Cutting edge: IFN-inducible ELR- CXC chemokines display defensin-like antimicrobial activity

CD4, but not Cxcr6, is necessary for control of Pneumocystis murina infection

CD4+ T cells are critical to control of Pneumocystis infection, and Cxcr6 has been shown to be upregulated in these cells during infection, but the roles of CD4 and Cxcr6 in this setting are undefined. To explore this, mice deficient in CD4 or Cxcr6 expression were utilized in a co-housing mouse model that mimics the natural route of Pneumocystis infection. Organism load and anti-Pneumocystis antibodies were assayed over time, and immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, and quantitative PCR were used to characterize host immune responses during infection. CD4 was found to be necessary for clearance of Pneumocystis murina, though partial control was seen in it's absence; based on ThPOK expression, double negative T cells with T helper cell characteristics may be contributing to this control. Using a Cxcr6 deficient mouse expressing gfp, control of infection in the absence of Cxcr6 was similar to that in heterozygous control mice. It is noteworthy that gfp + cells were seen in the lungs with similar frequencies between the 2 strains. Interferon-ɣ and chemokine/ligands Cxcr3, Cxcl9, and Cxcl10 increased during P. murina infection in all models. Thus, CD4, but not Cxcr6, is needed for clearance of P. murina infection.

Macrophage-to-osteocyte communication: Impact in a 3D in vitro implant-associated infection model

Macrophages and osteocytes are important regulators of inflammation, osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis. However, their interactions under adverse conditions, such as biomaterial-associated infection (BAI) are not fully understood. We aimed to elucidate how factors released from macrophages modulate osteocyte responses in an in vitro indirect 3D co-culture model. Human monocyte-derived macrophages were cultured on etched titanium disks and activated with either IL-4 cytokine (anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype) or Staphylococcus aureus secreted virulence factors to simulate BAI (pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype). Primary osteocytes in collagen gels were then stimulated with conditioned media (CM) from these macrophages. The osteocyte response was analyzed by gene expression, protein secretion, and immunostaining. M1 phenotype macrophages were confirmed by IL-1β and TNF-α secretion, and M2 macrophages by ARG-1 and MRC-1.Osteocytes receiving M1 CM revealed bone inhibitory effects, denoted by reduced secretion of bone formation osteocalcin (BGLAP) and increased secretion of the bone inhibitory sclerostin (SOST). These osteocytes also downregulated the pro-mineralization gene PHEX and upregulated the anti-mineralization gene MEPE. Additionally, exhibited pro-osteoclastic potential by upregulating pro-osteoclastic gene RANKL expression. Nonetheless, M1-stimulated osteocytes expressed a higher level of the potent pro-osteogenic factor BMP-2 in parallel with the downregulation of the bone inhibitor genes DKK1 and SOST, suggesting a compensatory feedback mechanisms. Conversely, M2-stimulated osteocytes mainly upregulated anti-osteoclastic gene OPG expression, suggesting an anti-catabolic effect. Altogether, our findings demonstrate a strong communication between M1 macrophages and osteocytes under M1 (BAI)-simulated conditions, suggesting that the BAI adverse effects on osteoblastic and osteoclastic processes in vitro are partly mediated via this communication. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Biomaterial-associated infections are major challenges and the underlying mechanisms in the cellular interactions are missing, especially among the major cells from the inflammatory side (macrophages as the key cell in bacterial clearance) and the regenerative side (osteocyte as main regulator of bone). We evaluated the effect of macrophage polarization driven by the stimulation with bacterial virulence factors on the osteocyte function using an indirect co-culture model, hence mimicking the scenario of a biomaterial-associated infection. The results suggest that at least part of the adverse effects of biomaterial associated infection on osteoblastic and osteoclastic processes in vitro are mediated via macrophage-to-osteocyte communication.

Chemokines Kill Bacteria by Binding Anionic Phospholipids without Triggering Antimicrobial Resistance

Classically, chemokines coordinate leukocyte trafficking during immune responses; however, many chemokines have also been reported to possess direct antibacterial activity in vitro. Yet, the bacterial killing mechanism of chemokines and the biochemical properties that define which members of the chemokine superfamily are antimicrobial remain poorly understood. Here we report that the antimicrobial activity of chemokines is defined by their ability to bind phosphatidylglycerol and cardiolipin, two anionic phospholipids commonly found in the bacterial plasma membrane. We show that only chemokines able to bind these two phospholipids kill Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and that they exert rapid bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects against E. coli with a higher potency than the antimicrobial peptide beta-defensin 3. Furthermore, our data support that bacterial membrane cardiolipin facilitates the antimicrobial action of chemokines. Both biochemical and genetic interference with the chemokine-cardiolipin interaction impaired microbial growth arrest, bacterial killing, and membrane disruption by chemokines. Moreover, unlike conventional antibiotics, E. coli failed to develop resistance when placed under increasing antimicrobial chemokine pressure in vitro. Thus, we have identified cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol as novel binding partners for chemokines responsible for chemokine antimicrobial action. Our results provide proof of principle for developing chemokines as novel antibiotics resistant to bacterial antimicrobial resistance mechanisms.

Photobiomodulation of Gingival Cells Challenged with Viable Oral Microbes

The oral cavity, a unique ecosystem harboring diverse microorganisms, maintains health through a balanced microflora. Disruption may lead to disease, emphasizing the protective role of gingival epithelial cells (GECs) in preventing harm from pathogenic oral microbes. Shifting GECs' response from proinflammatory to antimicrobial could be a novel strategy for periodontitis. Photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT), a nonpharmacologic host modulatory approach, is considered an alternative to drugs. While the host cell response induced by a single type of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) was widely studied, this model does not address the cellular response to intact microbes that exhibit multiple PAMPs that might modulate the response. Inspired by this, we developed an in vitro model that simulates direct interactions between host cells and intact pathogens and evaluated the effect of PBMT on the response of human gingival keratinocytes (HGKs) to challenge viable oral microbes at both the cellular and molecular levels. Our data demonstrated that LED pretreatment on microbially challenged HGKs with specific continuous wavelengths (red: 615 nm; near-infrared: 880 nm) induced the production of various antimicrobial peptides, enhanced cell viability and proliferation, promoted reactive oxygen species scavenging, and down-modulated proinflammatory activity. The data also suggest a potential explanation regarding the superior efficacy of near-infrared light treatment compared with red light in enhancing antimicrobial activity and reducing cellular inflammation of HGKs. Taken together, the findings suggest that PBMT enhances the overall barrier function of gingival epithelium while minimizing inflammation-mediated breakdown of the underlying structures.

Neutrophils and galectin-3 defend mice from lethal bacterial infection and humans from acute respiratory failure

Respiratory infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, common in hospitalized immunocompromised and immunocompetent ventilated patients, can be life-threatening because of antibiotic resistance. This raises the question of whether the host's immune system can be educated to combat this bacterium. Here we show that prior exposure to a single low dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) protects mice from a lethal infection by P. aeruginosa. LPS exposure trained the innate immune system by promoting expansion of neutrophil and interstitial macrophage populations distinguishable from other immune cells with enrichment of gene sets for phagocytosis- and cell-killing-associated genes. The cell-killing gene set in the neutrophil population uniquely expressed Lgals3, which encodes the multifunctional antibacterial protein, galectin-3. Intravital imaging for bacterial phagocytosis, assessment of bacterial killing and neutrophil-associated galectin-3 protein levels together with use of galectin-3-deficient mice collectively highlight neutrophils and galectin-3 as central players in LPS-mediated protection. Patients with acute respiratory failure revealed significantly higher galectin-3 levels in endotracheal aspirates (ETAs) of survivors compared to non-survivors, galectin-3 levels strongly correlating with a neutrophil signature in the ETAs and a prognostically favorable hypoinflammatory plasma biomarker subphenotype. Taken together, our study provides impetus for harnessing the potential of galectin-3-expressing neutrophils to protect from lethal infections and respiratory failure.

