Minimalist revision and description of 403 new species in 11 subfamilies of Costa Rican braconid parasitoid wasps, including host records for 219 species

Delimiting Species-Prospects and Challenges for DNA Barcoding

Discovering, describing and cataloguing global species diversity remains a fundamental challenge both for biodiversity research and for the management and conservation of biodiversity. Among animals, the challenge is particularly acute within the arthropods, which comprise approximately 85% of all described animals, with approximately 1 million described species. The true number of arthropod species is estimated to be in excess of 10 million species. This estimate is likely to be revised upward in the light of global DNA barcode sequencing initiatives that are cataloguing unprecedented levels of cryptic or overlooked diversity. The scale of diversity that is being recovered with barcode sequencing places further strain on a taxonomic system confronted by ever-limited global taxonomic capacity to verify and describe new species. It is predicted that the number of novel operational taxonomic units delimited by barcode sequencing is likely to eclipse the number of species described by Linnean taxonomy by as early as 2029. Unless addressed, this may see an increasing proportion of arthropod species falling outside of protective legislative frameworks as a consequence of their lack of formal description. Confronted with this challenge, there is increasing, but controversial, acceptance of species delimitation and species description based on barcode sequence clustering thresholds. In response to the evolving controversy surrounding this issue, it is both timely and important to identify and clarify prospects and challenges for DNA barcoding, with a specific focus on species delimitation to address important shortfalls and impediments in biodiversity research.

DNA barcoding, integrative taxonomy, citizen science, and Bush Blitz surveys combine to reveal 34 new species of Apanteles (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Microgastrinae) in Australia

Microgastrinae is a megadiverse subfamily of wasps in the family Braconidae. As parasitoids of caterpillars, members of the subfamily play important roles in regulating native caterpillar populations, and several species are used commercially as biological control agents. The genus Apanteles comprises a large portion of total microgastrine diversity, however it has not been studied in Australia for more than 30 years, with only nine described species previously known from the continent. We explore the diversity and systematics of Apanteles in Australia, using cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and Wingless (wg) DNA barcodes from more than 400 Australian Apanteles specimens. Using molecular species delimitation in combination with reduced morphological diagnoses, at least 48 distinct molecular lineages of Apanteles are confirmed in Australia, and 34 new species are formally described, all authored by Slater-Baker, Fagan-Jeffries, Fernández-Triana, Portmann & Oestmann: A.adustus, A.aeternus, A.alatomicans, A.allapsus, A.amicalis, A.apollo, A.apricus, A.artemis, A.aurantius, A.auroralis, A.banrock, A.breviflagellarius, A.brockhedgesi, A.cuprum, A.darthvaderi, A.doreenwatlerae, A.ethanbeaveri, A.fenestrinus, A.ferripulvis, A.focusalis, A.hades, A.insulanus, A.kelpiellus, A.lamingtonensis, A.ligdus, A.magicus, A.margaritarius, A.pellucidus, A.phantasmatus, A.pharusalis, A.ramsaris, A.rufiterra, A.sinusulus, and A.translucentis.

First record of the subgenus Megachelonus Baker, 1926 (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Cheloninae, genus Chelonus Panzer, 1806) for the Afrotropical region (southwestern region of Saudi Arabia), with the description of a new species

The subgenus Megachelonus Baker, 1926 of the cosmopolitan genus Chelonus Panzer, 1806 is recorded for the first time in the Afrotropical region, in a coffee orchard in Jazan (southwestern Saudi Arabia). A new species, Chelonus (Megachelonus) arabicus Soliman & Gadallah, is described and illustrated.

Illuminating Entomological Dark Matter with DNA Barcodes in an Era of Insect Decline, Deep Learning, and Genomics

Most insects encountered in the field are initially entomological dark matter in that they cannot be identified to species while alive. This explains the enduring quest for efficient ways to identify collected specimens. Morphological tools came first but are now routinely replaced or complemented with DNA barcodes. Initially too expensive for widespread use, these barcodes have since evolved into powerful tools for specimen identification and sorting, given that the evolution of sequencing approaches has dramatically reduced the cost of barcodes, thus enabling decentralized deployment across the planet. In this article, we review how DNA barcodes have become a key tool for accelerating biodiversity discovery and analyzing insect communities through both megabarcoding and metabarcoding in an era of insect decline. We predict that DNA barcodes will be particularly important for assembling image training sets for deep learning algorithms, global biodiversity genomics, and functional analysis of insect communities.

Cryptic diversity begets challenges and opportunities in biodiversity research

How many species of life are there on Earth? This is a question that we want to know but cannot yet answer. Some scholars speculate that the number of species may reach 2.2 billion when considering cryptic diversity and that each morphology-based insect species may contain an average of 3.1 cryptic species. With nearly two million described species, such high estimates of cryptic diversity would suggest that cryptic species are widespread. The development of molecular species delimitation has led to the discovery of a large number of cryptic species, and cryptic biodiversity has gradually entered our field of vision and attracted more attention. This paper introduces the concept of cryptic species, how they evolve, and methods by which they may be discovered and confirmed, and provides theoretical and methodological guidance for the study of hidden species. A workflow of how to confirm cryptic species is provided. In addition, the importance and reliability of multi-evidence-based integrated taxonomy are reaffirmed as a way to better standardize decision-making processes. Special focus on cryptic diversity and increased funding for taxonomy is needed to ensure that cryptic species in hyperdiverse groups are discoverable and described. An increased focus on cryptic species in the future will naturally arise as more difficult groups are studied, and thereby, we may finally better understand the rules governing the evolution and maintenance of cryptic biodiversity.

Looking Into the Abyss-How Many Species of Biting Midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Are There? Their Remarkable Diversity in Costa Rica and Elsewhere

The biting midges (Ceratopogonidae) are one of the most species-rich families of insects on the planet with over 6,200 named species. However, their true diversity is unknown and this paper is the first to address the question. Our systematic study of the family in Costa Rica indicates that 192 species were present in a four hectare area of cloudforest at Zurquí de Moravia, at 1,600 m after a year of intensive sampling. Combined with a collection from a single Malaise trap at Tapantí for one year, about 40 kms away and also at 1,600 m, the total was 245 species with significant differences between the two areas and with the strong majority unnamed. This compares to 430 named species for all of Costa Rica and 1,314 for the entire Neotropical Region. Barcoding of 221,407 specimens from Costa Rica similarly indicates large numbers of unnamed species with 4,023 BINs present. On this basis, we project at least 5,000 species in Costa Rica and using ratios of named species here and elsewhere, we suggest that nearly 73,000 are present worldwide. Details from Malaise traps in the Área de Conservación Guanacaste also indicate various levels of endemism. Samples from Bolivia support an interpretation of high diversity. The diversification of the family was examined by comparing phyletic lineages, rather than merely comparing numbers of species in various genera, providing insight as to why some lineages are more diverse than others. Zoogeographic patterns of named species suggest stronger southern connections for Costa Rican Ceratopogonidae in both cloudforest habitats as well as the country as a whole, although many are also more broadly distributed north and south of the country. Comparisons between various collecting methods at Zurquí de Moravia indicate the efficacy of Malaise traps but also the importance of light traps and other methods in sampling adults of Ceratopogonidae. Phenological data from the Malaise traps in the Área de Conservación Guanacaste suggest some patterns of emergence of adults in Costa Rica, the first for any tropical country anywhere.

A new entomopathogenic nematode species and its association with a facultative necromenic nematode

This is the report of mixed infection of an entomopathogenic nematode and a free-living bacteriophage nematode both invading Galleria mellonella larvae, apparently showing strong intraguild competition. The entomopathogenic nematodes isolated in this study were classified as Heterorhabditis kankabi n. sp., and Metarhabditis rainai through light and electronic microscopy, sequencing of ITS and 28S ribosomal DNA regions, and phylogenetic analyses. The bacteriophage nematode M. rainai was recognized as a facultative necromenic nematode, as it consumed the food resources obtained by entomopathogenic nematodes, directly affecting the life cycle of the later by stopping their development and forcing them to leave G. mellonella in search of new hosts.

The diversity of ignorance and the ignorance of diversity: origins and implications of "shadow diversity" for conservation biology and extinction

Biodiversity shortfalls and taxonomic bias can lead to inaccurate assessment of conservation priorities. Previous literature has begun to explore practical reasons why some species are discovered sooner or are better researched than others. However, the deeper socio-cultural causes for undiscovered and neglected biodiversity, and the value of collectively analysing species at risk of unrecorded, or "dark", extinction, are yet to be fully examined. Here, we argue that a new label (we propose "shadow diversity") is needed to shift our perspective from biodiversity shortfalls to living, albeit unknown, species. We suggest this linguistic shift imparts intrinsic value to these species, beyond scientific gaze and cultural systems. We review research on undiscovered, undetected and hidden biodiversity in the fields of conservation biology, macroecology and genetics. Drawing on philosophy, geography, history and sociology, we demonstrate that a range of socio-cultural factors (funding, education and historical bias) combine with traditional, practical impediments to limit species discovery and detection. We propose using a spectrum of shadow diversity which enables a complex, non-binary and comprehensive approach to biodiversity unknowns. Shadow diversity holds exciting potential as a tool to increase awareness, appreciation and support for the conservation of traditionally less studied wildlife species and sites, from soil microbes to less charismatic habitat fragments. We advocate for a shift in how the conservation community and wider public see biodiversity and an increase in popular support for conserving a wider range of life forms. Most importantly, shadow diversity provides appropriate language and conceptual frameworks to discuss species absent from conservation assessment and at potential risk of dark extinction.

