Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for drug delivery, tumor imaging, therapy and theranostics

Drug-device-field integration for mitochondria-targeting dysfunction and tumor therapy by home-tailored pyroelectric nanocomposites

In spite of the hypoxia tumor microenvironment, an efficacious treatment with minimal invasiveness is highly desirable. Among common cellular organelles, mitochondria is a common target for inductive cellular apoptosis and tumor proliferation inhibition. Nevertheless, tumor hypoxic circumstances always give rise to poor therapeutic efficiency and instead lead to lesion recurrence and unsatisfactory prognosis. Herein, a home-tailored pyroelectric nanocomposites of BTO@PDA-FA-DOX-EGCG have been developed via a layer-by-layer synthesis to serve a cutting-edge tumor treatment with specific mitochondria-targeting, hypoxia-relieving, chemo-photodynamic performance and high anti-tumor efficacy. In particular, this therapeutic modality is featured as drug-device-field integration (DDFI) by combining chemo-drugs of DOX and EGCG, a commercially available medical laser and physical pyroelectric fields, which synergistically contributed to continuing ROS production and consequently cell apoptosis and tumor growth inhibition. Meanwhile, an anti-tumor mechanism of immune actuation and mitochondria dysfunction was elucidated by analyzing specific biomarkers of mitochondria complexes and MMPs, and therefore this research opened up a potential pathway for advanced tumor treatment by incorporating nanocomposites, medical devices and physical fields in a DDFI manner.

Hypoxia-Targeted-Therapy: Mussel-inspired hollow polydopamine nanocarrier containing MoS2 nanozyme and tirapazamine with anti-angiogenesis property for synergistic tumor therapy

Photothermal therapy (PTT) using thermal and tumor microenvironment-responsive reagents is promising for cancer treatment. This study demonstrates an effective PTT nanodrug consisting of hollow-structured, thermally sensitive polydopamine nanobowls (HPDA NB), molybdenum sulfide (MoS2) nanozyme, and tirapazamine (TPZ; a hypoxia-responsive drug), with a structure of HPDA@TPZ/MoS NBs, which is hereafter denoted as HPTZMoS NBs. With the Fenton-like activity, the HPTZMoS NBs in the presence of H2O2 catalyze the formation of hydroxyl radicals, providing chemodynamic therapy (CDT) effect and deactivating glutathione. Under acidic conditions, HPTZMoS NBs facilitate the release of sulfide ions (S2-) and TPZ, providing a combination of chemotherapy (CT) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas therapy (GT). Under an 808-nm NIR laser irradiation, the HPTZMoS NBs efficiently convert photo energy to thermal energy, providing PTT and improved CDT, CT, and GT effects. Upon treatment with an NIR laser and H2O2, a synergistic effect leads to substantial tumor cell eradication. Additionally, HPTZMoS NBs disrupt vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A165)-induced cell migration in human umbilical vein endothelial cells through its strong interaction with VEGF-A165. In vivo studies in 4T1-tumor-bearing mice confirm that HPTZMoS NBs induces significant tumor destruction through a combination of PTT, hyperthermia-induced CDT, GT, and CT pathways. This study presents a multifaceted, highly selective nanotherapy platform with potent anti-angiogenesis properties, holding significant promise for future clinical applications.

Antioxidants in cancer therapy mitigating lipid peroxidation without compromising treatment through nanotechnology

BACKGROUND

Cancer treatments often exploit oxidative stress to selectively kill tumour cells by disrupting their lipid peroxidation membranes and inhibiting antioxidant enzymes. However, lipid peroxidation plays a dual role in cancer progression, acting as both a tumour promoter and a suppressor. Balancing oxidative stress through antioxidant therapy remains a challenge, as excessive antioxidant activity may compromise the efficacy of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

AIM

This review explores the role of antioxidants in mitigating lipid peroxidation in cancer therapy while maintaining treatment efficacy. It highlights recent advancements in nanotechnology-based targeted antioxidant delivery to optimize therapeutic outcomes.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature review was conducted using reputable databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect. The search focused on publications from the past five years (2020-2025), supplemented by relevant studies from earlier years. Keywords such as "antioxidants," "lipid peroxidation," "nanotechnology in cancer therapy," and "oxidative stress" were utilized. Relevant articles were critically analysed, and graphical illustrations were created.

RESULTS

Emerging evidence suggests that nanoparticles, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, metal-organic frameworks, and others, can effectively encapsulate and control the release of antioxidants in tumour cells while minimizing systemic toxicity. Stimuli-responsive carriers with tumour-specific targeting mechanisms further enhance antioxidant delivery. Studies indicate that these strategies help preserve normal cells, mitigate oxidative stress-related damage, and improve treatment efficacy. However, challenges such as bioavailability, stability, and potential interactions with standard therapies remain.

CONCLUSION

Integrating nanotechnology with antioxidant-based interventions presents a promising approach for optimizing cancer therapy. Future research should focus on refining lipid peroxidation modulation strategies, assessing oxidative stress profiles during treatment, and employing biomarkers to determine optimal antioxidant dosing. A balanced approach to antioxidant use may enhance therapeutic efficacy while minimizing adverse effects.