Modulation of innate immunity in airway epithelium for host-directed therapy

Innate immunity of the mucosal surfaces provides the first-line defense from invading pathogens and pollutants conferring protection from the external environment. Innate immune system of the airway epithelium consists of several components including the mucus layer, mucociliary clearance of beating cilia, production of host defense peptides, epithelial barrier integrity provided by tight and adherens junctions, pathogen recognition receptors, receptors for chemokines and cytokines, production of reactive oxygen species, and autophagy. Therefore, multiple components interplay with each other for efficient protection from pathogens that still can subvert host innate immune defenses. Hence, the modulation of innate immune responses with different inducers to boost host endogenous front-line defenses in the lung epithelium to fend off pathogens and to enhance epithelial innate immune responses in the immunocompromised individuals is of interest for host-directed therapy. Herein, we reviewed possibilities of modulation innate immune responses in the airway epithelium for host-directed therapy presenting an alternative approach to standard antibiotics.

A Narrative Review Discussing Vasectomy-Related Impact upon the Status of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Biomarkers and Semen Microbiota

Background: Male contraceptive approaches besides tubal sterilization involve vasectomy and represent the method of choice among midlife men in developing countries thanks to many advantages. However, the subsidiary consequences of this intervention are insufficiently explored since the involved mechanisms may offer insight into a much more complex picture. Methods: Thus, in this manuscript, we aimed to reunite all available data by searching three separate academic database(s) (PubMed, Web of Knowledge, and Scopus) published in the past two decades by covering the interval 2000–2023 and using a predefined set of keywords and strings involving “oxidative stress” (OS), “inflammation”, and “semen microbiota” in combination with “humans”, “rats”, and “mice”. Results: By following all evidence that fits in the pre-, post-, and vasectomy reversal (VR) stages, we identified a total of n = 210 studies from which only n = 21 were finally included following two procedures of eligibility evaluation. Conclusions: The topic surrounding this intricate landscape has created debate since the current evidence is contradictory, limited, or does not exist. Starting from this consideration, we argue that further research is mandatory to decipher how a vasectomy might disturb homeostasis.

Antimicrobial peptides´ immune modulation role in intracellular bacterial infection

Intracellular bacteria cause a wide range of diseases, and their intracellular lifestyle makes infections difficult to resolve. Furthermore, standard therapy antibiotics are often unable to eliminate the infection because they have poor cellular uptake and do not reach the concentrations needed to kill bacteria. In this context, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a promising therapeutic approach. AMPs are short cationic peptides. They are essential components of the innate immune response and important candidates for therapy due to their bactericidal properties and ability to modulate host immune responses. AMPs control infections through their diverse immunomodulatory effects stimulating and/or boosting immune responses. This review focuses on AMPs described to treat intracellular bacterial infections and the known immune mechanisms they influence.

A review of the pleiotropic actions of the IFN-inducible CXC chemokine receptor 3 ligands in the synovial microenvironment

Chemokines are pivotal players in instigation and perpetuation of synovitis through leukocytes egress from the blood circulation into the inflamed articulation. Multitudinous literature addressing the involvement of the dual-function interferon (IFN)-inducible chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 in diseases characterized by chronic inflammatory arthritis emphasizes the need for detangling their etiopathological relevance. Through interaction with their mutual receptor CXC chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3), the chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 exert their hallmark function of coordinating directional trafficking of CD4+ TH1 cells, CD8+ T cells, NK cells and NKT cells towards inflammatory niches. Among other (patho)physiological processes including infection, cancer, and angiostasis, IFN-inducible CXCR3 ligands have been implicated in autoinflammatory and autoimmune diseases. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the abundant presence of IFN-induced CXCR3 ligands in bodily fluids of patients with inflammatory arthritis, the outcomes of their selective depletion in rodent models, and the attempts at developing candidate drugs targeting the CXCR3 chemokine system. We further propose that the involvement of the CXCR3 binding chemokines in synovitis and joint remodeling encompasses more than solely the directional ingress of CXCR3-expressing leukocytes. The pleotropic actions of the IFN-inducible CXCR3 ligands in the synovial niche reiteratively illustrate the extensive complexity of the CXCR3 chemokine network, which is based on the intercommunion of IFN-inducible CXCR3 ligands with distinct CXCR3 isoforms, enzymes, cytokines, and infiltrated and resident cells present in the inflamed joints.

Vertebral Bone Marrow Clot towards the Routine Clinical Scenario in Spine Surgeries: What about the Antimicrobial Properties?

Exploring innovative techniques and treatments to improve spinal fusion procedures is a global challenge. Here, we provide a scientific opinion on the ability of a vertebral bone marrow (vBM) clot to provide a local combined delivery system not only of stem cells, signaling biomolecules and anti-inflammatory factors but also of molecules and proteins endowed with antimicrobial properties. This opinion is based on the evaluation of the intrinsic basic properties of the vBM, that contains mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and on the coagulation process that led to the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin fibers that enmesh cells, plasma but above all platelets, to form the clot. We emphasize that vBM clot, being a powerful source of MSCs and platelets, would allow the release of antimicrobial proteins and molecules, mainly cathelicidin LL- 37, hepcidin, kinocidins and cationic host defense peptides, that are per se gifted with direct and/or indirect antimicrobial effects. We additionally highlight that further studies are needed to deepen this knowledge and to propose vBM clot as multifunctional bioscaffold able to target all the main key challenges for spinal fusion surgery.

Gardnerella subgroup dominant microbiomes are associated with divergent cervicovaginal immune responses in a longitudinal cohort of Kenyan women

Most cervicovaginal microbiome-immunology studies to date have relied on 16S rDNA microbial profiling which does not resolve the molecular subgroups of Gardnerella, believed to be central to the pathogenesis of bacterial vaginosis (BV) and subsequent risk of HIV acquisition. Here we used the cpn60 universal target which in addition to other microbial taxa, resolves four Gardnerella subgroups, for cervicovaginal microbial profiling in a longitudinal cohort of Kenyan women to examine associations with cellular and soluble markers of inflammation and HIV susceptibility. Participants (N = 41) were sampled, contributing 362 samples for microbiome analysis. All non-Lactobacillus dominant microbial communities were associated with high pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. Divergent associations were observed among different Gardnerella subgroup dominated communities with respect to the chemokine IP-10. Specifically, Gardnerella subgroup A dominant and polymicrobial communities were associated with reduced concentrations of IP-10 in adjusted linear mixed models (p<0.0001), compared to microbial communities dominated by Lactobacillus (non-iners) species. However, these associations did not translate to significant differences in the proportion or absolute number of CCR5, HLA-DR and CD38 expressed on cervical CD4⁺ T- cells. These findings suggest that some associations between Gardnerella subgroup dominant microbiomes and mucosal immunity differ and are relevant for the study of BV-pathogenesis and understanding the mechanisms of BV-associated HIV risk.

Involvement of chemokine receptor CXCR3 in the defense mechanism against Neospora caninum infection in C57BL/6 mice

C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3) is an important receptor controlling the migration of leukocytes, although there is no report regarding its role in Neospora caninum infection. Herein, we investigated the relevance of CXCR3 in the resistance mechanism to N. caninum infection in mice. Wild-type (WT) C57BL/6 mice and CXCR3-knockout (CXCR3KO) mice were used in all experiments. WT mice displayed a high survival rate (100%), while 80% of CXCR3KO mice succumbed to N. caninum infection within 50 days. Compared with WT mice, CXCR3KO mice exhibited significantly lower body weights and higher clinical scores at the subacute stage of infection. Flow cytometric analysis revealed CXCR3KO mice as having significantly increased proportions and numbers of CD11c-positive cells compared with WT mice at 5 days post infection (dpi). However, levels of interleukin-6 and interferon-γ in serum and ascites were similar in all groups at 5 dpi. Furthermore, no differences in parasite load were detected in brain, spleen, lungs or liver tissue of CXCR3KO and WT mice at 5 and 21 dpi. mRNA analysis of brain tissue collected from infected mice at 30 dpi revealed no changes in expression levels of inflammatory response genes. Nevertheless, the brain tissue of infected CXCR3KO mice displayed significant necrosis and microglial activation compared with that of WT mice at 21 dpi. Interestingly, the brain tissue of CXCR3KO mice displayed significantly lower numbers of FoxP3⁺ cells compared with the brain tissue of WT mice at 30 dpi. Accordingly, our study suggests that the lack of active regulatory T cells in brain tissue of infected CXCR3KO mice is the main cause of these mice having severe necrosis and lower survival compared with WT mice. Thus, CXCR3⁺ regulatory T cells may play a crucial role in control of neosporosis.