Hidden diversity in anthropophilic sand flies of the Monticola Series (Diptera, Psychodidae)

The Monticola series comprises two anthropophilic and widely distributed species in Brazil: Pintomyia (Pifanomyia) monticola (Costa Lima, 1932) and Pintomyia (Pifanomyia) misionensis (Castro, 1959). They mainly occur in the Atlantic Rainforest, and it is known that Pi. monticola comprises at least two well-structured genetic lineages regarding a fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. Here, we aim to elucidate the taxonomic status of this group using integrative taxonomy tools. Collections were performed in nine localities of four Brazilian states, and COI fragments were sequenced and merged with publicly available data. Several single-locus species delimitation algorithms, genetic distance metrics, phylogenetic trees, and haplotype networks were used to uncover cryptic diversity and population structure within Pi. monticola and Pi. misionensis. The resulting genetic clusters were then tested for morphological differences through linear and geometric morphometry of several characters. We analyzed 152 COI sequences, comprising 48 haplotypes. The maximum intraspecific p distances were 8.21% (mean 4.17%) and 9.12% (mean 4.4%) for Pi. monticola and Pi. misionensis, respectively, while interspecific ones ranged from 10.94 to 14.09% (mean 12.33%). Phylogenetic gene trees showed well-supported clades for both species, with clear structuring patterns within them. Species-delimitation algorithms split our dataset into at least three putative species for each taxon. Moreover, population structure analysis showed a strong correlation between Atlantic Forest areas of endemism as sources of molecular variation in Pi. monticola. Morphometric analyses were significant for wing shape variation and some linear measurements (mainly of the head) when comparing specimens of different genetic clusters for both taxa. These results indicate strong genetic structuring of Monticola series species, confirmed by morphometry, indicating two possible cryptic species complexes.

A survey of keys for the identification of newly described insect genera: recommendations for authors, reviewers, editors, and publishers

Large numbers of new taxa are described annually and while there is a great need to make them identifiable, there seems little consistency in how this might be facilitated. 427 papers published in 2021 and 2022 were surveyed, which described 587 new insect genera. Only 136 of these papers included keys, and these allowed the identification of 233 of the new genera (31.9% of papers and 39.7% of the new genera). The proportion of papers that included a key varied significantly among insect orders but not among the handful of journals wherein the bulk of the new genera were described. Overall, for 17 key-related variables assessed in a binary fashion (optimal vs suboptimal), the average key had almost six criteria that were scored as being suboptimal. For example, less than one-fifth facilitated retracing and less than 12% had illustrated keys where the images were conveniently located close to the relevant key couplets. Progress towards confirming a putative identification was possible in all papers, through the inclusion of a diagnosis, habitus images, or both. Based upon this analysis, and expanding on previous suggestions for key construction, 23 recommendations are made on how to make an identification key maximally useful for users and I indicate the relative ease with which each could be adhered to. Identification keys should accompany all new taxon descriptions, guidelines for effective key construction should be added to journals' instructions to authors, editors and reviewers should check keys carefully, and publishers should be attentive to the needs of users through, for example, permitting duplication of images to make keys easier to use. Recommendations are likely relevant to all levels in the taxonomic hierarchy for all organisms, despite the data being derived from generic-level keys for insects.

Progress or burden? Formal description of every apparently new species available in collections is neither necessary nor useful

A new species of the Sub-Saharan spider genus Quamtana Huber, 2003 is described that has been collected in garden centers in Poland and the UK. Its closest known relative is probably Q.lotzi Huber, 2003, known from Free State Province in South Africa. Working on the premise that placing species in time and space is the fundamental task of taxonomy, and acknowledging that we cannot provide biologically meaningful spatial information for this species, we prefer open nomenclature to make this species known to science without formally describing it, using the unique provisional name Quamtana sp. ZFMK Ar 24490 aff.lotzi. We argue that the judicious use of open nomenclature can serve to improve the quality of species lists, reducing the noise in large-scale analyses of biodiversity data. We expand this argument to 'fragmentary' species descriptions in general, such as single-sex descriptions in large genera with many male-only and female-only descriptions. Not every taxonomic act allowed by the Code is necessarily beneficial. Under certain conditions, the informal description of a putatively new species may serve science better than a formal description based on inadequate material or data.

Four complete mitochondrial genomes of the subgenus Pterelachisus (Diptera, Tipulidae, Tipula) and implications for the higher phylogeny of the family Tipulidae

The complete mitochondrial genomes of Tipula (Pterelachisus) cinereocincta mesacantha Alexander, 1934, T. (P.) legalis Alexander, 1933, T. (P.) varipennis Meigen, 1818, and T. (P.) yasumatsuana Alexander, 1954 are reported, three of them being sequenced for the first time. The mitochondrial genome lengths of the four species are 15,907 bp, 15,625 bp, 15,772 bp, and 15,735 bp, respectively. All genomes exhibit a high AT base composition, with A + T content of 76.7%, 75.0%, 77.8%, and 75.4%, respectively. The newly reported mitogenomes herein show a general similarity in overall structure, gene order, base composition, and nucleotide content to those of the previously studied species within the family Tipulidae. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted to investigate the relationships within Tipulidae, using both Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference approaches. The results show that the four target species of the subgenus T. (Pterelachisus) basically form a monophyletic group within Tipulidae, clustering with species of the Tipula subgenera T. (Lunatipula), T. (Vestiplex), and T. (Formotipula); however, the genus Tipula is not monophyletic. Moreover, neither the tipulid subfamily Tipulinae nor the family Limoniidae is supported to be a monophyletic group. The monophyly of the family Tipulidae, and the sister relationship between Tipulidae and Cylindrotomidae are reconfirmed. These research findings could contribute to deep insights into the systematic and evolutionary patterns of crane flies.

Integrative species delimitation and five new species of lynx spiders (Araneae, Oxyopidae) in Taiwan

An accurate assessment of species diversity is a cornerstone of biology and conservation. The lynx spiders (Araneae: Oxyopidae) represent one of the most diverse and widespread cursorial spider groups, however their species richness in Asia is highly underestimated. In this study, we revised species diversity with extensive taxon sampling in Taiwan and explored species boundaries based on morphological traits and genetic data using a two-step approach of molecular species delimitation. Firstly, we employed a single COI dataset and applied two genetic distance-based methods: ABGD and ASAP, and two topology-based methods: GMYC and bPTP. Secondly, we further analyzed the lineages that were not consistently delimited, and incorporated H3 to the dataset for a coalescent-based analysis using BPP. A total of eight morphological species were recognized, including five new species, Hamataliwa cordivulva sp. nov., Hamat. leporauris sp. nov., Tapponia auriola sp. nov., T. parva sp. nov. and T. rarobulbus sp. nov., and three newly recorded species, Hamadruas hieroglyphica (Thorell, 1887), Hamat. foveata Tang & Li, 2012 and Peucetia latikae Tikader, 1970. All eight morphological species exhibited reciprocally monophyletic lineages. The results of molecular-based delimitation analyses suggested a variety of species hypotheses that did not fully correspond to the eight morphological species. We found that Hamat. cordivulva sp. nov. and Hamat. foveata showed shallow genetic differentiation in the COI, but they were unequivocally distinguishable according to their genitalia. In contrast, T. parva sp. nov. represented a deep divergent lineage, while differences of genitalia were not detected. This study highlights the need to comprehensively employ multiple evidence and methods to delineate species boundaries and the values of diagnostic morphological characters for taxonomic studies in lynx spiders.

Circumtropical distribution and cryptic species of the meiofaunal enteropneust Meioglossus (Harrimaniidae, Hemichordata)

Hemichordata has always played a central role in evolutionary studies of Chordata due to their close phylogenetic affinity and shared morphological characteristics. Hemichordates had no meiofaunal representatives until the surprising discovery of a microscopic, paedomorphic enteropneust Meioglossus psammophilus (Harrimaniidae, Hemichordata) from the Caribbean in 2012. No additional species have been described since, questioning the broader distribution and significance of this genus. However, being less than a millimeter long and superficially resembling an early juvenile acorn worm, Meioglossus may easily be overlooked in both macrofauna and meiofauna surveys. We here present the discovery of 11 additional populations of Meioglossus from shallow subtropical and tropical coralline sands of the Caribbean Sea, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and East China Sea. These geographically separated populations show identical morphology but differ genetically. Our phylogenetic reconstructions include four gene markers and support the monophyly of Meioglossus. Species delineation analyses revealed eight new cryptic species, which we herein describe using DNA taxonomy. This study reveals a broad circumtropical distribution, supporting the validity and ecological importance of this enigmatic meiobenthic genus. The high cryptic diversity and apparent morphological stasis of Meioglossus may exemplify a potentially common evolutionary 'dead-end' scenario, where groups with highly miniaturized and simplified body plan lose their ability to diversify morphologically.