Stimuli-Responsive Nanomedicines for the Treatment of Non-cancer Related Inflammatory Diseases

Nanomedicines offer a means to overcome the limitations associated with traditional drug dosage formulations by affording drug protection, enhanced drug bioavailability, and targeted drug delivery to affected sites. Inflamed tissues possess unique microenvironmental characteristics (including excessive reactive oxygen species, low pH levels, and hypoxia) that stimuli-responsive nanoparticles can employ as triggers to support on-demand delivery, enhanced accumulation, controlled release, and activation of anti-inflammatory drugs. Stimuli-responsive nanomedicines respond to physicochemical and pathological factors associated with diseased tissues to improve the specificity of drug delivery, overcome multidrug resistance, ensure accurate diagnosis and precision therapy, and control drug release to improve efficacy and safety. Current stimuli-responsive nanoparticles react to intracellular/microenvironmental stimuli such as pH, redox, hypoxia, or specific enzymes and exogenous stimuli such as temperature, magnetic fields, light, and ultrasound via bioresponsive moieties. This review summarizes the general strategies employed to produce stimuli-responsive nanoparticles tailored for inflammatory diseases and all recent advances, reports their applications in drug delivery, and illustrates the progress made toward clinical translation.

Smart self-transforming nano-systems for overcoming biological barrier and enhancing tumor treatment efficacy

Nanomedicines need to overcome multiple biological barriers in the body to reach the target area. However, traditional nanomedicines with constant physicochemical properties are not sufficient to meet the diverse and sometimes conflicting requirements during in vivo transport, making it difficult to penetrate various biological barriers, resulting in suboptimal drug delivery efficiency. Smart self-transforming nano-systems (SSTNs), capable of altering their own physicochemical properties (including size, charge, hydrophobicity, stiffness, morphology, etc.) under different physiological conditions, hold the potential to break through multiple biological barriers, thereby improving drug delivery efficiency and the efficacy of cancer treatment. In this review, we first summarize the design strategies of five most popular SSTNs (such as size-, charge-, hydrophilicity-, stiffness-, and morphology-self-transforming nano-systems), and then delve into their biomedical applications in enhancing circulation time, tissue penetration, and cellular uptake. Finally, we discuss the opportunities and challenges that SSTNs face in the future for cancer treatment and diagnosis.

Nanomaterials-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Therapeutic Applications in Osteoporosis

The etiology of osteoporosis is rooted in the disruption of the intricate equilibrium between bone formation and bone resorption processes. Nevertheless, the conventional anti-osteoporotic medications and hormonal therapeutic regimens currently employed in clinical practice are associated with a multitude of adverse effects, thereby constraining their overall therapeutic efficacy and potential. Recently, nanomaterials have emerged as a promising alternative due to their minimal side effects, efficient drug delivery, and ability to enhance bone formation, aiding in restoring bone balance. This review delves into the fundamental principles of bone remodeling and the bone microenvironment, as well as current clinical treatment approaches for osteoporosis. It subsequently explores the research status of nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems for osteoporosis treatment, encompassing inorganic nanomaterials, organic nanomaterials, cell-mimicking carriers and exosomes mimics and emerging therapies targeting the osteoporosis microenvironment. Finally, the review discusses the potential of nanomedicine in treating osteoporosis and outlines the future trajectory of this burgeoning field. The aim is to provide a comprehensive reference for the application of nanomaterial-based drug delivery strategies in osteoporosis therapy, thereby fostering further advancements and innovations in this critical area of medical research.

Bio-fabrication of chitosan-stabilized magnesium oxide nanomaterials: Investigation of photocatalytic, in vitro cytotoxicity activities and apoptosis in oral squamous carcinoma cells

A bio-fabrication approach is a novel way to develop chitosan-stabilized magnesium oxide nanomaterials (cMgO-NMs). The process involves utilizing polymeric chitosan as the reducing and stabilizing agent. The characteristics of the developed cMgO-NMs were determined using various spectroscopical techniques. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis revealed crucial functional groups, Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) spectrum showed nanomaterial development with a peak at 358 nm, and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) pattern confirmed a pure cubic crystalline structure. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) images depicted spherical shape, while energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) confirmed Mg presence. The photocatalytic efficacy of these nanomaterials in degrading dye methylene blue (MB) was examined, and the findings demonstrated the remarkable proficiency of cMgO-NMs in breaking down the dye. The cytotoxic effects of cMgO-NMs were assessed for the first time on PCI-9A and PCI-13 cancer cell lines, yielding an IC50 value of 51 μg/mL and 42 μg/mL. The cMgO-NMs treated PCI-9A and PCI-13 cancer cells morphological changes were observed via acridine orange and ethidium bromide and DAPI staining assay, and apoptotic mode of cell death was examined through flow cytometry and comet assay. Polymeric chitosan proved effective in extensive cMgO-NMs production, showing potential as an anticancer drug, although requiring further preclinical development.