Disparate Regions of the Human Chemokine CXCL10 Exhibit Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Activity against Biodefense and Antibiotic-Resistant Bacterial Pathogens

CXCL10 is a pro-inflammatory chemokine produced by the host in response to microbial infection. In addition to canonical, receptor-dependent actions affecting immune-cell migration and activation, CXCL10 has also been found to directly kill a broad range of pathogenic bacteria. Prior investigations suggest that the bactericidal effects of CXCL10 occur through two distinct pathways that compromise the cell envelope. These observations raise the intriguing notion that CXCL10 features a separable pair of antimicrobial domains. Herein, we affirm this possibility through peptide-based mapping and structure/function analyses, which demonstrate that discrete peptides derived from the N- and C-terminal regions of CXCL10 mediate bacterial killing. The N-terminal derivative, peptide P1, exhibited marked antimicrobial activity against Bacillus anthracis vegetative bacilli and spores, as well as antibiotic-resistant clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Enterococcus faecium, and Staphylococcus aureus, among others. At bactericidal concentrations, peptide P1 had a minimal degree of chemotactic activity, but did not cause red blood cell hemolysis or cytotoxic effects against primary human cells. The C-terminal derivative, peptide P9, exhibited antimicrobial effects, but only against Gram-negative bacteria in low-salt medium─conditions under which the peptide can adopt an α-helical conformation. The introduction of a hydrocarbon staple induced and stabilized α-helicity; accordingly, stapled peptide P9 displayed significantly improved bactericidal effects against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in media containing physiologic levels of salt. Together, our findings identify and characterize the antimicrobial regions of CXCL10 and functionalize these novel determinants as discrete peptides with potential therapeutic utility against difficult-to-treat pathogens.

CXCL10 Chemokine: A Critical Player in RNA and DNA Viral Infections

Chemokines constitute a group of small, secreted proteins that regulate leukocyte migration and contribute to their activation. Chemokines are crucial inflammatory mediators that play a key role in managing viral infections, during which the profile of chemokine expression helps shape the immune response and regulate viral clearance, improving clinical outcome. In particular, the chemokine ligand CXCL10 and its receptor CXCR3 were explored in a plethora of RNA and DNA viral infections. In this review, we highlight the expression profile and role of the CXCL10/CXCR3 axis in the host defense against a variety of RNA and DNA viral infections. We also discuss the interactions among viruses and host cells that trigger CXCL10 expression, as well as the signaling cascades induced in CXCR3 positive cells.

Gut microbiota composition reflects disease progression, severity and outcome, and dysfunctional immune responses in patients with hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to explore the alterations in gut microbiota composition and cytokine responses related to disease progression, severity, and outcomes in patients with hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH).

METHODS

Fecal microbiota communities of 64 patients with ICH, 46 coronary heart disease controls, and 23 healthy controls were measured by sequencing the V3-V4 region of the 16S ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene. Serum concentrations of a broad spectrum of cytokines were examined by liquid chips and ELISA. Relationships between clinical phenotypes, microbiotas, and cytokine responses were analyzed in the group with ICH and stroke-associated pneumonia (SAP), the major complication of ICH.

RESULTS

In comparison with the control groups, the gut microbiota of the patients with ICH had increased microbial richness and diversity, an expanded spectrum of facultative anaerobes and opportunistic pathogens, and depletion of anaerobes. Enterococcus enrichment and Prevotella depletion were more significant in the ICH group and were associated with the severity and functional outcome of ICH. Furthermore, Enterococcus enrichment and Prevotella depletion were also noted in the SAP group in contrast to the non-SAP group. Enterococci were also promising factors in the prognosis of ICH. The onset of ICH induced massive, rapid activation of the peripheral immune system. There were 12 cytokines (Eotaxin, GM-CSF, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-15, IL-23, IL-1RA, IP-10, RANTES, and TNF-α) changed significantly with prolongation of ICH, and the Th2 responses correlated with the 90-day outcomes. Cytokines TNF-α, IP-10, IL-1RA, IL-8, IL-18, and MIP-1β in SAP group significantly differed from non-SAP group. Among these cytokines, only IP-10 levels decreased in the SAP group. Enterococcus was positively associated with IL-1RA and negatively associated with IP-10, while Prevotella was inversely associated in both the ICH and SAP groups.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed that gut dysbiosis with enriched Enterococcus and depleted Prevotella increased the risk of ICH and subsequently SAP. The altered gut microbiota composition and serum cytokine profiles are potential biomarkers that reflect the inciting physiologic insult/stress involved with ICH.

Expression strategies for the efficient synthesis of antimicrobial peptides in plastids

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) kill microbes or inhibit their growth and are promising next-generation antibiotics. Harnessing their full potential as antimicrobial agents will require methods for cost-effective large-scale production and purification. Here, we explore the possibility to exploit the high protein synthesis capacity of the chloroplast to produce AMPs in plants. Generating a large series of 29 sets of transplastomic tobacco plants expressing nine different AMPs as fusion proteins, we show that high-level constitutive AMP expression results in deleterious plant phenotypes. However, by utilizing inducible expression and fusions to the cleavable carrier protein SUMO, the cytotoxic effects of AMPs and fused AMPs are alleviated and plants with wild-type-like phenotypes are obtained. Importantly, purified AMP fusion proteins display antimicrobial activity independently of proteolytic removal of the carrier. Our work provides expression strategies for the synthesis of toxic polypeptides in chloroplasts, and establishes transplastomic plants as efficient production platform for antimicrobial peptides.

Utility of Plasma Protein Biomarkers and Mid-infrared Spectroscopy for Diagnosing Fracture-related Infections: A Pilot Study

OBJECTIVES

To compare a large panel of plasma protein inflammatory biomarkers and mid-infrared (MIR) spectral patterns in patients with confirmed fracture-related infections (FRIs) with those in controls without infection.

DESIGN

Prospective case-control study.

SETTING

Academic, Level 1 trauma center.

PATIENTS

Thirteen patients meeting confirmatory FRI criteria were matched to 13 controls based on age, time after surgery, and fracture region.

INTERVENTION

Plasma levels of 49 proteins were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay techniques. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of dried films was used to obtain MIR spectra of plasma samples.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

The main outcome measurements included plasma protein levels and MIR spectra of samples.

RESULTS

Multivariate analysis-based predictive model developed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based biomarkers had sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 69.2% ± 0.0%, 99.9% ± 1.0%, and 84.5% ± 0.6%, respectively, with platelet-derived growth factor-AB/BB, C-reactive protein, and MIG selected as the minimum number of variables explaining group differences ( P &lt; 0.05). Sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of the predictive model based on MIR spectra were 69.9% ± 6.2%, 71.9% ± 5.9%, and 70.9% ± 4.8%, respectively, with 6 wavenumbers as explanatory variables ( P &lt; 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study demonstrates the feasibility of using a select panel of plasma proteins and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to diagnose FRIs. Preliminary data suggest that the measurement of these select proteins and MIR spectra may be potential clinical tools to detect FRIs. Further investigation of these biomarkers in a larger cohort of patients is warranted.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Diagnostic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Identifying hub genes and miRNAs in Crohn’s disease by bioinformatics analysis

Introduction: Crohn’s disease (CD) is a disease that manifests mainly as chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, which is still not well understood in terms of its pathogenesis. The aim of this study was to use bioinformatics analysis to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and miRNAs with diagnostic and therapeutic potential in CD.

Materials and methods: Three CD datasets (GSE179285, GSE102133, GSE75214) were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. DEGs between normal and CD tissues were identified using the GEO2R online tool. The Gene Ontology (GO) term and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses of the DEGs were conducted using the clusterProfiler function in the R package. Protein-protein interaction network (PPI) analysis and visualization were performed with STRING and Cytoscape. Ten hub genes were identified using cytoHubba’s MCC algorithm and validated with datasets GSE6731 and GSE52746. Finally, the miRNA gene regulatory network was constructed by Cytoscape and NetworkAnalyst to predict potential microRNAs (miRNAs) associated with DEGs.