Ecological Speciation without Morphological Differentiation? A New Cryptic Species of Diodontus Curtis (Hymenoptera, Pemphredonidae) from the Centre of Europe

Upon exploring the mitotype diversity of the aphid-hunting wasp, Diodontus tristis, we revealed specimens with highly divergent mitotypes from two localities in Lithuania and nesting in clayey substrate, while the specimens with typical mitotypes were found nesting in sandy sites. The comparison of inter- and intra-specific distances and application of delimitation algorithms supported the species status of the clay-nesting populations. Using a set of DNA markers that included complete or partial sequences of six mitochondrial genes, three markers of ribosomal operon, two homeobox genes, and four other nuclear genes, we clarified the phylogenetic relationships of the new cryptic species. The endosymbiotic bacteria infestation was checked, considering the option that the divergent populations may represent clades isolated by Wolbachia infection; however, it did not demonstrate any specificity. We found only subtle morphological differences in the new clay-nesting species, D. argillicola sp. nov.; the discriminant analysis of morphometric measurements did not reliably segregate it as well. Thus, we provide the molecular characters of the cryptic species, which allow confident identification, its phylogenetic position within the genus, and an updated identification key for the D. tristis species group.

DNA Barcodes in Taxonomic Descriptions

This chapter discusses methods for incorporating DNA barcode information into formal taxonomic descriptions. We first review what a formal description entails and then discuss previous attempts to incorporate barcode information into taxonomic descriptions. Several computer programs are listed that extract diagnostics from DNA barcode data. Finally, we examine a test case (Astraptes taxonomy).

DNA Barcode-Based Species Diagnosis with MolD

Rapid biodiversity loss sets new requirements for taxonomic research, prompting updating some long-established practices to maximize timely documentation of species before they have gone extinct. One of the crucial procedures associated with the description of new taxa in Linnean taxonomy is assigning them a diagnosis, which is an account of the specific features of the taxon, differentiating it from already described species. Traditionally, diagnostic characters have been morphological, but especially in the case of morphologically cryptic species, molecular diagnoses become increasingly important. In this chapter, we provide detailed protocols for molecular taxon diagnosis with the bioinformatic tool MolD which is available as open-source Python code, command-line driven binary, GUI-driven executable for Windows and Mac, and Galaxy implementation. MolD identifies diagnostic combinations of nucleotides (DNCs) in addition to single (pure) diagnostic sites, enabling users to base DNA diagnoses on a minimal number of diagnostic sites necessary for reliable differentiation of taxa.

Species Diagnosis and DNA Taxonomy

The use of DNA has helped to improve and speed up species identification and delimitation. However, it also provides new challenges to taxonomists. Incongruence of outcome from various markers and delimitation methods, bias from sampling and skewed species distribution, implemented models, and the choice of methods/priors may mislead results and also may, in conclusion, increase elements of subjectivity in species taxonomy. The lack of direct diagnostic outcome from most contemporary molecular delimitation approaches and the need for a reference to existing and best sampled trait reference systems reveal the need for refining the criteria of species diagnosis and diagnosability in the current framework of nomenclature codes and good practices to avoid nomenclatorial instability, parallel taxonomies, and consequently more and new taxonomic impediment.

Delimiting Species with Single-Locus DNA Sequences

DNA sequences are increasingly used for large-scale biodiversity inventories. Because these genetic data avoid the time-consuming initial sorting of specimens based on their phenotypic attributes, they have been recently incorporated into taxonomic workflows for overlooked and diverse taxa. Major statistical developments have accompanied this new practice, and several models have been proposed to delimit species with single-locus DNA sequences. However, proposed approaches to date make different assumptions regarding taxon lineage history, leading to strong discordance whenever comparisons are made among methods. Distance-based methods, such as Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery (ABGD) and Assemble Species by Automatic Partitioning (ASAP), rely on the detection of a barcode gap (i.e., the lack of overlap in the distributions of intraspecific and interspecific genetic distances) and the associated threshold in genetic distances. Network-based methods, as exemplified by the REfined Single Linkage (RESL) algorithm for the generation of Barcode Index Numbers (BINs), use connectivity statistics to hierarchically cluster-related haplotypes into molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs) which serve as species proxies. Tree-based methods, including Poisson Tree Processes (PTP) and the General Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC), fit statistical models to phylogenetic trees by maximum likelihood or Bayesian frameworks.Multiple webservers and stand-alone versions of these methods are now available, complicating decision-making regarding the most appropriate approach to use for a given taxon of interest. For instance, tree-based methods require an initial phylogenetic reconstruction, and multiple options are now available for this purpose such as RAxML and BEAST. Across all examined species delimitation methods, judicious parameter setting is paramount, as different model parameterizations can lead to differing conclusions. The objective of this chapter is to guide users step-by-step through all the procedures involved for each of these methods, while aggregating all necessary information required to conduct these analyses. The "Materials" section details how to prepare and format input files, including options to align sequences and conduct tree reconstruction with Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian inference. The Methods section presents the procedure and options available to conduct species delimitation analyses, including distance-, network-, and tree-based models. Finally, limits and future developments are discussed in the Notes section. Most importantly, species delimitation methods discussed herein are categorized based on five indicators: reliability, availability, scalability, understandability, and usability, all of which are fundamental properties needed for any approach to gain unanimous adoption within the DNA barcoding community moving forward.

BOLD v4: A Centralized Bioinformatics Platform for DNA-Based Biodiversity Data

BOLD, the Barcode of Life Data System, supports the acquisition, storage, validation, analysis, and publication of DNA barcodes, activities requiring the integration of molecular, morphological, and distributional data. Its pivotal role in curating the reference library of DNA barcodes, coupled with its data management and analysis capabilities, makes it a central resource for biodiversity science. It enables rapid, accurate identification of specimens and also reveals patterns of genetic diversity and evolutionary relationships among taxa.Launched in 2005, BOLD has become an increasingly powerful tool for advancing the understanding of planetary biodiversity. It currently hosts 17 million specimen records and 14 million barcodes that provide coverage for more than a million species from every continent and ocean. The platform has the long-term goal of providing a consistent, accurate system for identifying all species of eukaryotes.BOLD's integrated analytical tools, full data lifecycle support, and secure collaboration framework distinguish it from other biodiversity platforms. BOLD v4 brought enhanced data management and analysis capabilities as well as novel functionality for data dissemination and publication. Its next version will include features to strengthen its utility to the research community, governments, industry, and society-at-large.

