Chromodomains and LTR retrotransposons in plants

No two clones are alike: characterization of heterologous subpopulations in a transgenic cell line of the model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

BACKGROUND

Conjugation-based episome delivery is a highly efficient method used to transfer DNA into the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum, facilitating the production of recombinant proteins and high-value metabolites. However, previous reports have indicated phenotypic heterogeneity among individual cells from clonally propagated exconjugant cell lines, potentially affecting the stability of recombinant protein production in the diatom.

RESULTS

Here, we characterized the differences between subpopulations with distinct fluorescence intensity phenotypes derived from a single exconjugant colony of P. tricornutum expressing the enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP). We analyzed the expression cassette sequence integrity, plasmid copy number, and global gene expression. Our findings reveal that lower copy numbers and the deletion of the expression cassette in part of the population contributed to low transgene expression. Gene co-expression analysis identified a set of genes with similar expression pattern to eGFP including a gene encoding a putative Flp recombinase, which may be related to variations in fluorescence intensity. These genes thus present themselves as potential candidates for increasing recombinant proteins production in P. tricornutum episomal expression system.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our study elucidates genetic and transcriptomic differences between distinct subpopulations in a clonally propagated culture, contributes to a better understanding of heterogeneity in diatom expression systems for synthetic biology applications.

The Dynamic Interplay Between Ribosomal DNA and Transposable Elements: A Perspective From Genomics and Cytogenetics

Although both are salient features of genomes, at first glance ribosomal DNAs and transposable elements are genetic elements with not much in common: whereas ribosomal DNAs are mainly viewed as housekeeping genes that uphold all prime genome functions, transposable elements are generally portrayed as selfish and disruptive. These opposing characteristics are also mirrored in other attributes: organization in tandem (ribosomal DNAs) versus organization in a dispersed manner (transposable elements); evolution in a concerted manner (ribosomal DNAs) versus evolution by diversification (transposable elements); and activity that prolongs genomic stability (ribosomal DNAs) versus activity that shortens it (transposable elements). Re-visiting relevant instances in which ribosomal DNA-transposable element interactions have been reported, we note that both repeat types share at least four structural and functional hallmarks: (1) they are repetitive DNAs that shape genomes in evolutionary timescales, (2) they exchange structural motifs and can enter co-evolution processes, (3) they are tightly controlled genomic stress sensors playing key roles in senescence/aging, and (4) they share common epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation and histone modification. Here, we give an overview of the structural, functional, and evolutionary characteristics of both ribosomal DNAs and transposable elements, discuss their roles and interactions, and highlight trends and future directions as we move forward in understanding ribosomal DNA-transposable element associations.

Genomic impact of stress-induced transposable element mobility in Arabidopsis

Transposable elements (TEs) have long been known to be major contributors to plant evolution, adaptation and crop domestication. Stress-induced TE mobilization is of particular interest because it may result in novel gene regulatory pathways responding to stresses and thereby contribute to stress adaptation. Here, we investigated the genomic impacts of stress induced TE mobilization in wild type Arabidopsis plants. We find that the heat-stress responsive ONSEN TE displays an insertion site preference that is associated with specific chromatin states, especially those rich in H2A.Z histone variant and H3K27me3 histone mark. In order to better understand how novel ONSEN insertions affect the plant's response to heat stress, we carried out an in-depth transcriptomic analysis. We find that in addition to simple gene knockouts, ONSEN can produce a plethora of gene expression changes such as: constitutive activation of gene expression, alternative splicing, acquisition of heat-responsiveness, exonisation and genesis of novel non-coding and antisense RNAs. This report shows how the mobilization of a single TE-family can lead to a rapid rise of its copy number increasing the host's genome size and contribute to a broad range of transcriptomic novelty on which natural selection can then act.