Results: A total of 97 DEGs were identified, consisting of 88 downregulated genes and 9 upregulated genes. The enriched functions and pathways of the DEGs include immune system process, response to stress, response to cytokine and extracellular region. KEGG pathway analysis indicates that the genes were significantly enriched in Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, IL-17 signaling pathway, Rheumatoid arthritis and TNF signaling pathway. In combination with the results of the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and CytoHubba, 10 hub genes including IL1B, CXCL8, CXCL10, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL5, ICAM1, IL1RN, TIMP1 and MMP3 were selected. Based on the DEG-miRNAs network construction, 5 miRNAs including hsa-mir-21-5p, hsa-mir-93-5p, hsa-mir-98-5p, hsa-mir-1-3p and hsa-mir-335-5p were identified as potential critical miRNAs.

Conclusion: In conclusion, a total of 97 DEGs, 10 hub genes and 5 miRNAs that may be involved in the progression or occurrence of CD were identified in this study, which could be regarded as biomarkers of CD.

CC and CXC chemokines in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.): Identification, evolutionary analyses, and expression profiling after Aeromonas salmonicida infection

Chemokines are a superfamily of structurally related cytokines, which exert essential roles in guiding cell migration in development, homeostasis, and immunity. CC and CXC chemokines are the two major subfamilies in teleost species. In this study, a total of seventeen CC and CXC chemokines, with inclusion of twelve CC and five CXC chemokines, were systematically identified from the turbot genome, making turbot the teleost harboring the least number of CC and CXC chemokines among all teleost species ever reported. Phylogeny, synteny, and genomic organization analyses were performed to annotate these genes, and multiple chemokine genes were identified in the turbot genome, due to the tandem duplications (CCL19 and CCL20), the whole genome duplications (CCL20, CCL25, and CXCL12), and the teleost-specific members (CCL34-36, CCL44, and CXCL18). In addition, chemokines were ubiquitously expressed in nine examined healthy tissues, with high expression levels observed in liver, gill, and spleen. Moreover, most chemokines were significantly differentially expressed in gill and spleen after Aeromonas salmonicida infection, and exhibited tissue-specific and time-dependent manner. Finally, protein-protein interaction network (PPI) analysis indicated that turbot chemokines interacted with a few immune-related genes such as interleukins, cathepsins, stats, and TLRs. These results should be valuable for comparative immunological studies and provide insights for further functional characterization of chemokines in teleost.

Gut Epithelial-derived CXCL9 Maintains Gut Homeostasis Through Preventing Overgrown E. coli

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Increased E. coli in the colon are related to the occurrence and development of multiple diseases. Chemokines are shown to possess potential antimicrobial activity, including against Gram-positive and -negative bacterial pathogens. We here investigated function[s] of chemokine CXCL9 expressed in the gut epithelial cells, and mechanism[s] of CXCL9 by which to kill E. coli.

METHODS

We generated CXCL9fl/flpvillin-creT mice [pvillin-cre positive mice] and their control CXCL9fl/flpvillin-crewmice [pvillin-cre negative mice], and then employed a dextran sulphate sodium [DSS]-mediated colitis model to determine the sensitivity of CXCL9fl/flpvillin-creT mice. We analysed the composition of the gut microbiota by using 16S ribosomal RNA [V3-V4 variable region] sequencing and shotgun metagenomic analyses. We generated E. coli ΔFtsX [FtsX-depleted E. coli] and E. coli ΔaceE [aceE-depleted E. coli] by using a bacterium red recombining system to investigate the mechanism[s] of CXCL9 by which to kill E. coli.

RESULTS

CXCL9 fl/flpvillin-creTmice were more sensitive to chemically induced colitis than their control littermates, CXCL9fl/flpvillin-crewmice. After DSS treatment, there were markedly increased gut E. coli [Escherichia-Shigella] in the colonic contents of CXCL9fl/flpvillin-creT mice as compared with control CXCL9fl/flpvillin-crew mice. The increased E. coli could promote colitis through NLRC4 and caspase 1/11-mediated IL-18, which was derived from gut epithelial cells. We finally demonstrated that CXCL9 expressed in gut epithelial cells could kill the overgrown E. coli. E. coli expressed Ftsx and PDHc subunits aceE. E.coliΔaceE but not E. coliΔFtsX were resistant to CXCL9-mediated killing.

CONCLUSIONS

Gut epithelial cells-derived CXCL9 can kill the expanded E. coli through aceE, to remain gut homeostasis.

A Teleost CXCL10 Is Both an Immunoregulator and an Antimicrobial

Chemokines are a group of cytokines that play important roles in cell migration, inflammation, and immune defense. In this study, we identified a CXC chemokine, CXCL10, from Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus (named PoCXCL10) and investigated its immune function. Structurally, PoCXCL10 possesses an N-terminal coil, three β-strands, and a C-terminal α-helix with cationic and amphipathic properties. PoCXCL10 expression occurred in multiple tissues and was upregulated by bacterial pathogens. Recombinant PoCXCL10 (rPoCXCL10) promoted the migration, cytokine expression, and phagocytosis of flounder peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs). rPoCXCL10 bound to and inhibited the growth of a variety of common Gram-negative and Gram-positive fish pathogens. rPoCXCL10 killed the pathogens by causing bacterial membrane permeabilization and structure destruction. When introduced in vivo, rPoCXCL10 significantly inhibited bacterial dissemination in fish tissues. A peptide derived from the C-terminal α-helix exhibited bactericidal activity and competed with rPoCXCL10 for bacterial binding. Deletion of the α-helix affected the in vitro bactericidal activity but not the chemotaxis or in vivo antimicrobial activity of PoCXCL10. Together, these results indicate that PoCXCL10 exerts the role of both an immunoregulator and a bactericide/bacteriostatic via different structural domains. These findings provide new insights into the immune function and working mechanism of fish CXC chemokines.

Platelet-Released Factors: Their Role in Viral Disease and Applications for Extracellular Vesicle (EV) Therapy

Platelets, which are small anuclear cell fragments, play important roles in thrombosis and hemostasis, but also actively release factors that can both suppress and induce viral infections. Platelet-released factors include sCD40L, microvesicles (MVs), and alpha granules that have the capacity to exert either pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory effects depending on the virus. These factors are prime targets for use in extracellular vesicle (EV)-based therapy due to their ability to reduce viral infections and exert anti-inflammatory effects. While there are some studies regarding platelet microvesicle-based (PMV-based) therapy, there is still much to learn about PMVs before such therapy can be used. This review provides the background necessary to understand the roles of platelet-released factors, how these factors might be useful in PMV-based therapy, and a critical discussion of current knowledge of platelets and their role in viral diseases.

Risk of candidiasis associated with interleukin-17 inhibitors: A real-world observational study of multiple independent sources

BACKGROUND

Biologics directed against the T-helper (Th)-17 pathway have been approved for several inflammatory diseases. Interleukin (IL)-17 is involved in anti- Candida host defense, and clinical trials suggested increased candidiasis incidence during IL-17 inhibitor therapy. We describe the worldwide epidemiology of candidiasis during Th17 inhibitor therapy, and immunological mechanisms involved in candidiasis susceptibility.

METHODS

A comprehensive analysis of multiple independent sources reporting Candida adverse events during biologics inhibiting the Th17 pathway was performed. Association between Th17 inhibitors and candidiasis was assessed using safety reports of (1) WHO and (2) EMA, (3) a population-based prescriptions registry, and (4) a psoriasis cohort. In a cohort of psoriasis patients experiencing candidiasis during Th17 inhibitors, Candida killing by immune cells and serum inflammatory proteome were analyzed.