Descriptions of one hundred new species of Hesperiidae

A century and a half since the time of Hewitson, we are experiencing a renaissance in species discovery fueled by whole genome sequencing. A large-scale genomic analysis of Hesperiidae Latreille, 1809 (Lepidoptera), including primary type specimens, reveals a deluge of species new to science. One hundred of them (one in a new genus) are described here from the New World (type localities are given in parenthesis): Drephalys (Drephalys) diovalis Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Euriphellus panador Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Esmeraldas), Euriphellus panamicus Grishin, new species (Panama: Panama), Cecropterus (Thorybes) viridissimus Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Zamora-Chinchipe), Cecropterus (Murgaria) dariensis Grishin, new species (Panama: Darien), Urbanus (Urbanus) mericuti Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Telegonus (Telegonus) pastus Grishin, new species (Panama: Panama), Autochton (Autochton) dora Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Pastaza), Astraptes centralis Grishin, new species (Panama: Colón), Aguna claxonica Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Aguna esmeralda Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Esmeraldas), Aguna lata Grishin, new species (Guyana), Ridens angulinea Grishin, new species (Peru: Cuzco), Pythonides lera Grishin, new species (Peru: Cuzco), Pythonides latemarginatus Grishin, new species (Panama: Panama), Gindanes variegatus Grishin, new species (Brazil: Mato Grosso), Milanion (Milanion) virga Grishin, new species (Brazil: Rondônia), Milanion (Milanion) furvus Grishin, new species (Panama: Panama), Milanion (Milanion) laricus Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Charidia ronda Grishin, new species (Brazil: Rondônia), Pseudodrephalys tinas Grishin, new species (Peru: Loreto), Pseudodrephalys argus Grishin, new species (Suriname: Para), Achlyodes calvus Grishin, new species (Brazil: Santa Catarina), Spioniades artemis Grishin, new species (Panama: Panama), Spioniades artemidoides Grishin, new species (Brazil: Santa Catarina), Myrinia orieca Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Orellana), Myrinia aragua Grishin, new species (Venezuela: Aragua), Myrinia maculosa Grishin, new species (Guatemala), Myrinia manchada Grishin, new species (Guyana), Polyctor (Fenops) lamperus Grishin, new species (Panama: Darien), Nisoniades (Nisoniades) lutum Grishin, new species (Mexico: Guerrero.), Bolla (Stolla) vena Grishin, new species (Venezuela: Aragua), Staphylus (Vulga) vula Grishin, new species (Mexico: Veracruz), Staphylus (Vulga) vulga Grishin, new species (Panama: Darien), Staphylus (Staphylus) rotundalus Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Staphylus (Staphylus) yucatanus Grishin, new species (Mexico: Quintana Roo/Yucatan), Heliopetes (Heliopetes) lana Grishin, new species (Guatemala), Canesia ella Grishin, new species (Venezuela: Barinas), Paches (Paches) loxeca Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Morona-Santiago), Clito congruens Grishin, new species (Panama: Colón), Cycloglypha corax Grishin, new species (Brazil: Rio de Janeiro), Festivia peruvia Grishin, new species (Peru: Huánuco), Decinea notata Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Pompeius fuscus Grishin, new species (Brazil: Minas Gerais), Vernia clara Grishin, new species (Panama: Chiriquí), Oligoria (Oligoria) obtena Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Thespieus mandal Grishin, new species (Brazil: Rio de Janeiro), Psoralis (Saniba) magnamacus Grishin, new species (Panama: Darien), Alychna ayonis Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Wahydra banios Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Tungurahua), Wahydra cuzcona Grishin, new species (Peru: Cuzco), Cynea (Cynea) aureofimbra Grishin, new species (Ecuador), Cynea (Nycea) quada Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Cynea (Quinta) achirae Grishin, new species (Mexico: Tamaulipas), Eutus amazonicus Grishin, new species (Peru: Madre de Dios), Eutus incus Grishin, new species (Peru: Cuzco), Eutus septemaculatus Grishin, new species (Brazil: Mato Grosso), Godmia viridicapita Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Rhomba pulla Grishin, new species (Peru: Cuzco), Niconiades victoria Grishin, new species (Mexico: Tamaulipas), Lancephallus purpurus Grishin, new genus and new species (Guyana), Mnasicles (Remella) ecua Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Pichincha), Amblyscirtes (Amblyscirtes) aeratus Grishin, new species (Mexico: Oaxaca), Amblyscirtes (Mastor) chrysoplea Grishin, new species (Mexico: Oaxaca), Amblyscirtes (Mastor) chrysomisa Grishin, new species (Mexico: Chiapas), Amblyscirtes (Flor) meridus Grishin, new species (Mexico: Veracruz), Rectava chiriquensis Grishin, new species (Panama: Chiriquí), Cobalopsis adictys Grishin, new species (Panama: Veraguas), Cymaenes melaporphyrus Grishin, new species (Mexico: San Luis Potosí), Lerema (Morys) ecuadorica Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Pichincha), Saturnus obscurior Grishin, new species (Panama: Darien), Cantha zoirodicta Grishin, new species (Peru: Madre de Dios), Cantha meiodicta Grishin, new species (Peru: Madre de Dios), Phlebodes duplex Grishin, new species (Guatemala: Cayuga), Lychnuchus (Enosis) valle Grishin, new species (Colombia: Valle), Eutychide ochoides Grishin, new species (Peru: Cuzco), Dion bora Grishin, new species (Panama: Darien), Dion occida Grishin, new species (Peru: Madre de Dios), Eprius (Eprius) veledinus Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Pichincha), Radiatus panamensis Grishin, new species (Panama: Panama), Pheraeus pulcher Grishin, new species (Peru: Madre de Dios), Callimormus rades Grishin, new species (Panama: Panama), Gubrus lubens Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Loja), Ludens labens Grishin, new species (Panama: Darien), Rigga isa Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Napo), Flaccilla lactea Grishin, new species (Peru: Cuzco), Falga athena Grishin, new species (Panama: Darien), Panoquina jay Grishin, new species (Peru: Loreto), Calpodes salianus Grishin, new species (Peru: Madre de Dios), Calpodes stingo Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Sucumbíos), Aides nobra Grishin, new species (Panama: Colón), Thracides pavo Grishin, new species (Mexico: Tabasco), Talides eluta Grishin, new species (Peru: Cuzco), Talides laeta Grishin, new species (Peru: Cuzco), Neoxeniades angustior Grishin, new species (Brazil: Rio de Janeiro), Damas zea Grishin, new species (Guyana), Tromba xantha Grishin, new species (Mexico: Veracruz), Perichares fura Grishin, new species (Ecuador: Pichincha), Carystoides (Balma) goliath Grishin, new species (Colombia: Valle), and Agathymus galeana Grishin, new species (Mexico: Nuevo Leon). Additionally, we present evidence to support 22 taxa as species (not subspecies or synonyms) and synonymize one genus and four species. Namely, the following taxa are species: Milanion pilta Evans, 1953 (not Milanion pilumnus Mabille and Boullet, 1917), Milanion latior Mabille and Boullet, 1917 (not a synonym of Milanion marciana Godman and Salvin, 1895), Charidia pilea Evans, 1953, and Charidia pocus Evans, 1953 (not Charidia lucaria (Hewitson, 1868)), Paches (Paches) gloriosus Röber, 1925 and Paches (Paches) loxana Evans, 1953 (not Paches (Paches) loxus (Westwood, 1852)), Spioniades anta Evans, 1953 (not Spioniades abbreviata (Mabille, 1888)), Decinea onasima (Hewitson, 1877) and Decinea formosus (Hayward, 1940) (not Decinea dama (Herrich-Schäffer, 1869)), Thespieus guerreronis (Dyar, 1913) (not Thespieus dalman (Latreille, [1824])), Cynea (Nycea) erebina (Möschler, 1879) and Cynea (Nycea) cleochares (Mabille, 1891) (not Cynea (Cynea) diluta (Herrich-Schäffer, 1869)), Amblyscirtes (Mastor) repta Evans, 1955 (not Amblyscirtes (Flor) florus (Godman, 1900)), Saturnus tiberius (Möschler, 1883), Saturnus conspicuus (E. Bell, 1941), Saturnus meton (Mabille, 1891), and Saturnus obscurus (E. Bell, 1941) (not Saturnus reticulata (Plötz, 1883)), Phlebodes sifax Evans, 1955 (not Phlebodes campo (E. Bell, 1947)), Eutychide ochus Godman, 1900 and Eutychide rogersi (Kaye, 1914) (not a subspecies and a synonym, respectively, of Eutychide subcordata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1869)), Falga mirabilis Evans, 1955, Falga jacta Evans, 1955, and Falga ombra Evans, 1955 (not Falga jeconia (A. Butler, 1870)); and the following taxa are junior subjective synonyms: Libra Evans, 1955 (of Phemiades Hübner, [1819]), Papilio clito Fabricius, 1787 of Milanion hemes hemes (Cramer, 1777), Pamphila hycsos Mabille, 1891 of Cynea (Nycea) erebina (Möschler, 1879), Hesperia olympia Plötz, 1882 of Eutychide subcordata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1869), and Hesperia ocrinus Plötz, 1882 of Aides aegita (Hewitson, 1866). Furthermore, we propose new combinations for genus-species: Lychnuchus (Enosis) ponka (Evans, 1955) (not Thoon Godman, 1900), and species-subspecies: Charidia pocus mayo Evans, 1953 (not Charidia lucaria (Hewitson, 1868)), Decinea onasima boliviensis (E. Bell, 1930) (not Decinea dama (Herrich-Schäffer, 1869)), Cynea (Nycea) erebina somba Evans, 1955 (not Pamphila hycsos Mabille, 1891), Saturnus tiberius suffuscus (Hayward, 1940) (not Saturnus reticulata (Plötz, 1883)), and Falga mirabilis odol Evans, 1955 (not Falga jeconia (A. Butler, 1870)). Then, Milanion pilumnus var. hemestinus Mabille and Boullet, 1917 is a junior subjective synonym of Milanion pilumnus pilumnus Mabille and Boullet, 1917, not of Milanion leucaspis (Mabille, 1878). Lectotypes are designated for nine taxa (names in original combinations below): Pellicia bromias Godman and Salvin, 1894 (Mexico: Veracruz, Atoyac), Nisoniades perforata Möschler, 1879 (Colombia), Helias ascalaphus Staudinger, 1876 (central Panama), Pamphila hycsos Mabille, 1891 (Colombia), Amblyscirtes fluonia Godman, 1900 (Mexico: Guerrero, Xocomanatlan), Mastor anubis Godman, 1900 (Mexico: Guerrero, Omiltemi), Eutychide ochus Godman, 1900 (Mexico: Veracruz, Atoyac), Cobalus subcordata Herrich-Schäffer, 1869 (Southeast Brazil), and Thracides xanthura Godman, 1901 (Panama: Chiriquí Province, Bugaba). A neotype is designated for Eudamus briccius Plötz, 1881 (Guyana: Iwokrama Forest).

A New Species of Aleiodes Wesmael (Braconidae, Rogadinae) with Potential for Biological Control of Spodoptera spp. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), and Notes on the Definition of the gastritor, circumscriptus, and Related Species-Groups

A new species of Aleiodes Wesmael in the gastritor Thunberg species-group is described and illustrated. The new species, Aleiodes ceres Shimbori sp.n., occurs in Southern Brazil and Argentina. It is a potential biological control agent of caterpillars in the genus Spodoptera Guenée, namely S. cosmioides (Walker), S. eridania (Stoll), and S. frugiperda (J.E. Smith), which are serious pests on major crops including maize and soybean. The position of the new species within Aleiodes is discussed in relation to existing proposals of subdivisions of the genus into species-groups. In agreement with recent publications, the gastritor species-group is treated as separate from the circumscriptus Nees/bicolor Spinola group, as evidence suggests the latter is absent in the New World. We also propose the provisional shakirae Shimbori & Shaw species-group, to accommodate a clade of Neotropical species with geometrid hosts and morphological features similar to the gastritor and circumscriptus groups. A key to Neotropical species in the gastritor group and similar species is provided, except for species recently named without a morphological description.