Satellite DNA landscapes after allotetraploidization of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) reveal unique A and B subgenomes

If two related plant species hybridize, their genomes may be combined and duplicated within a single nucleus, thereby forming an allotetraploid. How the emerging plant balances two co-evolved genomes is still a matter of ongoing research. Here, we focus on satellite DNA (satDNA), the fastest turn-over sequence class in eukaryotes, aiming to trace its emergence, amplification, and loss during plant speciation and allopolyploidization. As a model, we used Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (quinoa), an allopolyploid crop with 2n = 4x = 36 chromosomes. Quinoa originated by hybridization of an unknown female American Chenopodium diploid (AA genome) with an unknown male Old World diploid species (BB genome), dating back 3.3-6.3 million years. Applying short read clustering to quinoa (AABB), C. pallidicaule (AA), and C. suecicum (BB) whole genome shotgun sequences, we classified their repetitive fractions, and identified and characterized seven satDNA families, together with the 5S rDNA model repeat. We show unequal satDNA amplification (two families) and exclusive occurrence (four families) in the AA and BB diploids by read mapping as well as Southern, genomic, and fluorescent in situ hybridization. Whereas the satDNA distributions support C. suecicum as possible parental species, we were able to exclude C. pallidicaule as progenitor due to unique repeat profiles. Using quinoa long reads and scaffolds, we detected only limited evidence of intergenomic homogenization of satDNA after allopolyploidization, but were able to exclude dispersal of 5S rRNA genes between subgenomes. Our results exemplify the complex route of tandem repeat evolution through Chenopodium speciation and allopolyploidization, and may provide sequence targets for the identification of quinoa's progenitors.

Evolutionary convergence or homology? Comparative cytogenomics of Caesalpinia group species (Leguminosae) reveals diversification in the pericentromeric heterochromatic composition

We demonstrated by cytogenomic analysis that the proximal heterochromatin of the Northeast Brazilian species of Caesalpinia group is enriched with phylogenetically conserved Ty3/Gypsy-Tekay RT, but diverge in the presence of Ty3/Gypsy-Athila RT and satDNA. The Caesalpinia Group includes 225 species and 27 monophyletic genera of which four occur in Northeastern Brazil: Erythrostemon (1 sp.), Cenostigma (7 spp.), Libidibia (1 sp.), and Paubrasilia (1 sp.). The last three genera are placed in different clades in the Caesalpinia Group phylogeny, and yet they are characterized by having a numerically stable karyotype 2n = 24 (16 M+8A) and GC-rich heterochromatic bands (chromomycin A₃ positive/CMA⁺ bands) in the proximal chromosome regions. To characterize the composition of their heterochromatin and test for the homology of these chromosomal regions, genomic DNA was extracted from Cenostigma microphyllum, Libidibia ferrea, and Paubrasilia echinata, and sequenced at low coverage using the Illumina platform. The genomic repetitive fractions were characterized using a Galaxy/RepeatExplorer-Elixir platform. The most abundant elements of each genome were chromosomally located by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and compared to the CMA⁺ heterochromatin distribution. The repetitive fraction of the genomes of C. microphyllum, L. ferrea, and P. echinata were estimated to be 41.70%, 38.44%, and 72.51%, respectively. Ty3/Gypsy retrotransposons (RT), specifically the Tekay lineage, were the most abundant repeats in each of the three genomes. FISH mapping revealed species-specific patterns for the Tekay elements in the proximal regions of the chromosomes, co-localized with CMA⁺ bands. Other species-specific patterns were observed, e.g., for the Ty3/Gypsy RT Athila elements which were found in all the proximal heterochromatin of L. ferrea or restricted to the acrocentric chromosomes of C. microphyllum. This Athila labeling co-localized with satellite DNAs (satDNAs). Although the Caesalpinia Group diverged around 55 Mya, our results suggest an ancestral colonization of Tekay RT in the proximal heterochromatin. Thus, the present-day composition of the pericentromeric heterochromatin in these Northeast Brazilian species is a combination of the maintenance of an ancestral Tekay distribution with a species-specific accumulation of other repeats.

Genomic analysis of the aggressive tree pathogen Ceratocystis albifundus

The overall goal of this study was to determine whether the genome of an important plant pathogen in Africa, Ceratocystis albifundus, is structured into subgenomic compartments, and if so, to establish how these compartments are distributed across the genome. For this purpose, the publicly available genome of C. albifundus was complemented with the genome sequences for four additional isolates using the Illumina HiSeq platform. In addition, a reference genome for one of the individuals was assembled using both PacBio and Illumina HiSeq technologies. Our results showed a high degree of synteny between the five genomes, although several regions lacked detectable long-range synteny. These regions were associated with the presence of accessory genes, lower genetic similarity, variation in read-map depth, as well as transposable elements and genes associated with host-pathogen interactions (e.g. effectors and CAZymes). Such patterns are regarded as hallmarks of accelerated evolution, particularly of accessory subgenomic compartments in fungal pathogens. Our findings thus showed that the genome of C. albifundus is made-up of core and accessory subgenomic compartments, which is an important step towards characterizing its pangenome. This study also highlights the value of comparative genomics for understanding mechanisms that may underly and influence the biology and evolution of pathogens.