FINDINGS

A strong association between IL-17 inhibitors and candidiasis (ROR 10·20) was found in the WHO database, particularly for cutaneous (ROR 12·28), oropharyngeal (ROR 19·18), and esophageal candidiasis (ROR 21·20). Risk was higher relative to TNF-α inhibitors (4-10-fold, depending on candidiasis type), confirmed by EMA reports (16-33-fold), prescriptions registry (2-42-fold), and a psoriasis cohort (3-25-fold). After start of IL-17 inhibitors, patients' risk of candidiasis requiring antifungals increased 2-16 fold. In the psoriasis cohort, 58% of IL-17 treatment episodes were associated with candidiasis. In Th17 inhibitor recipients, proteins involved in anti- Candida immunity and Candida killing by mononuclear leukocytes were impaired.

INTERPRETATION

IL-17 inhibitors are associated with an increased risk of oropharyngeal, esophageal, and cutaneous candidiasis, posing a significant disease burden for IL-17 inhibitor recipients.

FUNDING

RadboudUMC.

Type III Interferons: Emerging Roles in Autoimmunity

Type III interferons (IFNs) or the lambda IFNs (IFNLs or IFN-λs) are antimicrobial cytokines that play key roles in immune host defense at endothelial and epithelial barriers. IFNLs signal via their heterodimeric receptor, comprised of two subunits, IFNLR1 and interleukin (IL)10Rβ, which defines the cellular specificity of the responses to the cytokines. Recent studies show that IFNL signaling regulates CD4+ T cell differentiation, favoring Th1 cells, which has led to the identification of IFNL as a putative therapeutic target for autoimmune diseases. Here, we summarize the IFNL signaling pathways during antimicrobial immunity, IFNL-mediated immunomodulation of both innate and adaptive immune cells, and induction of autoimmunity.

CXCL20a, a Teleost-Specific Chemokine That Orchestrates Direct Bactericidal, Chemotactic, and Phagocytosis-Killing-Promoting Functions, Contributes to Clearance of Bacterial Infections

The major role of chemokines is to act as a chemoattractant to guide the migration of immune cells to the infectious sites. In the current study, we found that CiCXCL20a, a teleost-specific chemokine from grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), demonstrates broad-spectrum, potent, direct bactericidal activity and immunomodulatory functions to bacterial infections, apart from the chemotaxis. CiCXCL20a kills bacteria by binding, mainly targeting acid lipids, perforating bacterial membrane, resulting in bacterial cytoplasm leakage and death. CiCXCL20a aggregates and neutralizes LPS, agglutinates Gram-negative bacteria, and binds to peptidoglycan and Gram-positive bacteria, but not agglutinate them. All the complexes may be phagocytized and cleared away. CiCXCL20a chemoattracts leukocytes, facilitates phagocytosis of myeloid leukocytes, not lymphoid leukocytes, and enhances the bacteria-killing ability in leukocytes. We further identified its receptor CiCXCR3.1b1. Furthermore, we investigated the physiological roles of CiCXCL20a against Aeromonas hydrophila infection in vivo. The recombinant CiCXCL20a increases the survival rate and decreases the tissue bacterial loads, edema, and lesions. Then, we verified this function by purified CiCXCL20a Ab blockade, and the survival rate decreases, and the tissue bacterial burdens increase. In addition, zebrafish (Danio rerio) DrCXCL20, an ortholog of CiCXCL20a, was employed to verify the bactericidal function and mechanism. The results indicated that DrCXCL20 also possesses wide-spectrum, direct bactericidal activity through membrane rupture mechanism. The present study, to our knowledge, provides the first evidence that early vertebrate chemokine prevents from bacterial infections by direct bactericidal and phagocytosis-killing-promoting manners. The results also demonstrate the close functional relationship between chemokines and antimicrobial peptides.

Recent Advances in the Discovery and Function of Antimicrobial Molecules in Platelets

The conventional function described for platelets is maintaining vascular integrity. Nevertheless, increasing evidence reveals that platelets can additionally play a crucial role in responding against microorganisms. Activated platelets release molecules with antimicrobial activity. This ability was first demonstrated in rabbit serum after coagulation and later in rabbit platelets stimulated with thrombin. Currently, multiple discoveries have allowed the identification and characterization of PMPs (platelet microbicidal proteins) and opened the way to identify kinocidins and CHDPs (cationic host defense peptides) in human platelets. These molecules are endowed with microbicidal activity through different mechanisms that broaden the platelet participation in normal and pathologic conditions. Therefore, this review aims to integrate the currently described platelet molecules with antimicrobial properties by summarizing the pathways towards their identification, characterization, and functional evaluation that have promoted new avenues for studying platelets based on kinocidins and CHDPs secretion.

Stabilin-1 plays a protective role against Listeria monocytogenes infection through the regulation of cytokine and chemokine production and immune cell recruitment

Scavenger receptors are part of a complex surveillance system expressed by host cells to efficiently orchestrate innate immune response against bacterial infections. Stabilin-1 (STAB-1) is a scavenger receptor involved in cell trafficking, inflammation, and cancer; however, its role in infection remains to be elucidated. Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is a major intracellular human food-borne pathogen causing severe infections in susceptible hosts. Using a mouse model of infection, we demonstrate here that STAB-1 controls Lm-induced cytokine and chemokine production and immune cell accumulation in Lm-infected organs. We show that STAB-1 also regulates the recruitment of myeloid cells in response to Lm infection and contributes to clear circulating bacteria. In addition, whereas STAB-1 appears to promote bacterial uptake by macrophages, infection by pathogenic Listeria induces the down regulation of STAB-1 expression and its delocalization from the host cell membrane.

We propose STAB-1 as a new SR involved in the control of Lm infection through the regulation of host defense mechanisms, a process that would be targeted by bacterial virulence factors to promote infection.

Functional and Transcriptional Adaptations of Blood Monocytes Recruited to the Cystic Fibrosis Airway Microenvironment In Vitro

Cystic fibrosis (CF) lung disease is dominated by the recruitment of myeloid cells (neutrophils and monocytes) from the blood which fail to clear the lung of colonizing microbes. In prior in vitro studies, we showed that blood neutrophils migrated through the well-differentiated lung epithelium into the CF airway fluid supernatant (ASN) mimic the dysfunction of CF airway neutrophils in vivo, including decreased bactericidal activity despite an increased metabolism. Here, we hypothesized that, in a similar manner to neutrophils, blood monocytes undergo significant adaptations upon recruitment to CFASN. To test this hypothesis, primary human blood monocytes were transmigrated in our in vitro model into the ASN from healthy control (HC) or CF subjects to mimic in vivo recruitment to normal or CF airways, respectively. Surface phenotype, metabolic and bacterial killing activities, and transcriptomic profile by RNA sequencing were quantified post-transmigration. Unlike neutrophils, monocytes were not metabolically activated, nor did they show broad differences in activation and scavenger receptor expression upon recruitment to the CFASN compared to HCASN. However, monocytes recruited to CFASN showed decreased bactericidal activity. RNASeq analysis showed strong effects of transmigration on monocyte RNA profile, with differences between CFASN and HCASN conditions, notably in immune signaling, including lower expression in the former of the antimicrobial factor ISG15, defensin-like chemokine CXCL11, and nitric oxide-producing enzyme NOS3. While monocytes undergo qualitatively different adaptations from those seen in neutrophils upon recruitment to the CF airway microenvironment, their bactericidal activity is also dysregulated, which could explain why they also fail to protect CF airways from infection.

The evolution and functional characterization of CXC chemokines and receptors in lamprey

Chemokines are a large family of soluble peptides guiding cell migration in development and immune defense. They interact with chemokine receptors and are essential for the coordination of cell migration in diverse physiological processes. The CXC subfamily is one of the largest groups in the chemokine family and consists of multiple members. In this study, we identified homologues of three chemokine ligands (CXCL8, CXCL_F5 and CXCL12) and two CXC receptor like molecules (CXCR_L1 and CXCR_L2) in lamprey. Sequence analysis revealed that they share the same genomic organization with their counterparts in jawed vertebrates but synteny was not conserved. Lamprey CXCL8 and CXCL12 have four conserved cysteine residues whilst the CXCL_F5 has two additional cysteine residues. In addition, CXCL_F5 is evolutionarily related to the fish specific CXC chemokine groups previously identified and contains multiple cationic aa residues in the extended C- terminal region. The two CXCRs possess seven transmembrane domains and conserved structural elements for receptor activation and signaling, including the DRYXXI(V)Y motif in TM2, the disulphide bond connecting ECL2 and TM3, the WXP motif in TM6 and NPXXY motif in TM7. The identified CXC chemokines and receptors were constitutively expressed in tissues including the liver, kidney, intestine, heart, gills, supraneural body and primary leukocytes, but exhibited distinct expression patterns. Relatively high expression was detected in the gills for CXCL8, CXCL_F5 and CXCR_L1 and in the supraneural body for CXCL12 and CXCR_L2. All the genes except CXCL12 were upregulated by stimulation with LPS, pokeweed and bacterial infection, and the CXCL8 and CXCL_F5 was induced by poly (I:C). Functional analysis showed that the CXCL8 and CXCL_F5 specifically interacted with CXCR_L1 and CXCR_L2, respectively. Our results demonstrate that the CXC chemokine system had diversified in jawless fish.