Emerging magic bullet: subcellular organelle-targeted cancer therapy

The therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs heavily relies on their concentration and retention at the corresponding target site. Hence, merely increasing the cellular concentration of drugs is insufficient to achieve satisfactory therapeutic outcomes, especially for the drugs that target specific intracellular sites. This necessitates the implementation of more precise targeting strategies to overcome the limitations posed by diffusion distribution and nonspecific interactions within cells. Consequently, subcellular organelle-targeted cancer therapy, characterized by its exceptional precision, have emerged as a promising approach to eradicate cancer cells through the specific disruption of subcellular organelles. Owing to several advantages including minimized dosage and side effect, optimized efficacy, and reversal of multidrug resistance, subcellular organelle-targeted therapies have garnered significant research interest in recent years. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the distribution of drug targets, targeted delivery strategies at various levels, and sophisticated strategies for targeting specific subcellular organelles. Additionally, we highlight the significance of subcellular targeting in cancer therapy and present essential considerations for its clinical translation.

Understanding the interplay between pH and charges for theranostic nanomaterials

Nanotechnology has emerged as a highly promising platform for theranostics, offering dual capabilities in targeted imaging and therapy. Interactions between the nanomaterial and biological components determine the in vivo fate of these materials which makes the control of their surface properties of utmost importance. Nanoparticles with neutral or negative surface charge have a longer circulation time while positively charged nanoparticles have higher affinity to cells and better cellular uptake. This trade-off presents a key challenge in optimizing surface charge for theranostic applications. A sophisticated solution is an on-demand switch of surface charge, enabled by leveraging the distinct pH conditions at the target site. In this review, we explore the intricate relationship between pH and charge modulation, summarizing recent advances in pH-induced charge-switchable nanomaterials for theranostics over the past five years. Additionally, we discuss how these innovations enhance targeted drug delivery and imaging contrast and provide perspectives on future directions for this transformative field.

Clinical Applications of Targeted Nanomaterials

Targeted nanomaterials are at the forefront of advancements in nanomedicine due to their unique and versatile properties. These include nanoscale size, shape, surface chemistry, mechanical flexibility, fluorescence, optical behavior, magnetic and electronic characteristics, as well as biocompatibility and biodegradability. These attributes enable their application across diverse fields, including drug delivery. This review explores the fundamental characteristics of nanomaterials and emphasizes their importance in clinical applications. It further delves into methodologies for nanoparticle programming alongside discussions on clinical trials and case studies. We discussed some of the promising nanomaterials, such as polymeric nanoparticles, carbon-based nanoparticles, and metallic nanoparticles, and their role in biomedical applications. This review underscores significant advancements in translating nanomaterials into clinical applications and highlights the potential of these innovative approaches in revolutionizing the medical field.

AI-driven innovations in smart multifunctional nanocarriers for drug and gene delivery: A mini-review

The convergence of artificial intelligence (AI) and nanomedicine has revolutionized the design of smart multifunctional nanocarriers (SMNs) for drug and gene delivery, offering unprecedented precision, efficiency, and personalization in therapeutic applications. AI-driven approaches enhance the development of these nanocarriers by accelerating their design, optimizing drug loading and release kinetics, improving biocompatibility, and predicting interactions with biological barriers. This review explores the transformative role of AI in the fabrication and functionalization of SMNs, emphasizing its impact on overcoming challenges in targeted drug delivery, controlled release, and theranostics. We discuss the integration of AI with advanced nanomaterials-such as polymeric, lipidic, and inorganic nanoparticles-highlighting their potential in oncology and hematology. Furthermore, we examine recent clinical and preclinical case studies demonstrating AI-assisted nanocarrier development for personalized medicine. The synergy between AI and nanotechnology paves the way for next-generation precision therapeutics, addressing critical limitations in traditional drug delivery systems. However, data standardization, regulatory compliance, and translational scalability challenges remain. This review underscores the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to unlock AI's potential in nanomedicine fully, ultimately advancing the clinical application of SMNs for more effective and safer patient care.

Next-generation biopolymer gels: innovations in drug delivery and theranostics

Biopolymers or natural polymers like chitosan, cellulose, alginate, collagen, etc. have gained significant interest recently due to their remarkable tunable properties that make them appropriate for a variety of applications & play a crucial role in everyday life. The features of biopolymers which include biodegradability, biocompatibility, sustainability, affordability, & availability are vital for creating products for use in biomedical fields. Apart from these characteristics, smart or stimuli-responsive biopolymers also show a distinctive property of being susceptible to various factors like pH, temperature, light intensity, & electrical or magnetic fields. The current review would present a brief idea about smart biopolymer gels along with their biomedical applications. The use of smart biopolymers gels as theranostic agents are also discussed in the present review. This review also focuses on the application of biopolymers in the fields of drug delivery, cancer treatment, tissue engineering & wound healing. These areas demonstrate the development and utilization of different types of biopolymers in current biomedical applications.