Low coverage sequencing for repetitive DNA analysis in Passiflora edulis Sims: citogenomic characterization of transposable elements and satellite DNA

BACKGROUND

The cytogenomic study of repetitive regions is fundamental for the understanding of morphofunctional mechanisms and genome evolution. Passiflora edulis a species of relevant agronomic value, this work had its genome sequenced by next generation sequencing and bioinformatics analysis performed by RepeatExplorer pipeline. The clusters allowed the identification and characterization of repetitive elements (predominant contributors to most plant genomes). The aim of this study was to identify, characterize and map the repetitive DNA of P. edulis, providing important cytogenomic markers, especially sequences associated with the centromere.

RESULTS

Three clusters of satellite DNAs (69, 118 and 207) and seven clusters of Long Terminal Repeat (LTR) retrotransposons of the superfamilies Ty1/Copy and Ty3/Gypsy and families Angela, Athila, Chromovirus and Maximus-Sire (6, 11, 36, 43, 86, 94 and 135) were characterized and analyzed. The chromosome mapping of satellite DNAs showed two hybridization sites co-located in the 5S rDNA region (PeSat_1), subterminal hybridizations (PeSat_3) and hybridization in four sites, co-located in the 45S rDNA region (PeSat_2). Most of the retroelements hybridizations showed signals scattered in the chromosomes, diverging in abundance, and only the cluster 6 presented pericentromeric regions marking. No satellite DNAs and retroelement associated with centromere was observed.

CONCLUSION

P. edulis has a highly repetitive genome, with the predominance of Ty3/Gypsy LTR retrotransposon. The satellite DNAs and LTR retrotransposon characterized are promising markers for investigation of the evolutionary patterns and genetic distinction of species and hybrids of Passiflora.

Systematic survey of plant LTR-retrotransposons elucidates phylogenetic relationships of their polyprotein domains and provides a reference for element classification

BACKGROUND

Plant LTR-retrotransposons are classified into two superfamilies, Ty1/copia and Ty3/gypsy. They are further divided into an enormous number of families which are, due to the high diversity of their nucleotide sequences, usually specific to a single or a group of closely related species. Previous attempts to group these families into broader categories reflecting their phylogenetic relationships were limited either to analyzing a narrow range of plant species or to analyzing a small numbers of elements. Furthermore, there is no reference database that allows for similarity based classification of LTR-retrotransposons.

RESULTS

We have assembled a database of retrotransposon encoded polyprotein domains sequences extracted from 5410 Ty1/copia elements and 8453 Ty3/gypsy elements sampled from 80 species representing major groups of green plants (Viridiplantae). Phylogenetic analysis of the three most conserved polyprotein domains (RT, RH and INT) led to dividing Ty1/copia and Ty3/gypsy retrotransposons into 16 and 14 lineages respectively. We also characterized various features of LTR-retrotransposon sequences including additional polyprotein domains, extra open reading frames and primer binding sites, and found that the occurrence and/or type of these features correlates with phylogenies inferred from the three protein domains.

CONCLUSIONS

We have established an improved classification system applicable to LTR-retrotransposons from a wide range of plant species. This system reflects phylogenetic relationships as well as distinct sequence and structural features of the elements. A comprehensive database of retrotransposon protein domains (REXdb) that reflects this classification provides a reference for efficient and unified annotation of LTR-retrotransposons in plant genomes. Access to REXdb related tools is implemented in the RepeatExplorer web server (https://repeatexplorer-elixir.cerit-sc.cz/) or using a standalone version of REXdb that can be downloaded seaparately from RepeatExplorer web page (http://repeatexplorer.org/).