Name game conundrum: identical specific epithets in Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera, Braconidae)

It is a privilege to recognize a new species and immortalize it with a name. Taxonomists may use etymologies recalling the sampling locality, habitat, species morphology, people (actor, writer, singer, politician, scientist), culture (customs, beliefs), fictional characters (gods, demons, cartoons), brands, ancient names, and others. Naming a species is a creative act that allows scientists to express their love for nature. By drawing on personal and cultural associations, species names are often imbued with far greater meaning than one might initially assume. Unconventional names for species can be an effective way to capture the imagination of the public and make the species memorable. In other words, species names can be both meaningful and whimsical. The central focus of this study was to pinpoint species in the subfamily Microgastrinae that share the same specific epithet that often creates confusion regarding which species is being referred to. The findings showed that 153 specific epithets were repeated representing 340 species in 52 genera, while the remaining 2,823 species have unique epithets. Three of the five categories proposed accommodate the majority of the etymologies: people (42%), morphology (27%), and geography (15%) whereas the categories of other (9%) and biology (7%) achieve the least representation. Approximately 95% of the same specific epithets had a single clear meaning, while for the remaining 5%, it was not possible to trace etymology. The study revealed that the average length of specific epithets was 9.01 letters, the longest contains 18 (eliethcantillanoae) while the shortest four (eros and erro). Additionally, most identical specific epithets were repeated two times (85.25% of the occurrences), although three (12.82%), five, six, and even nine (each one with 0.64%) repetitions were also found. Finally, a list of recommendations for taxonomists when faced with the task of naming a new species is provided.

New species based on the biological species concept within the complex of Lariophagus distinguendus (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae), a parasitoid of household pests

The pteromalid parasitoid Lariophagus distinguendus (Foerster) belongs to the Hymenoptera, a megadiverse insect order with high cryptic diversity. It attacks stored product pest beetles in human storage facilities. Recently, it has been shown to consist of two separate species. To further study its cryptic diversity, strains were collected to compare their relatedness using barcoding and nuclear genes. Nuclear genes identified two clusters which agree with the known two species, whereas the barcode fragment determined an additional third Clade. Total reproductive isolation (RI) according to the biological species concept (BSC) was investigated in crossing experiments within and between clusters using representative strains. Sexual isolation exists between all studied pairs, increasing from slight to strong with genetic distance. Postzygotic barriers mostly affected hybrid males, pointing to Haldane's rule. Hybrid females were only affected by unidirectional Spiroplasma-induced cytoplasmic incompatibility and behavioural sterility, each in one specific strain combination. RI was virtually absent between strains separated by up to 2.8% COI difference, but strong or complete in three pairs from one Clade each, separated by at least 7.2%. Apparently, each of these clusters represents one separate species according to the BSC, highlighting cryptic diversity in direct vicinity to humans. In addition, these results challenge the recent 'turbo-taxonomy' practice of using 2% COI differences to delimitate species, especially within parasitic Hymenoptera. The gradual increase in number and strength of reproductive barriers between strains with increasing genetic distance also sheds light on the emergence of barriers during the speciation process in L. distinguendus.

Tightening the requirements for species diagnoses would help integrate DNA-based descriptions in taxonomic practice

Modern advances in DNA sequencing hold the promise of facilitating descriptions of new organisms at ever finer precision but have come with challenges as the major Codes of bionomenclature contain poorly defined requirements for species and subspecies diagnoses (henceforth, species diagnoses), which is particularly problematic for DNA-based taxonomy. We, the commissioners of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, advocate a tightening of the definition of "species diagnosis" in future editions of Codes of bionomenclature, for example, through the introduction of requirements for specific information on the character states of differentiating traits in comparison with similar species. Such new provisions would enhance taxonomic standards and ensure that all diagnoses, including DNA-based ones, contain adequate taxonomic context. Our recommendations are intended to spur discussion among biologists, as broad community consensus is critical ahead of the implementation of new editions of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and other Codes of bionomenclature.

Morphological and DNA-based description of Trichophoromyia peixotoi n. sp. (Diptera: Psychodidae), a new sand fly species from the Brazilian Amazon

BACKGROUND

Phlebotomine sand flies of the genus Trichophoromyia Barretto, 1962 are of great relevance to public health as vectors of Leishmania protozoans. A new phlebotomine species named Trichophoromyia peixotoi n. sp. is here described based on both male morphology and COI DNA barcodes.

METHODS

The sand fly specimens were collected in the Parque Nacional da Amazônia (PNA), situated in the municipality of Itaituba, state of Pará, Brazil. Morphological description was done based on 10 male specimens. Five specimens were DNA barcoded for the COI gene.

RESULTS

The morphological and molecular analyses allowed the delimitation of this new species from others of Trichophoromyia. Trichophoromyia peixotoi n. sp. is closely related to other species with aedeagal ducts > 4 times the length of the sperm pump, from which it may be distinguished by the gonocoxite bristles and paramere shape.

CONCLUSIONS

The description of T. peixotoi n. sp. brings the number of species of Trichophoromyia to 45, including 24 for Brazil. The integrative taxonomy effort through the analysis of COI barcodes proved to be effective in the species delimitation of some Trichophoromyia spp.

Taxonomy and Biological Control: New Challenges in an Old Relationship

Biological control and taxonomy are continuously developing fields with remarkable impacts on society. At least 80 years of literature have documented this relationship, which remains essentially the same in its mutualistic nature, as well as in its major challenges. From the perspective of Brazilian taxonomists, we discuss the impacts of important scientific and social developments that directly affect research in these areas, posing new challenges for this lasting relationship. The increasing restrictions and concerns regarding the international transit of organisms require improvements in research related to risk assessment for exotic biological control agents and also stimulate prospecting within the native biota. In our view, this is a positive situation that can foster a closer relationship between taxonomists and applied entomologists, as well as local surveys and taxonomic studies that are necessary before new programs and agents can be implemented. We discuss the essential role of molecular biology in this context, as an iconic example of the synergy between applied sciences and natural history. As our society comes to need safer and more sustainable solutions for food security and the biodiversity crisis, scientific progress will build upon this integration, where biological control and taxonomy play an essential role.

The Bemisia tabaci cryptic (sibling) species group - imperative for a taxonomic reassessment

The taxonomy of the Bemisia tabaci cryptic species group remains a challenge due to the lack of morphological differentiation and porous species boundaries among its members. Additionally, it is unclear whether B. tabaci consists of several species in evolutionary stasis with limited morphological change or is the result of a recent adaptive radiation characterized by great ecological diversity but little morphological divergence. Here, a historical overview of the development of the nomenclature used to classify B. tabaci is provided covering changes after synonymizing several species in 1957 until recent insights gained from whole-genome sequencing data. The article discusses the limitations of using a 3.5% mtCOI threshold and argues that a 1% nuclear divergence cutoff better reflects ecological and biogeographic species boundaries. Finally, a plan of action is outlined for naming B. tabaci species using a Latin binomial system in accordance with the International Comission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) regulations.

Morphology, nuclear SNPs and mate selection reveal that COI barcoding overestimates species diversity in a Mediterranean freshwater amphipod by an order of magnitude

DNA sequence information has revealed many morphologically cryptic species worldwide. For animals, DNA-based assessments of species diversity usually rely on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. However, a growing amount of evidence indicate that mitochondrial markers alone can lead to misleading species diversity estimates due to mito-nuclear discordance. Therefore, reports of putative species based solely on mitochondrial DNA should be verified by other methods, especially in cases where COI sequences are identical for different morphospecies or where divergence within the same morphospecies is high. Freshwater amphipods are particularly interesting in this context because numerous putative cryptic species have been reported. Here, we investigated the species status of the numerous mitochondrial molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs) found within Echinogammarus sicilianus. We used an integrative approach combining DNA barcoding with mate selection observations, detailed morphometrics and genome-wide double digest restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD-seq). Within a relatively small sampling area, we detected twelve COI MOTUs (divergence = 1.8-20.3%), co-occurring in syntopy at two-thirds of the investigated sites. We found that pair formation was random and there was extensive nuclear gene flow among the ten MOTUs co-occurring within the same river stretch. The four most common MOTUs were also indistinguishable with respect to functional morphology. Therefore, the evidence best fits the hypothesis of a single, yet genetically diverse, species within the main river system. The only two MOTUs sampled outside the focal area were genetically distinct at the nuclear level and may represent distinct species. Our study reveals that COI-based species delimitation can significantly overestimate species diversity, highlighting the importance of integrative taxonomy for species validation, especially in hyperdiverse complexes with syntopically occurring mitochondrial MOTUs.

New Color-Patterned Species of Microtendipes Kieffer, 1913 (Diptera: Chironomidae) and a Deep Intraspecific Divergence of Species by DNA Barcodes

The genus Microtendipes Kieffer (Diptera: Chironomidae) has a nearly worldwide distribution, comprising more than 60 species, which are further divided into two species groups based on larval stage. However, species delimitation and identification among the adults of this genus are controversial and uncertain. For instance, previous studies have provided many synonymies based on conspecific color pattern variations in Microtendipes species. Here, we used DNA barcode data to address Microtendipes species delimitation as well as to test whether color pattern variations can be diagnostic characters for interspecific identification. The 151 DNA barcodes used, 51 of which were contributed by our laboratory, represent 21 morphospecies. Species with specific color patterns could be accurately separated based on DNA barcodes. Consequently, the color patterns of adult males could be important diagnostic characters. The average intraspecific and interspecific sequence divergences were 2.8% and 12.5%, respectively, and several species exhibited deep intraspecific divergences higher than 5%. Molecular operational taxonomic units (OTUs) ranged from 21 to 73, based on methods including phylogenetic trees, the assemble species by automatic partitioning method, the Poisson tree process (PTP), and the general mixed Yule-coalescent (GMYC) method. As a result of these analyses, five new species were recognized (M. baishanzuensis sp. nov., M. bimaculatus sp. nov., M. nigrithorax sp. nov., M. robustus sp. nov., and M. wuyiensis sp. nov.).