Current views and trends of nanomaterials as vectors for gene delivery since the 21st century: a bibliometric analysis

BACKGROUND

Gene therapy is garnering increasing support due to its potential for a "once-delivered, lifelong benefit." The limitations of traditional gene delivery methods have spurred the advancement of bionanomaterials. Despite this progress, a thorough analysis of the evolution, current state, key contributors, focal studies, and future directions of nanomaterials in gene delivery remains absent.

METHODS

This study scrutinizes articles from the Web of Science, spanning 1 January 2 000, to 31 December 2023, employing various online tools for analysis and visualization.

RESULTS

The 21st century has witnessed consistent growth in scholarly work in this domain globally, with notable contributions from China and the US. At the same time, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Harvard University, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have emerged as the most productive institutions, with CAS's academician Weihong Tan becoming the field's leading author. While drug delivery and nanoparticles (NPs) have been central themes for two decades, the research focus has shifted from modifying NPs and ultrafine particles to exploring polymer-hybrid NPs, mRNA vaccines, immune responses, green synthesis, and CRISPR/Cas tools.

CONCLUSIONS

This shift marks the transition from nanomaterials to bionanomaterials. The insights provided by this research offer a comprehensive overview of the field and valuable guidance for future investigations.

Combining functionalities-nanoarchitectonics for combatting bacterial infection

New antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory therapeutics are needed because of antibiotic resistance development and resulting complications such as inflammation, ultimately leading to septic shock. The antimicrobial effects of various nanoparticles (NPs) are currently attracting intensive research interest. Although various NPs display potent antimicrobial effects against strains resistant to conventional antibiotics, the therapeutic use of such materials is restricted by poor selectivity between bacteria and human cells, leading to adverse side effects. As a result, increasing research efforts during the last few years have focused on targeting NPs against bacteria and other components in the infection micro-environment. Examples of approaches explored include peptide-, protein- and nucleic acid-based NP coatings for bacterial membrane recognition, as well as NP conjugation with enzyme substrates or other moieties that respond to bacterial or other enzymes present in the infection micro-environment. In general, this study aims to add to the literature on the antimicrobial effects of nanomaterials by discussing surface modification strategies for targeting bacterial membranes and membrane components, as well as how such surface modifications can improve the antimicrobial effects of nanomaterials and simultaneously decrease toxicity towards human cells and tissues. In doing so, the biological effects observed are related throughout to the physico-chemical modes of action underlying such effects.

Advances in Materials Science for Precision Melanoma Therapy: Nanotechnology-Enhanced Drug Delivery Systems

Melanoma, a highly aggressive form of skin cancer, poses a major therapeutic challenge due to its metastatic potential, resistance to conventional therapies, and the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Materials science and nanotechnology advances have led to using nanocarriers such as liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, and metallic nanoparticles as transformative solutions for precision melanoma therapy. This review summarizes findings from Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Google Scholar and highlights the role of nanotechnology in overcoming melanoma treatment barriers. Nanoparticles facilitate passive and active targeting through mechanisms such as the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect and functionalization with tumor-specific ligands, thereby improving the accuracy of drug delivery and reducing systemic toxicity. Stimuli-responsive systems and multi-stage targeting further improve therapeutic precision and overcome challenges such as poor tumor penetration and drug resistance. Emerging therapeutic platforms combine diagnostic imaging with therapeutic delivery, paving the way for personalized medicine. However, there are still issues with scalability, biocompatibility, and regulatory compliance. This comprehensive review highlights the potential of integrating nanotechnology with advances in genetics and proteomics, scalable, and patient-specific therapies. These interdisciplinary innovations promise to redefine the treatment of melanoma and provide safer, more effective, and more accessible treatments. Continued research is essential to bridge the gap between evidence-based scientific advances and clinical applications.

pH-responsive carbohydrate polymer-based nanoparticles in cancer therapy

Using the specific features of the tumor microenvironment (TME) for the development and design of novel nanomaterials can improve the capacity in tumor suppression. One of the prominent features of the TME is the mild acidic pH. Therefore, the development of pH-responsive nanoparticles can lead to the release of cargo and therapeutics at the tumor site, improving the selectivity and specificity. The materials used for the development of nanoparticles should possess a number of unique features including biocompatibility and anti-cancer activity. Hence, a special attention has been directed towards the use of carbohydrate polymers in the development of nanoparticles. The carbohydrate polymers can develop smart nanoparticles respond to the pH in TME to increase targeting ability and provide controlled drug release. Such approach is also beneficial in decreasing the side effects of systemic chemotherapy. The pH-responsive nanoparticles developed from carbohydrate polymers can be also used for the combination chemotherapy/immunotherapy/phototherapy of cancer. Furthermore, these nanoparticles demonstrate theranostic application capable of cancer diagnosis and therapy. Further attention to the large-scale production, biocompatibility and long-term safety of carbohydrate polymer-based pH-responsive nanoparticles should be directed to improve the clinical translation in the treatment of cancer patients.