Structure and Distribution of Centromeric Retrotransposons at Diploid and Allotetraploid Coffea Centromeric and Pericentromeric Regions

Centromeric regions of plants are generally composed of large array of satellites from a specific lineage of Gypsy LTR-retrotransposons, called Centromeric Retrotransposons. Repeated sequences interact with a specific H3 histone, playing a crucial function on kinetochore formation. To study the structure and composition of centromeric regions in the genus Coffea, we annotated and classified Centromeric Retrotransposons sequences from the allotetraploid C. arabica genome and its two diploid ancestors: Coffea canephora and C. eugenioides. Ten distinct CRC (Centromeric Retrotransposons in Coffea) families were found. The sequence mapping and FISH experiments of CRC Reverse Transcriptase domains in C. canephora, C. eugenioides, and C. arabica clearly indicate a strong and specific targeting mainly onto proximal chromosome regions, which can be associated also with heterochromatin. PacBio genome sequence analyses of putative centromeric regions on C. arabica and C. canephora chromosomes showed an exceptional density of one family of CRC elements, and the complete absence of satellite arrays, contrasting with usual structure of plant centromeres. Altogether, our data suggest a specific centromere organization in Coffea, contrasting with other plant genomes.

Convergence of retrotransposons in oomycetes and plants

Background

Retrotransposons comprise a ubiquitous and abundant class of eukaryotic transposable elements. All members of this class rely on reverse transcriptase activity to produce a DNA copy of the element from the RNA template. However, other activities of the retrotransposon-encoded polyprotein may differ between diverse retrotransposons. The polyprotein domains corresponding to each of these activities may have their own evolutionary history independent from that of the reverse transcriptase, thus underlying the modular view on the evolution of retrotransposons. Furthermore, some transposable elements can independently evolve similar domain architectures by acquiring functionally similar but phylogenetically distinct modules. This convergent evolution of retrotransposons may ultimately suggest similar regulatory pathways underlying the lifecycle of the elements.

Results

Here, we provide new examples of the convergent evolution of retrotransposons of species from two unrelated taxa: green plants and parasitic protozoan oomycetes. In the present study we first analyzed the available genomic sequences of oomycete species and characterized two groups of Ty3/Gypsy long terminal repeat retrotransposons, namely Chronos and Archon, and a subgroup of L1 non-long terminal repeat retrotransposons. The results demonstrated that the retroelements from these three groups each have independently acquired plant-related ribonuclease H domains. This process closely resembles the evolution of retrotransposons in the genomes of green plants. In addition, we showed that Chronos elements captured a chromodomain, mimicking the process of chromodomain acquisition by Chromoviruses, another group of Ty3/Gypsy retrotransposons of plants, fungi, and vertebrates.

Conclusions

Repeated and strikingly similar acquisitions of ribonuclease H domains and chromodomains by different retrotransposon groups from unrelated taxa indicate similar selection pressure acting on these elements. Thus, there are some major trends in the evolution of the structural composition of retrotransposons, and characterizing these trends may enhance the current understanding of the retrotransposon life cycle.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13100-017-0087-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The transcript repeat element: the human Alu sequence as a component of gene networks influencing cancer

A small percentage (3%) of the 1.3 million copies of Alu sequences in the human genome is expressed individually or as part of various gene transcripts with potential regulatory and pathophysiological importance. In order to better understand the role of repetitive elements within transcripts, this review focuses on Alu-containing transcripts of normal and cancerous tissue in a transcriptome-wide survey of the H-Invitational human transcript database on 106,825 tissue-derived transcripts expressed at 29,979 loci. The Alu elements in transcripts of cancerous tissues are significantly underrepresented in comparison to those in normal tissues. In this review, we propose a model for Alu-mediated siRNA down-regulation of Alu-containing transcripts in cancer tissues. In cancer or other rapidly dividing tissues, hypomethylation of repeat element regions triggers the expression of transposon elements including Alu, which can potentially form double-stranded RNA molecules for use as templates to generate Alu-derived siRNAs (Alu-siRNAs). The generated Alu-siRNAs target endogenous messenger RNAs harbouring sequence similarity to Alu elements. This model correlates with the observation that there is substantial under-representation of Alu-containing mRNAs in cancer cells. This new perspective of gene regulation in disease conditions can provide a basis for starting to account for changes in complex gene network in cancer.

Transcriptionally active LTR retrotransposons in Eucalyptus genus are differentially expressed and insertionally polymorphic

BACKGROUND

In Eucalyptus genus, studies on genome composition and transposable elements (TEs) are particularly scarce. Nearly half of the recently released Eucalyptus grandis genome is composed by retrotransposons and this data provides an important opportunity to understand TE dynamics in Eucalyptus genome and transcriptome.