Cytokine profiling of extracellular vesicles isolated from plasma in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome: a pilot study

BACKGROUND

Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) is a debilitating disease of unknown etiology lasting for a minimum of 6 months but usually for many years, with features including fatigue, cognitive impairment, myalgias, post-exertional malaise, and immune system dysfunction. Dysregulation of cytokine signaling could give rise to many of these symptoms. Cytokines are present in both plasma and extracellular vesicles, but little investigation of EVs in ME/CFS has been reported. Therefore, we aimed to characterize the content of extracellular vesicles (EVs) isolated from plasma (including circulating cytokine/chemokine profiling) from individuals with ME/CFS and healthy controls.

METHODS

We included 35 ME/CFS patients and 35 controls matched for age, sex and BMI. EVs were enriched from plasma by using a polymer-based precipitation method and characterized by Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and immunoblotting. A 45-plex immunoassay was used to determine cytokine levels in both plasma and isolated EVs from a subset of 19 patients and controls. Linear regression, principal component analysis and inter-cytokine correlations were analyzed.

RESULTS

ME/CFS individuals had significantly higher levels of EVs that ranged from 30 to 130 nm in size as compared to controls, but the mean size for total extracellular vesicles did not differ between groups. The enrichment of typical EV markers CD63, CD81, TSG101 and HSP70 was confirmed by Western blot analysis and the morphology assessed by TEM showed a homogeneous population of vesicles in both groups. Comparison of cytokine concentrations in plasma and isolated EVs of cases and controls yielded no significant differences. Cytokine-cytokine correlations in plasma revealed a significant higher number of interactions in ME/CFS cases along with 13 inverse correlations that were mainly driven by the Interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10), whereas in the plasma of controls, no inverse relationships were found across any of the cytokines. Network analysis in EVs from controls showed 2.5 times more significant inter-cytokine interactions than in the ME/CFS group, and both groups presented a unique negative association.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated levels of 30-130 nm EVs were found in plasma from ME/CFS patients and inter-cytokine correlations revealed unusual regulatory relationships among cytokines in the ME/CFS group that were different from the control group in both plasma and EVs. These disturbances in cytokine networks are further evidence of immune dysregulation in ME/CFS.

Functional differences of three CXCL10 homologues in the giant spiny frog Quasipaa spinosa

Chemokines are a superfamily of structurally related chemotactic cytokines exerting significant roles in acting as a bridge between the innate and adaptive immune responses. In this study, we identified three CXC motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10) homologues (QsCXCL10-1, QsCXCL10-2 and QsCXCL10-3) from giant spiny frog Quasipaa spinosa. All three deduced QsCXCL10 proteins contained four conserved cysteine residues as found in other known CXC chemokines. Phylogenetic analysis showed that QsCXCL10-1, 2, 3 and other CXCL10s in amphibian were grouped together to form a separate clade. These three QsCXCL10s were highly expressed in spleen and blood. Upon infection with Staphylococcus aureus or Aeromonas hydrophila, the expressions of QsCXCL10s were markedly increased in spleen and blood during biotic stresses. Meanwhile, the QsCXCL10s transcription in liver could also be up-regulated under abiotic stresses such as cold and heat stresses. The recombinant proteins of frog CXCL10 homologues were produced and purified in E. coli and possessed similar but differential bioactivities. Both rCXCL10-1 and rCXCL10-2 had strong effects on the up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-8) in vivo, whereas rCXCL10-3 induced a weak expression of these cytokines. Moreover, the rCXCL10-1 and rCXCL10-2 could strongly promote splenocyte proliferation and induce lymphocytes migration, while rCXCL10-3 had limited effects on these biological processes. All three frog chemokines triggered their functional activities by engaging CXC motif chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3). Taken together, these results revealed that the three QsCXCL10s had similar but differential functional activities in mediating immune responses and host defenses, which might contribute to a better understanding of the functional evolution of CXCL10 in vertebrates.

The commensal skin microbiota triggers type I IFN-dependent innate repair responses in injured skin

Skin wounds heal by coordinated induction of inflammation and tissue repair, but the initiating events are poorly defined. Here we uncover a fundamental role of commensal skin microbiota in this process and show that it is mediated by the recruitment and the activation of type I interferon (IFN)-producing plasmacytoid DC (pDC). Commensal bacteria colonizing skin wounds trigger activation of neutrophils to express the chemokine CXCL10, which recruits pDC and acts as an antimicrobial protein to kill exposed microbiota, leading to the formation of CXCL10-bacterial DNA complexes. These complexes and not complexes with host-derived DNA activate pDC to produce type I IFNs, which accelerate wound closure by triggering skin inflammation and early T cell-independent wound repair responses, mediated by macrophages and fibroblasts that produce major growth factors required for healing. These findings identify a key function of commensal microbiota in driving a central innate wound healing response of the skin.

Non-canonical functions of human cytoplasmic tyrosyl-, tryptophanyl- and other aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases catalyze the aminoacylation of their cognate tRNAs. Here we review the accumulated knowledge of non-canonical functions of human cytoplasmic aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, especially tyrosyl- (TyrRS) and tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (TrpRS). Human TyrRS and TrpRS have an extra domain. Two distinct cytokines, i.e., the core catalytic "mini TyrRS" and the extra C-domain, are generated from human TyrRS by proteolytic cleavage. Moreover, the core catalytic domains of human TyrRS and TrpRS function as angiogenic and angiostatic factors, respectively, whereas the full-length forms are inactive for this function. It is also known that many synthetases change their localization in response to a specific signal and subsequently exhibit alternative functions. Furthermore, some synthetases function as sensors for amino acids by changing their protein interactions in an amino acid-dependent manner. Further studies will be necessary to elucidate regulatory mechanisms of non-canonical functions of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases in particular, by analyzing the effect of their post-translational modifications.

Out-Smarting the Host: Bacteria Maneuvering the Immune Response to Favor Their Survival

Bacteria adapt themselves to various environmental conditions in nature, which can lead to bacterial adaptation and persistence in the host as commensals or pathogens. In healthy individuals, host defense mechanisms prevent the opportunistic bacteria/commensals from becoming a pathological infection. However, certain pathological conditions can impair normal defense barriers leading to bacterial survival and persistence. Under pathological conditions such as chronic lung inflammation, bacteria employ various mechanisms from structural changes to protease secretion to manipulate and evade the host immune response and create a niche permitting commensal bacteria to thrive into infections. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms by which pathogenic bacteria survive in the host tissues and organs may offer new strategies to overcome persistent bacterial infections. In this review, we will discuss and highlight the complex interactions between airway pathogenic bacteria and immune responses in several major chronic inflammatory diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Non-invasive Chemokine Detection: Improved Prediction of Antibody-Mediated Rejection in Donor-Specific Antibody-Positive Renal Allograft Recipients

Background: Screening for donor-specific antibodies (DSA) has limited diagnostic value in patients with late antibody-mediated rejection (ABMR). Here, we evaluated whether biomarkers reflecting microcirculation inflammation or tissue injury-as an adjunct to DSA detection-are able to improve non-invasive ABMR monitoring. Methods: Upon prospective cross-sectional antibody screening of 741 long-term kidney transplant recipients with a silent clinical course, 86 DSA-positive patients were identified and biopsied. Serum and urine levels of E-selectin/CD62E, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), granzyme B, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), C-C motif chemokine ligand (CCL)3, CCL4, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand (CXCL)9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 in DSA-positive recipients were investigated applying multiplexed bead-based immunoassays. Results: Diagnosis of ABMR (50 patients) was associated with significantly higher levels of CXCL9 and CXCL10 in blood and urine and of HGF in blood. Overall, urinary CXCL9 had the highest diagnostic accuracy for ABMR (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve: 0.77; accuracy: 80%) and its combined evaluation with the mean fluorescence intensity of the immunodominant DSA (DSAmax MFI) revealed a net reclassification improvement of 73% compared to DSAmax MFI alone. Conclusions: Our results suggest urinary CXCL9 testing, combined with DSA analysis, as a valuable non-invasive tool to uncover clinically silent ABMR late after transplantation.