Oral cancer stem cells: A comprehensive review of key drivers of treatment resistance and tumor recurrence

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide with high recurrence rates and resistance to conventional therapies. Recent studies have highlighted the pivotal role of oral cancer stem cells (OCSCs) in driving treatment resistance and tumor recurrence. OCSCs possess unique properties, including self-renewal, differentiation potential, and resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, which contribute to their ability to survive treatment and initiate tumor relapse. Several signaling pathways, such as Wnt/β-catenin, Hedgehog, Notch, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR, have been implicated in maintaining OCSC properties, promoting survival, and conferring resistance. Additionally, mechanisms such as drug efflux, enhanced DNA repair, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and resistance to apoptosis further contribute to resilience. Targeting these pathways offers promising therapeutic strategies for eliminating OCSCs and improving treatment outcomes. Approaches such as immunotherapy, nanotechnology-based drug delivery, and targeting of the tumor microenvironment are emerging as potential solutions to overcome OCSC-mediated resistance. However, further research is needed to fully understand the molecular mechanisms governing OCSCs and develop effective therapies to prevent tumor recurrence. This review discusses the role of OCSCs in treatment resistance and recurrence and highlights the current and future directions for targeting these cells in OSCC.

Nanoscale strategies: doxorubicin resistance challenges and enhancing cancer therapy with advanced nanotechnological approaches

Doxorubicin (DOX), an anthracycline, is widely used in cancer treatment by interfering RNA and DNA synthesis. Its broad antitumour spectrum makes it an effective therapy for a wide array of cancers. However, the prevailing drug-resistant cancer has proven to be a significant drawback to the success of the conventional chemotherapy regime and DOX has been identified as a major hurdle. Furthermore, the clinical application of DOX has been limited by rapid breakdown, increased toxicity, and decreased half-time life, highlighting an urgent need for more innovative delivery methods. Although advancements have been made, achieving a complete cure for cancer remains elusive. The development of nanoparticles offers a promising avenue for the precise delivery of DOX into the tumour microenvironment, aiming to increase the drug concentration at the target site while reducing side effects. Despite the good aspects of this technology, the classical nanoparticles struggle with issues such as premature drug leakage, low bioavailability, and insufficient penetration into tumours due to an inadequate enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Recent advancements have focused on creating stimuli-responsive nanoparticles and employing various chemosensitisers, including natural compounds and nucleic acids, fortifying the efficacy of DOX against resistant cancers. The efforts to refine nanoparticle targeting precision to improve DOX delivery are reviewed. This includes using receptor-mediated endocytosis systems to maximise the internalisation of drugs. The potential benefits and drawbacks of these novel techniques constitute significant areas of ongoing study, pointing to a promising path forward in addressing the challenges posed by drug-resistant cancers.

Innovations in Cancer Therapy: Endogenous Stimuli-Responsive Liposomes as Advanced Nanocarriers

Recent advancements in nanotechnology have revolutionized cancer therapy-one of the most pressing global health challenges and a leading cause of death-through the development of liposomes (L), lipid-based nanovesicles known for their biocompatibility and ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. More recent innovations have led to the creation of stimuli-responsive L that release their payloads in response to specific endogenous or exogenous triggers. Dual- and multi-responsive L, which react to multiple stimuli, offer even greater precision, improving therapeutic outcomes while reducing systemic toxicity. Additionally, these smart L can adjust their physicochemical properties and morphology to enable site-specific targeting and controlled drug release, enhancing treatment efficacy while minimizing adverse effects. This review explores the latest advancements in endogenous stimuli-responsive liposomal nanocarriers, as well as dual- and multi-responsive L that integrate internal and external triggers, with a focus on their design strategies, mechanisms, and applications in cancer therapy.

Improved segmentation of hepatic vascular networks in ultrasound volumes using 3D U-Net with intensity transformation-based data augmentation

Accurate three-dimensional (3D) segmentation of hepatic vascular networks is crucial for supporting ultrasound-mediated theranostics for liver diseases. Despite advancements in deep learning techniques, accurate segmentation remains challenging due to ultrasound image quality issues, including intensity and contrast fluctuations. This study introduces intensity transformation-based data augmentation methods to improve deep convolutional neural network-based segmentation of hepatic vascular networks. We employed a 3D U-Net, which leverages spatial contextual information, as the baseline. To address intensity and contrast fluctuations and improve 3D U-Net performance, we implemented data augmentation using high-contrast intensity transformation with S-shaped tone curves and low-contrast intensity transformation with Gamma and inverse S-shaped tone curves. We conducted validation experiments on 78 ultrasound volumes to evaluate the effect of both geometric and intensity transformation-based data augmentations. We found that high-contrast intensity transformation-based data augmentation decreased segmentation accuracy, while low-contrast intensity transformation-based data augmentation significantly improved Recall and Dice. Additionally, combining geometric and low-contrast intensity transformation-based data augmentations, through an OR operation on their results, further enhanced segmentation accuracy, achieving improvements of 9.7% in Recall and 3.3% in Dice. This study demonstrated the effectiveness of low-contrast intensity transformation-based data augmentation in improving volumetric segmentation of hepatic vascular networks from ultrasound volumes.