Molecular Weevil Identification Project: A thoroughly curated barcode release of 1300 Western Palearctic weevil species (Coleoptera, Curculionoidea)

The Molecular Weevil Identification project (MWI) studies the systematics of Western Palearctic weevils (superfamily Curculionoidea) in an integrative taxonomic approach of DNA barcoding, morphology and ecology. This barcode release provides almost 3600 curated CO1 sequences linked to morphological vouchers in about 1300 weevil species. The dataset is presented in statistical distance tables and as a Neighbour-Joining tree. Bayesian Inference trees are computed for the subfamilies Cryptorhynchinae, Apioninae and Ceutorhynchinae. Altogether, 18 unresolved taxonomic issues are discussed. A new barcode primer set is presented. Finally, we establish group-specific genetic distances for many weevil genera to serve as a tool in species delineation. These values are statistically based on distances between "good species" and their congeners. With this morphologically calibrated approach, we could resolve most alpha-taxonomic questions within the MWI project.

Taxonomic identification accuracy from BOLD and GenBank databases using over a thousand insect DNA barcodes from Colombia

Recent declines of insect populations at high rates have resulted in the need to develop a quick method to determine their diversity and to process massive data for the identification of species of highly diverse groups. A short sequence of DNA from COI is widely used for insect identification by comparing it against sequences of known species. Repositories of sequences are available online with tools that facilitate matching of the sequences of interest to a known individual. However, the performance of these tools can differ. Here we aim to assess the accuracy in identification of insect taxonomic categories from two repositories, BOLD Systems and GenBank. This was done by comparing the sequence matches between the taxonomist identification and the suggested identification from the platforms. We used 1,160 COI sequences representing eight orders of insects from Colombia. After the comparison, we reanalyzed the results from a representative subset of the data from the subfamily Scarabaeinae (Coleoptera). Overall, BOLD systems outperformed GenBank, and the performance of both engines differed by orders and other taxonomic categories (species, genus and family). Higher rates of accurate identification were obtained at family and genus levels. The accuracy was higher in BOLD for the order Coleoptera at family level, for Coleoptera and Lepidoptera at genus and species level. Other orders performed similarly in both repositories. Moreover, the Scarabaeinae subset showed that species were correctly identified only when BOLD match percentage was above 93.4% and a total of 85% of the samples were correctly assigned to a taxonomic category. These results accentuate the great potential of the identification engines to place insects accurately into their respective taxonomic categories based on DNA barcodes and highlight the reliability of BOLD Systems for insect identification in the absence of a large reference database for a highly diverse country.

Genome, host genome integration, and gene expression in Diadegma fenestrale ichnovirus from the perspective of coevolutionary hosts

Polydnaviruses (PDVs) exhibit species-specific mutualistic relationships with endoparasitoid wasps. PDVs can be categorized into bracoviruses and ichnoviruses, which have independent evolutionary origins. In our previous study, we identified an ichnovirus of the endoparasitoid Diadegma fenestrale and named it DfIV. Here, DfIV virions from the ovarian calyx of gravid female wasps were characterized. DfIV virion particles were ellipsoidal (246.5 nm × 109.0 nm) with a double-layered envelope. Next-generation sequencing of the DfIV genome revealed 62 non-overlapping circular DNA segments (A1-A5, B1-B9, C1-C15, D1-D23, E1-E7, and F1-F3); the aggregate genome size was approximately 240 kb, and the GC content (43%) was similar to that of other IVs (41%-43%). A total of 123 open reading frames were predicted and included typical IV gene families such as repeat element protein (41 members), cysteine motif (10 members), vankyrin (9 members), polar residue-rich protein (7 members), vinnexin (6 members), and N gene (3 members). Neuromodulin N (2 members) was found to be unique to DfIV, along with 45 hypothetical genes. Among the 62 segments, 54 showed high (76%-98%) sequence similarities to the genome of Diadegma semiclausum ichnovirus (DsIV). Three segments, namely, D22, E3, and F2, contained lepidopteran host genome integration motifs with homologous regions of about 36-46 bp between them (Diadegma fenestrale ichnovirus, DfIV and lepidopteran host, Plutella xylostella). Most of the DfIV genes were expressed in the hymenopteran host and some in the lepidopteran host (P. xylostella), parasitized by D. fenestrale. Five segments (A4, C3, C15, D5, and E4) were differentially expressed at different developmental stages of the parasitized P. xylostella, and two segments (C15 and D14) were highly expressed in the ovaries of D. fenestrale. Comparative analysis between DfIV and DsIV revealed that the genomes differed in the number of segments, composition of sequences, and internal sequence homologies.

Cryptic biodiversity of tropical hesperiid caterpillar-attacking parasitoid wasps: three new species of Creagrura Townes (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae, Cremastinae) from Costa Rica and Perú

Background

We describe three new species of the previously monotypic genus Creagrura Townes from Central and South America: C.alejandromasisi sp. n. and C.rogerblancoi sp. n. from Costa Rica and C.allpahuaya sp. n. from Peru, all of which emphasise the unknown parasitoid insect diversity yet to be revealed in the tropics.

New information

Host relationships of the two Costa Rican species are described in detail. In addition, it is inferred that the Creagrura wasps find and oviposit in the caterpillar when it is exposed at night, rather than when it is concealed during daylight hours.

A DNA barcode library for katydids, cave crickets, and leaf-rolling crickets (Tettigoniidae, Rhaphidophoridae and Gryllacrididae) from Zhejiang Province, China

Barcode libraries are generally assembled with two main objectives in mind: specimen identification and species discovery/delimitation. In this study, the standard COI barcode region was sequenced from 681 specimens belonging to katydids (Tettigoniidae), cave crickets (Rhaphidophoridae), and leaf-rolling crickets (Gryllacrididae) from Zhejiang Province, China. Of these, four COI-5P sequences were excluded from subsequent analyses because they were likely NUMTs (nuclear mitochondrial pseudogenes). The final dataset consisted of 677 barcode sequences representing 90 putative species-level taxa. Automated cluster delineation using the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD) revealed 118 BINs (Barcodes Index Numbers). Among these 90 species-level taxa, 68 corresponded with morphospecies, while the remaining 22 were identified based on reverse taxonomy using BIN assignment. Thirteen of these morphospecies were represented by a single barcode (so-called singletons), and each of 19 morphospecies were split into more than one BIN. The consensus delimitation scheme yielded 55 Molecular Operational Taxonomic Units (MOTUs). Only four morphospecies (I _max > DNN) failed to be recovered as monophyletic clades (i.e., Elimaeaterminalis, Phyllomimusklapperichi, Sinochloraszechwanensis and Xizicushowardi), so it is speculated that these may be species complexes. Therefore, the diversity of katydids, cave crickets, and leaf-rolling crickets in Zhejiang Province is probably slightly higher than what current taxonomy would suggest.

Butterfly–parasitoid–hostplant interactions in Western Palaearctic Hesperiidae: a DNA barcoding reference library

The study of ecological interactions between plants, phytophagous insects and their natural enemies is an essential but challenging component for understanding ecosystem dynamics. Molecular methods such as DNA barcoding can help elucidate these interactions. In this study, we employed DNA barcoding to establish hostplant and parasitoid interactions with hesperiid butterflies, using a complete reference library for Hesperiidae of continental Europe and north-western Africa (53 species, 100% of those recorded) based on 2934 sequences from 38 countries. A total of 233 hostplant and parasitoid interactions are presented, some recovered by DNA barcoding larval remains or parasitoid cocoons. Combining DNA barcode results with other lines of evidence allowed 94% species-level identification for Hesperiidae, but success was lower for parasitoids, in part due to unresolved taxonomy. Potential cases of cryptic diversity, both in Hesperiidae and Microgastrinae, are discussed. We briefly analyse the resulting interaction networks. Future DNA barcoding initiatives in this region should focus attention on north-western Africa and on parasitoids, because in these cases barcode reference libraries and taxonomy are less well developed.

A novel and non-invasive method for DNA extraction from dry bee specimens

In recent years molecular techniques have been used on museum material as integrative support for classic taxonomy. This cumulative systematics approach is especially for rare or extinct specimens, and genetic analysis may be useful to discern information that is not possible to glean from live materials or morphology. To date, the extraction of DNA required at least a partial destruction of the specimens, which is not possible for all individuals, especially the types. In this study, we described a novel method to extract mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from pinned museum bee individuals to avoid any external morphological damage. This method was able to amplify the mtDNA Cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI) gene in bee samples collected up to 27 years ago. We tested the efficacy of this method on 72 preserved be specimens belonging to nine species among four families, it could be used on many museums’ rare and/or extinct bee species because it does not provide external morphological damages. The method could be helpful for providing ecological, taxonomic, and phylogenetic information about specimens preserved in museum collections.