Fungal keratitis: Pathogenesis, diagnosis and prevention

As a kind of serious, potentially sight-threatening corneal infections with poor prognosis, fungal keratitis can bring a heavy economic burden to patients and seriously affect the quality of life, especially those in developing countries where fungal keratitis is more prevalent. Typical clinical features include immune rings, satellite lesions, pseudopods, hypha moss, hypopyon and endothelial plaques. The ideal therapeutic effects could not be achieved by current treatments for many reasons. Therefore, under the current status, understanding the pathogenesis, early diagnosis and prevention strategies might be of great importance. Here, in this review, we discuss the recent progresses that may advance our understanding of pathogenesis, early diagnosis and prevention of fungal keratitis.

CXCR3 enables recruitment and site-specific bystander activation of memory CD8+ T cells

Bystander activation of memory T cells occurs in the absence of cognate antigen during infections that elicit strong systemic inflammatory responses, which subsequently affect host immune responses. Here we report that memory T cell bystander activation is not limited to induction by systemic inflammation. We initially observe potential T cell bystander activation in a cohort of human vaccine recipients. Using a mouse model system, we then find that memory CD8⁺ T cells are specifically recruited to sites with activated antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in a CXCR3-dependent manner. In addition, CXCR3 is also necessary for T cell clustering around APCs and T cell bystander activation, which temporospatially overlaps with the subsequent antigen-specific T cell response. Our data thus suggest that bystander activation is part of the initial localized immune response, and is mediated by a site-specific recruitment process of memory T cells.

ELR positive CXCL chemokines are highly expressed in an animal model of ulcerative colitis

Background: The presence of neutrophil-rich inflammation in colon tissues of patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) is one of the most important histological characteristics of this disease. However, the expression of CXCL chemokines governing the infiltration of neutrophils in UC has not been well elucidated.

Materials and methods: In this experimental study, the UC model was induced in Wistar rats by administration of 2 mL 4% acetic acid into the large colon through the rectum. Animals were anesthetized after 48 hrs; their colon tissue samples were isolated for macroscopic and histopathological examinations. The expression of CXCL family was assessed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) technique.

Results: Heavy infiltration of neutrophils, coagulation necrosis, and ulcers were observed in H&E staining, which pathologically proved the UC model. qRT-PCR results showed that ELR⁺ CXC chemokines such as CXCL6 and CXCL3 had the highest expression in the UC group, which was 49 and 28 times higher than that of the control group, respectively. In addition, other chemokines of this group including CXCL1, CXCL2, and CXCL7 had a significant increase compared to the control group (P≤0.05). However, ELR⁻ CXC chemokines such as CXCL4, CXCL13, and CXCL16 showed a smaller upregulation, while CXCL14 chemokine showed a significant decrease compared to the control group (P≤0.05). However, the expression of CXCL9-12 and CXCL17 did not change.

Conclusion: The results showed that the ELR⁺ CXC chemokines, especially CXCL6 and CXCL3, many involved in the pathogenesis of UC; therefore, CXCL6 and CXCL3 chemokines can be used as therapeutic targets for UC, although more studies using human samples are required.

Chemokines in COPD: From Implication to Therapeutic Use

: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) represents the 3rd leading cause of death in the world. The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms have been the focus of extensive research in the past. The lung has a complex architecture, where structural cells interact continuously with immune cells that infiltrate into the pulmonary tissue. Both types of cells express chemokines and chemokine receptors, making them sensitive to modifications of concentration gradients. Cigarette smoke exposure and recurrent exacerbations, directly and indirectly, impact the expression of chemokines and chemokine receptors. Here, we provide an overview of the evidence regarding chemokines involvement in COPD, and we hypothesize that a dysregulation of this tightly regulated system is critical in COPD evolution, both at a stable state and during exacerbations. Targeting chemokines and chemokine receptors could be highly attractive as a mean to control both chronic inflammation and bronchial remodeling. We present a special focus on the CXCL8-CXCR1/2, CXCL9/10/11-CXCR3, CCL2-CCR2, and CXCL12-CXCR4 axes that seem particularly involved in the disease pathophysiology.

IP-10 contributes to the inhibition of mycobacterial growth in an ex vivo whole blood assay

Interferon-γ inducible protein 10 (IP-10), is a potent chemoattractant that promotes migration of monocytes and activated T-cells to inflammation foci. IP-10 is elevated in serum of patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) and tuberculosis (TB) infections, although it remains to be determined the contribution of IP-10 in restricting Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) replication. Here, we investigated the impact of IP-10 on mycobacteria replication using the ex vivo model of human whole-blood (WB) assay. In particular, we compared the levels of IP-10 upon infection with different Mtb clinical strains and species of non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) and evaluated how IP-10 may contain bacterial replication. Interestingly, we observed that the inhibition of the host enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV), which inactivates IP-10 through cleavage of two amino acids at the chemokine N-terminus, restricted mycobacterial persistence in WB, supporting the critical role of full length IP-10 in mediating an anti-Mtb response. Addition of recombinant IP-10 expressed in eukaryotic cells enhanced the anti-mycobacterial activity in WB, although no differences were observed when IP-10 containing different proportions of cleaved and non-cleaved forms of the chemokine were added. Moreover, recombinant IP-10 did not exert a direct anti-mycobacterial effect. Our results underscore the clinical relevance of IP-10 in mycobacteria pathogenesis and support the potential outcomes that may derive by targeting the IP-10/CXCR3 pathway as host directed therapies for the treatment of Mtb or NTM infections.

G.I. pros: Antimicrobial defense in the gastrointestinal tract

The gastrointestinal tract is a complex environment in which the host immune system interacts with a diverse array of microorganisms, both symbiotic and pathogenic. As such, mobilizing a rapid and appropriate antimicrobial response depending on the nature of each stimulus is crucial for maintaining the balance between homeostasis and inflammation in the gut. Here we focus on the mechanisms by which intestinal antimicrobial peptides regulate microbial communities during dysbiosis and infection. We also discuss classes of bacterial peptides that contribute to reducing enteric pathogen outgrowth. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview on the interplay of diverse antimicrobial responses with enteric pathogens and the gut microbiota.

Mechanistic insights and therapeutic opportunities of antimicrobial chemokines

Chemokines are a family of small proteins best known for their ability to orchestrate immune cell trafficking and recruitment to sites of infection. Their role in promoting host defense is multiplied by a number of additional receptor-dependent biological activities, and most, but not all, chemokines have been found to mediate direct antimicrobial effects against a broad range of microorganisms. The molecular mechanism(s) by which antimicrobial chemokines kill bacteria remains unknown; however, recent observations have expanded our fundamental understanding of chemokine-mediated bactericidal activity to reveal increasingly diverse and complex actions. In the current review, we present and consider mechanistic insights of chemokine-mediated antimicrobial activity against bacteria. We also discuss how contemporary advances are reshaping traditional paradigms and opening up new and innovative avenues of research with translational implications. Towards this end, we highlight a developing framework for leveraging chemokine-mediated bactericidal and immunomodulatory effects to advance pioneering therapeutic approaches for treating bacterial infections, including those caused by multidrug-resistant pathogens.