Recent advances in poly(amino acids), polypeptides, and their derivatives in drug delivery

Poly(amino acids), polypeptides, and their derivatives have demonstrated significant potential as biodegradable biomaterials in the field of drug delivery. As degradable drug carriers, they can effectively load or conjugate drug molecules including small molecule drugs, nucleic acids, peptides, and protein-based drugs, enhancing the stability and targeting of the drugs in vivo. This strategy ultimately facilitates precise drug delivery and controlled release, thereby improving therapeutic efficacy and reducing side effects within the body. This review systematically describes the structural characteristics and preparation methods of poly(amino acids) and polypeptides, summarizes the advantages of poly(amino acids), polypeptides, and their derivatives in drug delivery, and detailedly introduces the latest advancements in this area. The review also discusses current challenges and opportunities associated with poly(amino acids), peptides, and their derivatives, and offers insights into the future directions for these biodegradable materials. This review aims to provide valuable references for scientific research and clinical translation of biodegradable biomaterials based on poly(amino acids) and peptides.

Ultrasound-triggered drug release in vivo from antibubble-loaded macrophages

Nanoparticles have proven to be attractive carriers in therapeutic drug delivery since they can encapsulate, protect and stabilize a plethora of different drugs, thereby improving therapeutic efficacy and reducing side effects. However, specific targeting of drug-loaded nanoparticles to the tissue of interest and a timely and spatially controlled release of drugs on demand still represent a challenge. Recently, gas-filled microparticles, so-called antibubbles, have been developed which can efficiently encapsulate liquid drug droplets. Here, we show that antibubbles are efficiently taken up by macrophages in vitro and are stably maintained for more than 48 h without compromising antibubble integrity and macrophage viability. We show that application of diagnostic ultrasound induces the disintegration of both antibubbles and carrier cells while not affecting non-loaded macrophages. Using 4-hydroxytamoxifen as a model drug, we show ultrasound-mediated drug release upon adoptive transfer of antibubble-loaded macrophages in mice. Together with the ability of macrophages to accumulate in inflamed tissues, antibubble-loaded macrophages represent an attractive tool for targeted delivery of drugs and its ultrasound-mediated spatial and temporal drug release, highlighting the therapeutic perspective of this strategy.

Photothrombolytics: A light-driven technology for the targeted lysis of thrombi

Occlusive blood clots remain a significant global health challenge and result in emergencies that are main causes of death and disability worldwide. Thrombolytic agents (including tissue plasminogen activator, tPA) are the only pharmacological means to dissolve blood clots. However, these drugs have modest efficacy and severe safety concerns persist. We have developed light-responsive tPA-loaded red blood cells (tPA-RBCsPhoto) to target thrombolytic activity at the site of a blood clot. Herein, we describe the use of light to control the release of tPA from engineered RBCs and the subsequent degradation of a blood clot ex vivo. Furthermore, we have employed this technology to restore blood flow to an occluded mouse artery in vivo using a targeted dose that is 25 times lower than conventional systemic tPA treatment.

Double-targeted liposomes coated with matrix metallopeptidase-2-responsive polypeptide nanogel for chemotherapy and enhanced immunotherapy against cervical cancer

Immunotherapy is a cornerstone in cancer treatment, celebrated for its precision, ability to eliminate residual cancer cells, and potential to avert tumor recurrence. Nonetheless, its effectiveness is frequently undermined by the immunosuppressive milieu created by tumors. This study presents a novel nanogel-based drug delivery system, DOX-4PI@CpG@Lipo@Gel (DPCLG), engineered to respond to Matrix Metallopeptidase-2 (MMP-2)-a protease abundant in the tumor microenvironment (TME). This system enables the controlled release of two distinct types of liposomes within the TME. The first, DOX-4PI@Liposome (DPL), carries doxorubicin (DOX) and 4-phenylimidazole (4PI), targeting cancer cells to provide chemotherapeutic effects while diminishing the immunosuppressive environment. The second, a mannosyl-modified cationic liposome (CL), is loaded with Cytosine phosphate guanine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides to specifically target M2 phenotype macrophages, reversing their tumor-associated phenotype (TAM) and activating immune cytokines to promote tumor destruction. Our findings indicate that DPCLG significantly curtails tumor growth, both in vitro and in vivo, mitigates the immunosuppressive TME, and triggers a potent systemic immune response. This study underscores the potential of DPCLG as an advanced, dual-targeting drug delivery system for comprehensive cancer therapy.

Bioeliminable Pt@Bi2Se3-RGD Nanoassembly for Enhancing Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Tumor Immuno-Radiotherapy by Inducing Apoptosis via the Areg Pathway

Background: Nanoradiosensitizers containing high Z-group elements have been reported widely as potential candidates for radiotherapy. However, the specific regulatory mechanism is unclear, and biodegradability needs to be addressed urgently. Methods: We synthesized a silk sericin-containing nano assembly, Pt@Bi2Se3-RGD (PBR). PBR's antitumor and bioeliminable effects were demonstrated in 4T1 tumor cells in vitro and in vivo. The immuno-radiotherapy effects of PBR were evaluated using a bilateral tumor model. Results: Combining photoacoustic imaging-guided PBR with radiotherapy improved the efficiency of anti-PD-L1 treatment, eliciting a robust immune response. Importantly, silk sericin-containing PBR could respond to the local intracellular environment in the tumor with acidic pH and overexpressed MMP-9, collapsing into Bi, Se, and scattered Pt nanoparticles (NPs) and finally be cleared from the body. The results also suggested that PBR may act on the Areg/Egfr/Bcl-2 pathway, inducing apoptosis for radiosensitization. Conclusion: The multifunctional, bioeliminable PBR nanoassembly synthesized in this study demonstrated radiosensitization, which, in conjunction with the PD-L1 immune blockade, could suppress primary and distal tumors. Thus, as a sensitizer for synergistic radiotherapy and immunotherapy, PBR could have wide-ranging clinical applications in oncology.