More discussion of minimalist species descriptions and clarifying some misconceptions contained in Meier et al. 2021

This is a response to a preprint version of "A re-analysis of the data in Sharkey et al.'s (2021) minimalist revision reveals that BINs do not deserve names, but BOLD Systems needs a stronger commitment to open science", https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.04.28.441626v2. Meier et al. strongly criticized Sharkey et al.'s publication in which 403 new species were deliberately minimally described, based primarily on COI barcode sequence data. Here we respond to these criticisms. The following points are made: 1) Sharkey et al. did not equate BINs with species, as demonstrated in several examples in which multiple species were found to be in single BINs. 2) We reiterate that BINs were used as a preliminary sorting tool, just as preliminary morphological identification commonly sorts specimens based on color and size into unit trays; despite BINs and species concepts matching well over 90% of species, this matching does not equate to equality. 3) Consensus barcodes were used only to provide a diagnosis to conform to the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature just as consensus morphological diagnoses are. The barcode of a holotype is definitive and simply part of its cellular morphology. 4) Minimalist revisions will facilitate and accelerate future taxonomic research, not hinder it. 5) We refute the claim that the BOLD sequences of Plesiocoelusvanachterbergi are pseudogenes and demonstrate that they simply represent a frameshift mutation. 6) We reassert our observation that morphological evidence alone is insufficient to recognize species within species-rich higher taxa and that its usefulness lies in character states that are congruent with molecular data. 7) We show that in the cases in which COI barcodes code for the same amino acids in different putative species, data from morphology, host specificity, and other ecological traits reaffirm their utility as indicators of genetically distinct lineages.

Biodiversity and Distribution of Reticulitermes in the Southeastern USA

Simple Summary

Describing global biodiversity involves identifying species and describing their distributions. The subterranean termite genus Reticulitermes represents an important group of wood-destroying organisms; however, little is known about their species-specific distribution across the three northern hemisphere continents where they are endemic. We combined several taxonomic methods to identify the species of over 4000 specimens in the first statewide survey of subterranean termites from Georgia, USA. The area surveyed, 153,900 km², represents eco-regions typical of most of the southeast and eastern seaboard of the United States. There were three species, R. flavipes, R. virginicus, and R. nelsonae, found throughout Georgia. R. malletei was predominantly collected in the northern Piedmont soil province, while R. hageni, the least encountered species, was not collected from South Georgia. Our findings support the need for a taxonomic revision of the genus Reticulitermes, agreement on an appropriate integrated taxonomic approach for species determination, and should stimulate future research on diverse topics such as biodiversity, monitoring for these structural pests, and identifying their role in forest ecosystems.

Abstract

Reticulitermes subterranean termites are widely distributed ecosystem engineers and structural pests, yet describing their species distribution worldwide or regionally has been hindered by taxonomic uncertainties. Morphological plasticity confounds the use of taxonomic keys, while recent species descriptions and molecular techniques lacking taxonomic support have caused a muddle in interpreting the literature on Reticulitermes species distributions. We employed an integrative taxonomic approach combining behavioral, morphological, and molecular techniques to identify 4371 Reticulitermes samples to species. Five Reticulitermes species were collected from wood-on-ground at 1570 sites covering 153,900 km² in the state of Georgia, USA. Three species were collected throughout Georgia, with R. flavipes identified from every one of the 159 counties. R. nelsonae was the second most frequently collected species, found in 128 counties, with R. virginicus third with 122. Two species had distributions confined to the northern part of the state. R. malletei was collected from 73 counties, while the least collected species, R. hageni, was found in 16. Results show that the most recently described species (R. nelsonae, 2012) is widely distributed and the second-most frequently encountered termite, representing 23% of all samples. The invasive species R. flavipes represented half of all the samples collected, while R. hageni, the least at less than 1%. A search of GenBank identified a number of accessions mismatched to a species designation resulting in the literature under-reporting the biodiversity of the genus. We, therefore, outline a path to standardize methods for species identification using an integrated taxonomic approach with appropriate barcodes for consistent identification across research teams worldwide. The data also illuminate new opportunities to examine questions related to the ecology, evolution, dispersal, and resource partitioning behaviors of these sympatric species across distinct geographical regions.

Multiple species delimitation approaches with COI barcodes poorly fit each other and morphospecies – An integrative taxonomy case of Sri Lankan Sericini chafers (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

DNA taxonomy including barcoding and metabarcoding is widely used to explore the diversity in biodiversity hotspots. In most of these hotspot areas, chafers are represented by a multitude of species, which are well defined by the complex shape of male genitalia. Here, we explore how well COI barcode data reflect morphological species entities and thus their usability for accelerated species inventorization. We conducted dedicated field surveys in Sri Lanka to collect the species‐rich and highly endemic Sericini chafers (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Congruence among results of a series of protocols for de novo species delimitation and with morphology‐based species identifications was investigated. Different delimitation methods, such as the Poisson tree processes (PTP) model, Statistical Parsimony Analysis (TCS), Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery (ABGD), Assemble Species by Automatic Partitioning (ASAP), and Barcode Index Number (BIN) assignments, resulted in different numbers of molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs). All methods showed both over‐splitting and lumping of morphologically identified species. Only 18 of the observed 45 morphospecies perfectly matched MOTUs from all methods. The congruence of delimitation between MOTUs and morphospecies expressed by the match ratio was low, ranging from 0.57 to 0.67. TCS and multirate PTP (mPTP) showed the highest match ratio, while (BIN) assignment resulted in the lowest match ratio and most splitting events. mPTP lumped more species than any other method. Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) on a match ratio‐based distance matrix revealed incongruent outcomes of multiple DNA delimitation methods, although applied to the same data. Our results confirm that COI barcode data alone are unlikely to correctly delimit all species, in particular, when using only a single delimitation approach. We encourage the integration of various approaches and data, particularly morphology, to validate species boundaries.

Description of Chilearinus Sharkey gen. nov. and status of Nearctic Earinus Wesmael, 1837 (Braconidae, Agathidinae) with the description of new species

The Neotropical members formerly included in Earinus Wesmael, 1837 are transferred to a new genus, Chilearinus Sharkey gen. nov. Presently three Nearctic species of Earinus are recognized, i.e., Earinuserythropoda Cameron, 1887, Earinuslimitaris Say,1835, and Earinuszeirapherae Walley, 1935, and these are retained in Earinus. Earinuschubuquensis Berta, 2000 and Earinusscitus Enderlein, 1920 are transferred to Chilearinus, i.e., C.chubuquensis, and C.scitus, comb. nov. One other species is transferred to Chilearinus, i.e., Microgasterrubricollis Spinola, 1851, Chilearinusrubricollis, comb. nov. Two other Neotropical species, Earinushubrechtae Braet, 2002 and Earinusbourguignoni Braet, 2002 were described under the genus Earinus but are here transferred to Lytopylus, L.hubrechtae, and L.bourguignoni comb. nov. Two new species of Chilearinus are described, C.covidchronos and C.janbert spp. nov. The status of Agathislaevithorax Spinola,1851, Agathisrubricata Spinola,1851, and Agathisareolata Spinola, 1851 is discussed. A neotype is designated for Earinuslimitaris (Say, 1835) and diagnosed with a COI barcode. Earinusaustinbakeri and Earinuswalleyi spp. nov. are described. The status of both Earinus and Chilearinus in the Americas is discussed. A revised key to the genera of Agathidinae of the Americas is presented.

A practical approach to revise the Oxynoemacheilus bergianus species group (Teleostei: Nemacheilidae)

The Oxynoemacheilus bergianus species group is revised based on tree topology (ML, NJ, MP), distance (K2P and ASAP) and Poisson tree process analyses of DNA barcode data tested against morphometric and morphological characters including colour patterns. The O. bergianus species group is distinguished from other Oxynoemacheilus groups based on morphological characters: its constituent species have a slender caudal peduncle, a suborbital flap in the male, a mottled or blotched colour pattern, and lack bold, black spots on the caudal-fin base. It is also supported as a monophyletic unit in our molecular analysis.                 The O. bergianus group includes 10 molecular clades following congruently well-supported NJ, MP and ML based entities. Species described as O. bergianus, O. banarescui, O. erdali, O. fatsaensis, O. samanticus, and O. simavicus from Turkey, O. lenkoranensis from Azerbaijan, and O. longipinnis and O. parvinae from Iran belong to this species group. The group includes also four unnamed molecular clades. We were unable to detect external differences between any of the molecular clades in colour pattern or any morphometric or morphological characters examined. In the 10 molecular clades in the O. bergianus species group, the intraclade K2P distance ranges from 0.0–1.8% while the distances between molecular clades ranges from 0.6–5.9%. To resolve the species diversity of this group, we also analysed the intraspecific and interspecific variability in the K2P distance of DNA barcode data from 53 other Oxynoemacheilus species. Here, the intraspecific variability ranges from 0.0–2.4% while the interspecific K2P distance ranges from 1.2–20.8%. In the O. bergianus species group, only four groups are detected by the mPTP species delimitation approach distinguished by a K2P distance of 2.9% or more. We treat these four groups as valid species, corresponding to O. banarescui, O. bergianus, O. fatsaensis, and O. simavicus. Oxynoemacheilus samanticus from the Kızılırmak and Seyhan drainages, O. lenkoranensis from the Caspian basin, O. erdali from the Euphrates, and O. longipinnis and O. parvinae from the Tigris drainage are treated as synonyms of O. bergianus. Fishes from an unnamed molecular clade from the upper Tigris, and from a second unnamed clade from the upper Euphrates, are both identified as O. bergianus. Oxynoemacheilus bergianus might be a junior synonym of O. bergi from the Kura. The distribution range of O. simavicus, described from the Simav drainage in the Marmara basin, is expanded to the east and two molecularly differentiated population groups occur in the Sakarya drainage, the Büyük Melen River and potentially in other adjacent coastal streams. Oxynoemacheilus fatsaensis, described from the coastal stream Elekçi in northern Anatolia, is also widespread in the Yeşilırmak drainage. Morphological characters proposed to distinguish O. fatsaensis from the other species of the O. bergianus group could not be confirmed by our data on fishes from the Yeşilırmak. This study also discusses the theoretical background, our reasons for conducting this revision in the way we did, and what the alternatives would be.  