RESULTS

We characterized nine families of transcriptionally active LTR retrotransposons from Copia and Gypsy superfamilies in Eucalyptus grandis genome and we depicted genomic distribution and copy number in two Eucalyptus species. We also evaluated genomic polymorphism and transcriptional profile in three organs of five Eucalyptus species. We observed contrasting genomic and transcriptional behavior in the same family among different species. RLC_egMax_1 was the most prevalent family and RLC_egAngela_1 was the family with the lowest copy number. Most families of both superfamilies have their insertions occurring <3 million years, except one Copia family, RLC_egBianca_1. Protein theoretical models suggest different properties between Copia and Gypsy domains. IRAP and REMAP markers suggested genomic polymorphisms among Eucalyptus species. Using EST analysis and qRT-PCRs, we observed transcriptional activity in several tissues and in all evaluated species. In some families, osmotic stress increases transcript values.

CONCLUSION

Our strategy was successful in isolating transcriptionally active retrotransposons in Eucalyptus, and each family has a particular genomic and transcriptional pattern. Overall, our results show that retrotransposon activity have differentially affected genome and transcriptome among Eucalyptus species.

Physiology of the read-write genome

Discoveries in cytogenetics, molecular biology, and genomics have revealed that genome change is an active cell-mediated physiological process. This is distinctly at variance with the pre-DNA assumption that genetic changes arise accidentally and sporadically. The discovery that DNA changes arise as the result of regulated cell biochemistry means that the genome is best modelled as a read-write (RW) data storage system rather than a read-only memory (ROM). The evidence behind this change in thinking and a consideration of some of its implications are the subjects of this article. Specific points include the following: cells protect themselves from accidental genome change with proofreading and DNA damage repair systems; localized point mutations result from the action of specialized trans-lesion mutator DNA polymerases; cells can join broken chromosomes and generate genome rearrangements by non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) processes in specialized subnuclear repair centres; cells have a broad variety of natural genetic engineering (NGE) functions for transporting, diversifying and reorganizing DNA sequences in ways that generate many classes of genomic novelties; natural genetic engineering functions are regulated and subject to activation by a range of challenging life history events; cells can target the action of natural genetic engineering functions to particular genome locations by a range of well-established molecular interactions, including protein binding with regulatory factors and linkage to transcription; and genome changes in cancer can usefully be considered as consequences of the loss of homeostatic control over natural genetic engineering functions.

Highly diverse chromoviruses of Beta vulgaris are classified by chromodomains and chromosomal integration

Background

Chromoviruses are one of the three genera of Ty3-gypsy long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons, and are present in high copy numbers in plant genomes. They are widely distributed within the plant kingdom, with representatives even in lower plants such as green and red algae. Their hallmark is the presence of a chromodomain at the C-terminus of the integrase. The chromodomain exhibits structural characteristics similar to proteins of the heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) family, which mediate the binding of each chromovirus type to specific histone variants. A specific integration via the chromodomain has been shown for only a few chromoviruses. However, a detailed study of different chromoviral clades populating a single plant genome has not yet been carried out.

Results

We conducted a comprehensive survey of chromoviruses within the Beta vulgaris (sugar beet) genome, and found a highly diverse chromovirus population, with significant differences in element size, primarily caused by their flanking LTRs. In total, we identified and annotated full-length members of 16 families belonging to the four plant chromoviral clades: CRM, Tekay, Reina, and Galadriel. The families within each clade are structurally highly conserved; in particular, the position of the chromodomain coding region relative to the polypurine tract is clade-specific. Two distinct groups of chromodomains were identified. The group II chromodomain was present in three chromoviral clades, whereas families of the CRM clade contained a more divergent motif. Physical mapping using representatives of all four clades identified a clade-specific integration pattern. For some chromoviral families, we detected the presence of expressed sequence tags, indicating transcriptional activity.

Conclusions

We present a detailed study of chromoviruses, belonging to the four major clades, which populate a single plant genome. Our results illustrate the diversity and family structure of B. vulgaris chromoviruses, and emphasize the role of chromodomains in the targeted integration of these viruses. We suggest that the diverse sets of plant chromoviruses with their different localization patterns might help to facilitate plant-genome organization in a structural and functional manner.