Present and future of cancer nano-immunotherapy: opportunities, obstacles and challenges

Clinically, multimodal therapies are adopted worldwide for the management of cancer, which continues to be a leading cause of death. In recent years, immunotherapy has firmly established itself as a new paradigm in cancer care that activates the body's immune defense to cope with cancer. Immunotherapy has resulted in significant breakthroughs in the treatment of stubborn tumors, dramatically improving the clinical outcome of cancer patients. Multiple forms of cancer immunotherapy, including immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), adoptive cell therapy and cancer vaccines, have become widely available. However, the effectiveness of these immunotherapies is not much satisfying. Many cancer patients do not respond to immunotherapy, and disease recurrence appears to be unavoidable because of the rapidly evolving resistance. Moreover, immunotherapies can give rise to severe off-target immune-related adverse events. Strategies to remove these hindrances mainly focus on the development of combinatorial therapies or the exploitation of novel immunotherapeutic mediations. Nanomaterials carrying anticancer agents to the target site are considered as practical approaches for cancer treatment. Nanomedicine combined with immunotherapies offers the possibility to potentiate systemic antitumor immunity and to facilitate selective cytotoxicity against cancer cells in an effective and safe manner. A myriad of nano-enabled cancer immunotherapies are currently under clinical investigation. Owing to gaps between preclinical and clinical studies, nano-immunotherapy faces multiple challenges, including the biosafety of nanomaterials and clinical trial design. In this review, we provide an overview of cancer immunotherapy and summarize the evidence indicating how nanomedicine-based approaches increase the efficacy of immunotherapies. We also discuss the key challenges that have emerged in the era of nanotechnology-based cancer immunotherapy. Taken together, combination nano-immunotherapy is drawing increasing attention, and it is anticipated that the combined treatment will achieve the desired success in clinical cancer therapy.

Biodegradable and Stimuli-Responsive Nanomaterials for Targeted Drug Delivery in Autoimmune Diseases

Autoimmune diseases present complex therapeutic challenges due to their chronic nature, systemic impact, and requirement for precise immunomodulation to avoid adverse side effects. Recent advancements in biodegradable and stimuli-responsive nanomaterials have opened new avenues for targeted drug delivery systems capable of addressing these challenges. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of state-of-the-art biodegradable nanocarriers such as polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, and hydrogels engineered for targeted delivery in autoimmune therapies. These nanomaterials are designed to degrade safely in the body while releasing therapeutic agents in response to specific stimuli, including pH, temperature, redox conditions, and enzymatic activity. By achieving localized and controlled release of anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents, these systems minimize systemic toxicity and enhance therapeutic efficacy. We discuss the underlying mechanisms of stimuli-responsive nanomaterials, recent applications in treating diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease, and the design considerations essential for clinical translation. Additionally, we address current challenges, including biocompatibility, scalability, and regulatory hurdles, as well as future directions for integrating advanced nanotechnology with personalized medicine in autoimmune treatment. This review highlights the transformative potential of biodegradable and stimuli-responsive nanomaterials, presenting them as a promising strategy to advance precision medicine and improve patient outcomes in autoimmune disease management.

Supramolecular Assemblies via Host-Guest Interactions for Tumor Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has emerged as one of the most promising modalities for cancer treatment providing hopes of cancer patients with the significant advantages over traditional antitumor therapy methods. Supramolecular assemblies based on host-guest interactions have been widely explored in the field of cancer immunotherapy as the delivery systems. A variety of supramolecular materials show unique features for efficient drug encapsulation, targeting delivery and release, which are favorable to activate antitumor immune responses especially through combination of different treatment strategies. In this review article, we summarize the research progresses of supramolecular assemblies via host-guest interactions for tumor immunotherapy. The construction of various drug delivery systems including hydrogels, liposomes, and polymeric nanoparticles, the drug encapsulation and delivery, as well as advantages and disadvantages are discussed. The perspectives related to future developments in this field are also described.

Res@ZIF-90 suppress gastric cancer progression by disturbing mitochondrial homeostasis

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer (GC) is still a serious threat to human health worldwide. As a natural compound, resveratrol has been proven to have anti-tumor activity, and the nano-delivery carrier has shown its excellent ability to retain and control drug release.