DNA barcoding for biodiversity assessment: Croatian stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera)

Background

The hemi-metabolous aquatic order Plecoptera (stoneflies) constitutes an indispensable part of terrestrial and aquatic food webs due to their specific life cycle and habitat requirements. Stoneflies are considered one of the most sensitive groups to environmental changes in freshwater ecosystems and anthropogenic changes have caused range contraction of many species. Given the critical threat to stoneflies, the study of their distribution, morphological variability and genetic diversity should be one of the priorities in conservation biology. However, some aspects about stoneflies, especially a fully resolved phylogeny and their patterns of distribution are not well known. A study that includes comprehensive field research and combines morphological and molecular identification of stoneflies has not been conducted in Croatia so far. Thus, the major aim of this study was to regenerate a comprehensive and taxonomically well-curated DNA barcode database for Croatian stoneflies, to highlight the morphological variability obtained for several species and to elucidate results in light of recent taxonomy.

Methods

A morphological examination of adult specimens was made using basic characteristics for distinguishing species: terminalia in males and females, head and pronotum patterns, penial morphology, and egg structures. DNA barcoding was applied to many specimens to help circumscribe known species, identify cryptic or yet undescribed species, and to construct a preliminary phylogeny for Croatian stoneflies.

Results

Sequences (658 bp in length) of 74 morphospecies from all families present in Croatia were recovered from 87% of the analysed specimens (355 of 410), with one partial sequence of 605 bp in length for Capnopsis schilleri balcanica Zwick, 1984. A total of 84% morphological species could be unambiguously identified using COI sequences. Species delineation methods confirmed the existence of five deeply divergent genetic lineages, with monophyletic origin, which also differ morphologically from their congeners and represent distinct entities. BIN (Barcode Index Number) assignment and species delineation methods clustered COI sequences into different numbers of operational taxonomic units (OTUs). ASAP delimited 76 putative species and achieved a maximum match score with morphology (97%). ABGD resulted in 62 and mPTP in 61 OTUs, indicating a more conservative approach. Most BINs were congruent with traditionally recognized species. Deep intraspecific genetic divergences in some clades highlighted the need for taxonomic revision in several species-complexes and species-groups. Research has yielded the first molecular characterization of nine species, with most having restricted distributions and confirmed the existence of several species which had been declared extinct regionally.

A new species of Pseudophanerotoma (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) from Nayarit, Mexico

Parasitoid wasps are known to be among the most abundant and species-rich on Earth and thus considered an ecologically important group of arthropods. Braconid wasps play a key role in regulating the populations of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. However, the biology and taxonomy of numerous parasitoid species remain poorly known. In Mexico, only 17 species of the subfamily Cheloninae have been described. A new species of Pseudophanerotoma Zettel, 1990 (Hymenoptera, Braconidae), P. huicholsp. nov., is described from Nayarit, Mexico. The tortricid moth Cryptaspasma perseana Gilligan & Brown, 2011 is reported as the host of this parasitoid wasp. Detailed taxonomic and barcoding information are provided.

Mitochondrial phylogenomics and mitogenome organization in the parasitoid wasp family Braconidae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonoidea)

BACKGROUND

Mitochondrial (mt) nucleotide sequence data has been by far the most common tool employed to investigate evolutionary relationships. While often considered to be more useful for shallow evolutionary scales, mt genomes have been increasingly shown also to contain valuable phylogenetic information about deep relationships. Further, mt genome organization provides another important source of phylogenetic information and gene reorganizations which are known to be relatively frequent within the insect order Hymenoptera. Here we used a dense taxon sampling comprising 148 mt genomes (132 newly generated) collectively representing members of most of the currently recognised subfamilies of the parasitoid wasp family Braconidae, which is one of the largest radiations of hymenopterans. We employed this data to investigate the evolutionary relationships within the family and to assess the phylogenetic informativeness of previously known and newly discovered mt gene rearrangements.

RESULTS

Most subfamilial relationships and their composition obtained were similar to those recovered in a previous phylogenomic study, such as the restoration of Trachypetinae and the recognition of Apozyginae and Proteropinae as valid braconid subfamilies. We confirmed and detected phylogenetic signal in previously known as well as novel mt gene rearrangements, including mt rearrangements within the cyclostome subfamilies Doryctinae and Rogadinae.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed that both the mt genome DNA sequence data and gene organization contain valuable phylogenetic signal to elucidate the evolution within Braconidae at different taxonomic levels. This study serves as a basis for further investigation of mt gene rearrangements at different taxonomic scales within the family.

Turbo taxonomy approaches: lessons from the past and recommendations for the future based on the experience with Braconidae (Hymenoptera) parasitoid wasps

Not aplicable to a Forum paper, but if needed I can write one.

Revision of Neotropical Scythrididae moths and descriptions of 22 new species from Argentina, Chile, and Peru (Lepidoptera, Gelechioidea)

The taxonomy of South American Scythrididae (Lepidoptera: Gelechioidea) is revised, based on external morphology, genitalia, male abdominal segment VIII, and DNA barcodes using genetic distances, BINs, and a tentative molecular phylogeny. Data include both historical and fresh specimens from Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Peru. Thirty-four species are recognised as valid, and the fauna classified in three genera. Type specimens and morphology of all species are described and figured in detail. DNA barcode sequences of the COI gene were successful for 22 species, the average genetic divergence between species being 5.1%. A key to Neotropical Scythrididae species is provided, based on the male genitalia and abdominal segment VIII, which show most and easily accessible interspecific differences. Our study revealed that the Scythridae fauna of South America is more or less completely unknown. As a result, 22 new species are described, increasing the number of South American Scythrididae species from 13 to 34. All new species are authored by Kari Nupponen (incertae sedis means the genus combination is uncertain and needs further research, country of the type locality is given in parentheses): Rhamphurasubdimota sp. nov. (Argentina), R.pozohondaensis sp. nov. (Argentina), R.spiniuncus sp. nov. (Argentina), R.angulisociella sp. nov. incertae sedis (Argentina), R.curvisociella sp. nov. incertae sedis (Argentina), R.tetrafasciella sp. nov. incertae sedis (Argentina), Landryiaankylosauroides sp. nov. incertae sedis (Argentina), L.chilensis sp. nov. incertae sedis (Chile), Scythrisdirectiphallella sp. nov. (Argentina), S.furciphallella sp. nov. (Argentina), S.manchaoensis sp. nov. (Argentina), S.salinasgrandensis sp. nov. (Argentina), S.angustivalvella sp. nov. (Argentina), S.caimancitoensis sp. nov. (Argentina), S.lequetepequensis sp. nov. (Peru), S.sanfriscoensis sp. nov. (Argentina), S.tigrensis sp. nov. (Argentina), S.bicoloristrigella sp. nov. incertae sedis (Argentina), S.saldaitisi sp. nov. incertae sedis (Argentina), S.wikstromi sp. nov. incertae sedis (Argentina), S.andensis sp. nov. incertae sedis (Argentina), S.mendozaensis sp. nov. incertae sedis (Argentina). The following new combinations are proposed: Scythrisdepressa Meyrick, 1931 and Scythrisdimota Meyrick, 1931 are transferred from Scythris Hübner, 1825 to Rhamphura Landry, 1991 comb. nov. Three species classified in Scythris earlier are now classified as Scythris (incertae sedis): Scythrisdividua Meyrick, 1916, S.medullata Meyrick, 1916 and S.notorrhoa Meyrick, 1921. The taxon Syntetrernisneocompsa Meyrick, 1933, recently classified in Scythrididae: Scythris, is excluded from Scythrididae and it is now classified in Cosmopterigidae incertae sedis.

Sizing the Knowledge Gap in Taxonomy: The Last Dozen Years of Aphidiinae Research

Simple Summary

Taxonomy is a biological discipline with the task to identify, name, and describe organisms, and as such, it provides necessary data for all other biological disciplines. The biodiversity crisis through which we are living draws attention to the crucial role of taxonomy in biology today. At the same time, the scientific community, as well as society in general, has become more aware of the difficulties associated with taxonomy, such as gaps in taxonomic knowledge, a lack of taxonomic infrastructure, and an insufficient number of taxonomic experts (“taxonomic impediment”). With this study, we tried to size this knowledge gap by analyzing the taxonomical studies on Aphidiinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) conducted from 2010 to 2021. Aphidiinae are endoparasitoids of aphids; a single specimen completes its development inside the living aphid host, which are used in biological control programs. Here, we summarize the knowledge gathered over the last dozen years and discuss it in a general context.

Abstract

Taxonomic impediment is one of the main roadblocks to managing the current biodiversity crisis. Insect taxonomy is the biggest contributor to the taxonomic impediment, both in terms of the knowledge gap and the lack of experts. With this study, we tried to size the knowledge gap by analyzing taxonomical studies on the subfamily Aphidiinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) conducted from 2010 to 2021. All available taxonomic knowledge gathered in this period is critically summarized: newly described species, detection of alien species, published identification keys, etc. All findings are discussed relative to the current state of general taxonomy. Future prospects for taxonomy are also discussed.