Evolutionary history of LTR retrotransposon chromodomains in plants

Chromodomain-containing LTR retrotransposons are one of the most successful groups of mobile elements in plant genomes. Previously, we demonstrated that two types of chromodomains (CHDs) are carried by plant LTR retrotransposons. Chromodomains from group I (CHD_I) were detected only in Tcn1-like LTR retrotransposons from nonseed plants such as mosses (including the model moss species Physcomitrella) and lycophytes (the Selaginella species). LTR retrotransposon chromodomains from group II (CHD_II) have been described from a wide range of higher plants. In the present study, we performed computer-based mining of plant LTR retrotransposon CHDs from diverse plants with an emphasis on spike-moss Selaginella. Our extended comparative and phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that two types of CHDs are present only in the Selaginella genome, which puts this species in a unique position among plants. It appears that a transition from CHD_I to CHD_II and further diversification occurred in the evolutionary history of plant LTR retrotransposons at approximately 400 MYA and most probably was associated with the evolution of chromatin organization.

A highly conserved gene island of three genes on chromosome 3B of hexaploid wheat: diverse gene function and genomic structure maintained in a tightly linked block

BACKGROUND

The complexity of the wheat genome has resulted from waves of retrotransposable element insertions. Gene deletions and disruptions generated by the fast replacement of repetitive elements in wheat have resulted in disruption of colinearity at a micro (sub-megabase) level among the cereals. In view of genomic changes that are possible within a given time span, conservation of genes between species tends to imply an important functional or regional constraint that does not permit a change in genomic structure. The ctg1034 contig completed in this paper was initially studied because it was assigned to the Sr2 resistance locus region, but detailed mapping studies subsequently assigned it to the long arm of 3B and revealed its unusual features.

RESULTS

BAC shotgun sequencing of the hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Chinese Spring) genome has been used to assemble a group of 15 wheat BACs from the chromosome 3B physical map FPC contig ctg1034 into a 783,553 bp genomic sequence. This ctg1034 sequence was annotated for biological features such as genes and transposable elements. A three-gene island was identified among >80% repetitive DNA sequence. Using bioinformatics analysis there were no observable similarity in their gene functions. The ctg1034 gene island also displayed complete conservation of gene order and orientation with syntenic gene islands found in publicly available genome sequences of Brachypodium distachyon, Oryza sativa, Sorghum bicolor and Zea mays, even though the intergenic space and introns were divergent.

CONCLUSION

We propose that ctg1034 is located within the heterochromatic C-band region of deletion bin 3BL7 based on the identification of heterochromatic tandem repeats and presence of significant matches to chromodomain-containing gypsy LTR retrotransposable elements. We also speculate that this location, among other highly repetitive sequences, may account for the relative stability in gene order and orientation within the gene island.Sequence data from this article have been deposited with the GenBank Data Libraries under accession no. GQ422824.

Evolutionary genomics revealed interkingdom distribution of Tcn1-like chromodomain-containing Gypsy LTR retrotransposons among fungi and plants

Background

Chromodomain-containing Gypsy LTR retrotransposons or chromoviruses are widely distributed among eukaryotes and have been found in plants, fungi and vertebrates. The previous comprehensive survey of chromoviruses from mosses (Bryophyta) suggested that genomes of non-seed plants contain the clade which is closely related to the retrotransposons from fungi. The origin, distribution and evolutionary history of this clade remained unclear mainly due to the absence of information concerning the diversity and distribution of LTR retrotransposons in other groups of non-seed plants as well as in fungal genomes.

Results

In present study we preformed in silico analysis of chromodomain-containing LTR retrotransposons in 25 diverse fungi and a number of plant species including spikemoss Selaginella moellendorffii (Lycopodiophyta) coupled with an experimental survey of chromodomain-containing Gypsy LTR retrotransposons from diverse non-seed vascular plants (lycophytes, ferns, and horsetails). Our mining of Gypsy LTR retrotransposons in genomic sequences allowed identification of numerous families which have not been described previously in fungi. Two new well-supported clades, Galahad and Mordred, as well as several other previously unknown lineages of chromodomain-containing Gypsy LTR retrotransposons were described based on the results of PCR-mediated survey of LTR retrotransposon fragments from ferns, horsetails and lycophytes. It appeared that one of the clades, namely Tcn1 clade, was present in basidiomycetes and non-seed plants including mosses (Bryophyta) and lycophytes (genus Selaginella).

Conclusions

The interkingdom distribution is not typical for chromodomain-containing LTR retrotransposons clades which are usually very specific for a particular taxonomic group. Tcn1-like LTR retrotransposons from fungi and non-seed plants demonstrated high similarity to each other which can be explained by strong selective constraints and the 'retained' genes theory or by horizontal transmission.