on passive/active targeting and multimodal therapy for killing cancer cells. Thus, in this research, we report for the first time the rational design and synthesis of novel hybrid colloidal nanostructures composed of gold nanoparticles stabilized by trisodium citrate (AuNP@TSC) as the oxidase-like nanozyme, coupled with cobalt-doped superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles stabilized by carboxymethylcellulose ligands (Co-MION@CMC) as the peroxidase-like nanozyme. They formed inorganic-inorganic dual-nanozyme systems functionalized by a carboxymethylcellulose biopolymer organic shell, which can trigger a biocatalytic cascade reaction in the cancer tumor microenvironment for the combination of magnetothermal-chemodynamic therapy. These nanoassemblies were produced through a green aqueous process under mild conditions and chemically biofunctionalized with integrin-targeting peptide (iRDG), creating bioengineered nanocarriers. The results demonstrated that the oxidase-like nanozyme (AuNP) was produced with a crystalline face-centered cubic nanostructure, spherical morphology (diameter = 16 ± 3 nm), zeta potential (ZP) of -50 ± 5 mV, and hydrodynamic diameter (DH) of 15 ± 1 nm. The peroxide-like nanostructure (POD, Co-MION@CMC) contained an inorganic crystalline core of magnetite and had a uniform spherical shape (2R = 7 ± 1 nm) which, summed to the contribution of the CMC shell, rendered a hydrodynamic diameter of 45 ± 4 nm and a negative surface charge (ZP = -41 ± 5 mV). Upon coupling both nanozymes, water-dispersible colloidal supramolecular vesicle-like organic-inorganic nanostructures were produced (AuNP//Co-MION@CMC, ZP = -45 ± 4 mV and DH = 28 ± 3 nm). They confirmed dual-nanozyme cascade biocatalytic activity targeted by polymer-peptide conjugates (AuNP//Co-MION@CMC_iRGD, ZP = -29 ± 3 mV and DH = 60 ± 4 nm) to kill brain cancer cells (i.e., bioenergy "starvation" by glucose deprivation and oxidative stress through reactive oxygen species generation), which was boosted by the magneto-hyperthermotherapy effect when submitted to the alternating magnetic field (i.e., induced local thermal stress by "nanoheaters"). This groundwork offers a wide avenue of opportunities to develop innovative theranostic nanoplatforms with multiple integrated functionalities for fighting cancer and reducing the harsh side effects of conventional chemotherapy.