TroCCL4, a CC chemokine of Trachinotus ovatus, is involved in the antimicrobial immune response

CC chemokines are a large subfamily of chemokines that play an important role in the innate immune system. To date, several CC chemokines have been identified in fish species; however, the activities and functions of these putative chemokines remain ambiguous in teleosts, especially in the golden pompano, Trachinotus ovatus. Here, we characterized CC chemokine ligand 4 from T. ovatus (TroCCL4) and studied its functions. TroCCL4 contains a 294 bp open reading frame that encodes a putative peptide comprising 97 amino acids. TroCCL4 shares a high amino acid sequence similarity of 31.11%-78.35% with other CC chemokines sequences in humans and teleosts and has four cysteine residues that are conserved among other CC chemokines. TroCCL4 is also related to the macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP) group of CC chemokines. TroCCL4 expression was most abundant in immune organs and significantly upregulated in a time-dependent manner following Edwardsiella tarda infection. Recombinant TroCCL4 (rTroCCL4) induced the migration of peripheral blood leukocytes and the cellular proliferation of head kidney lymphocytes. In addition, rTroCCL4 inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli and E. tarda, indicating an antimicrobial function. Furthermore, the results of in vivo analysis showed that TroCCL4 overexpression in T. ovatus significantly enhanced macrophage activation; upregulated the gene expression of interleukin 1-β (IL-1β), interleukin 15 (IL15), interferon-induced Mx protein (Mx), tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), complement C3, and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class Iα and class IIα; and protected against bacterial infection in fish tissues. In contrast, knockdown of TroCCL4 expression resulted in increased bacterial dissemination and colonization in fish tissues. Taken together, our results provide evidence indicating that TroCCL4 has the ability to stimulate leukocytes and macrophages and enhance host immunity to defend against bacterial infection.

Immune components of early breastmilk: Association with maternal factors and with reported food allergy in childhood

BACKGROUND

Breastmilk (BM) may participate in driving gut barrier function and immunity in the neonate. We analyzed immune and growth factor concentrations in early BM and their association with maternal/environmental characteristics and with food allergy (FA) in childhood.

METHODS

One BM sample was collected in maternity from some mothers in the EDEN birth cohort (n = 2002 mother-child dyads). A random selection was performed among available samples (subcohort, n = 272), for which all deliveries were full-term, various maternal/environmental characteristics were recorded, and parents answered yearly the question "Has a medical doctor diagnosed a FA in your child?" (26 parent-reported FA cases). Only samples collected between day 2 and day 6 post-partum were considered for descriptive analysis (n = 263). Samples for all other FA cases available were added to the subcohort (46 additional cases; "casecohort" design). Fifty cytokines, antibodies, and growth factor concentrations were determined using multiplexed kits and analyzed using robust statistical procedures.

RESULTS

BM components exhibited wide concentration ranges and global day-to-day variation. Different clusters of correlated factors appeared, with components from the main cluster related to maternal diet during pregnancy. Primiparity was positively associated with eleven other components, whereas other factors (eg, maternal atopy and smoking) were related to fewer components. Finally, the casecohort design highlighted a positive association between CXCL10, TNFβ, and IL-2 concentrations and reported FA in childhood.

CONCLUSION

Beyond the unique description of early BM composition, we show that immune information transmitted to the neonate is related to various maternal factors and identified components associated with FA diagnosis in childhood.

Molecular characterization of a new fish specific chemokine CXCL_F6 in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) and its role in inflammatory response

Chemokines are a superfamily of structurally related chemotactic cytokines exerting significant roles in regulating cell migration and activation. Currently, five subgroups of fish specific CXC chemokines, named CXCL_F1-CXCL_F5, have been identified in teleost fish. However, understanding of the functions of these fish specific CXC chemokines is still limited. Here, a new member of fish specific CXC chemokines, LcCXCL_F6, was cloned from large yellow croaker Larimichthys crocea. Its open reading frame (ORF) is 369 nucleotides long, encoding a peptide of 122 amino acids (aa). The deduced LcCXCL_F6 protein contains a 19-aa signal peptide and a 103-aa mature polypeptide, which has four conserved cysteine residues (C28, C30, C56, and C72), as found in other known CXC chemokines. Phylogenetic analysis showed LcCXCL_F6 formed a separate clade with sequences from other fish species, tentatively named CXCL_F6, distinct from the clades formed by fish CXCL_F1-5 and mammalian CXC chemokines. The LcCXCL_F6 transcripts were constitutively expressed in all examined tissues and significantly up-regulated in the spleen and head kidney tissues by poly (I:C) and Vibrio alginolyticus. Its transcripts were also detected in primary head kidney leukocytes (HKLs), peripheral blood leucocytes (PBLs), and large yellow croaker head kidney (LYCK) cell line, and significantly up-regulated by poly(I:C), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and peptidoglycan (PGN) in HKLs. Recombinant LcCXCL_F6 protein (rLcCXCL_F6) could not only chemotactically attract monocytes/macrophages and lymphocytes from PBLs, but also enhance NO release and expression of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and CXCL8) in monocytes/macrophages. These results indicate that LcCXCL_F6 plays a role in mediating the inflammatory response.

Overexpression of Toll-like receptor 4 enhances LPS-induced inflammatory response and inhibits Salmonella Typhimurium growth in ovine macrophages

The Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) plays a crucial role in innate inflammatory responses, as it recognizes gram-negative bacteria (or their products) and contributes greatly to host defense against invading pathogens. Though TLR4 overexpressing transgenic sheep, resistant to certain diseases related with gram-negative bacteria, had been bred in our previous research, the effects of overexpression of TLR4 on innate immune response remained unclear. In this study, TLR4 overexpressing ovine macrophages were obtained from peripheral blood, and it was found that the overexpression of TLR4 initially promoted the production of proinflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-6 by activating TLR4-mediated IRAK4-dependent NF-κB and MAPK (JNK and ERK1/2) signaling following LPS stimulation. However, this effect was later impaired due to increased internalization of TLR4 into endosomal compartment of the macrophages. Then the overexpression of TLR4 triggered TBK1-dependent interferon-regulatory factor-3 (IRF-3) expression, which in turn led to the induction of IFN-β and IFN-inducible genes (i.e.IP10, IRG1 and GARG16). Understandably, an increased IFN-β level facilitated phosphorylation of STAT1 to induce expression of innate antiviral genes Mx1 and ISG15, suggesting that TLR4 overexpressing macrophages were equipped better against viral infection. Correspondingly, the bacterial burden in these macrophages, after infection with live S. Typhimurium, was decreased significantly. In summary, the results indicated that overexpression of TLR4 could enhance innate inflammatory responses, initiate the innate antiviral immunity, and control effectively S. Typhimurium growth in ovine macrophages.

Innate immune genes in persistent mating-induced endometritis in horses

Persistent mating-induced endometritis (PMIE) severely decreases fertility in horses. The aim of the present study was to evaluate differences between horses susceptible to PMIE and a control group in terms of the expression of selected immune response and effector genes, and the effects of oestrous cycle stage on this expression. Endometrial biopsies from 18 uterine samples of mares in the control group (eight in dioestrus, 10 in oestrus) and 16 PMIE-susceptible mares (four in dioestrus, 12 in oestrus) were analysed by quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Genes for pathogen recognition receptors Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and NLR family CARD domain containing 5 (NLRC5), as well as tissue-specific inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1), C-X-C motif chemokine ligand (CXCL) 9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 and uteroferrin were expressed at similar levels in the control group and in susceptible mares. Genes for C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and the antimicrobial peptides secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2), lipocalin 2 and lactoferrin were all expressed at higher levels in susceptible compared with control mares. The expression of genes for the antimicrobial peptides equine β-defensin 1 (EBD1), lysozyme (LYZ) and secretory leukoprotease inhibitor (SLPI) was also higher in susceptible than control mares. The diagnostic sensitivity of assays for EBD1, LYZ and SLP1 gene expression to detect susceptibility to PMIE was estimated to be 100%, 94% and 100% respectively, with specificities of 83%, 78% and 78% respectively. When all three tests were positive, the specificity increased to 94%, with an overall sensitivity of 94%. The present study has yielded insights into pathophysiological changes in mares susceptible to PMIE and identified robust diagnostic markers (EBD1, LYZ and SLPI) for susceptibility to this disease.