METHODS

Res@ZIF-90 underwent synthesis via a one-pot method and subsequent characterization encompassing Dynamic Light Scattering, Scanning Electron Microscope, Transmission Electron Microscope, and UV-vis absorption spectroscope. The release of resveratrol from Res@ZIF-90 across varied pH environments were delineated employing High Performance Liquid Chromatography. The mitochondrial targeting of Res@ZIF-90 was scrutinized utilizing Fluorescent Inverted Microscopy. The cytotoxic impact of Res@ZIF-90 on HGC-27 cells was evaluated through CCK-8 assay, Live/Dead staining, scratch test, and JC-1 assay. Furthermore, the HGC-27 tumor-bearing mice model was established to explore the anti-tumor effect of Res@ZIF-90.

RESULTS

ZIF-90 can effectively release resveratrol under acidic (pH = 5.5) conditions. In addition, Res@ZIF-90 could be taken up by cells and localized into mitochondria. ZIF-90 has no obvious cytotoxicity at the experimental concentration, while Res@ZIF-90 was more cytotoxic to HGC-27 cells than free resveratrol at the same concentration. Res@ZIF-90 significantly reduced the expressions of PGCS 1α, TFAM, PINK1, and COX IV, which together induced mitochondrial homeostasis disorders and inhibited the tumor growth of HGC-27 tumor-bearing mice in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

Res@ZIF-90 can inhibit the progression of gastric cancer by targeting the mitochondria of gastric cancer cells and disrupting mitochondrial homeostasis to produce cytotoxic effects. Res@ZIF-90 may be a promising antitumor drug with potential application value.

Tumor Microenvironment-Responsive Polymer-Based RNA Delivery Systems for Cancer Treatment

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) therapeutics offer a broad prospect in cancer treatment. However, their successful application requires overcoming various physiological barriers to effectively deliver RNAs to the target sites. Currently, a number of RNA delivery systems based on polymeric nanoparticles are developed to overcome these barriers in RNA delivery. This work provides an overview of the existing RNA therapeutics for cancer gene therapy, and particularly summarizes those that are entering the clinical phase. This work then discusses the core features and latest research developments of tumor microenvironment-responsive polymer-based RNA delivery carriers which are designed based on the pathological characteristics of the tumor microenvironment. Finally, this work also proposes opportunities for the transformation of RNA therapies into cancer immunotherapy methods in clinical applications.

Advances of Stimuli-Responsive Amphiphilic Copolymer Micelles in Tumor Therapy

Amphiphilic copolymers are composed of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic chains, which can self-assemble into polymeric micelles in aqueous solution via the hydrophilic/hydrophobic interactions. Due to their unique properties, polymeric micelles have been widely used as drug carriers. Poorly soluble drugs can be covalently attached to polymer chains or non-covalently incorporated in the micelles, with improved pharmacokinetic profiles and enhanced efficacy. In recent years, stimuli-responsive amphiphilic copolymer micelles have attracted significant attention. These micelles can respond to specific stimuli, including physical triggers (light, temperature, etc). chemical stimuli (pH, redox, etc). and physiological factors (enzymes, ATP, etc). Under these stimuli, the structures or properties of the micelles can change, enabling targeted therapy and controlled drug release in tumors. These stimuli-responsive strategies offer new avenues and approaches to enhance the tumor efficacy and reduce drug side effects. We will review the applications of different types of stimuli-responsive amphiphilic copolymer micelles in tumor therapy, aiming to provide valuable guidance for future research directions and clinical translation.

Reprint of: M1 macrophage-targeted curcumin nanocrystals with l-arginine-modified for acute lung injury by inhalation

Acute Lung Injury/Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ALI/ARDS) with clinical manifestations of respiratory distress and hypoxemia remains a significant cause of respiratory failure, boasting a persistently high incidence and mortality rate. Given the central role of M1 macrophages in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury (ALI), this study utilized the anti-inflammatory agent curcumin as a model drug. l-arginine (L-Arg) was employed as a targeting ligand, and chitosan was initially modified with l-arginine. Subsequently, it was utilized as a surface modifier to prepare inhalable nano-crystals loaded with curcumin (Arg-CS-Cur), aiming for specific targeting of pulmonary M1 macrophages. Compared with unmodified chitosan-curcumin nanocrystals (CS-Cur), Arg-CS-Cur exhibited higher uptake in vitro by M1 macrophages, as evidenced by flow cytometry showing the highest fluorescence intensity in the Arg-CS-Cur group (P < 0.01). In vivo accumulation was greater in inflamed lung tissues, as indicated by small animal imaging demonstrating higher lung fluorescence intensity in the DiR-Arg-CS-Cur group compared to the DiR-CS-Cur group in the rat ALI model (P < 0.05), peaking at 12 h. Moreover, Arg-CS-Cur demonstrated enhanced therapeutic effects in both LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells and ALI rat models. Specifically, treatment with Arg-CS-Cur significantly suppressed NO release and levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in RAW264.7 cells (p < 0.01), while in ALI rat models, expression levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in lung tissues were significantly lower than those in the model group (P < 0.01). Furthermore, lung tissue damage was significantly reduced, with histological scores significantly lower than those in the CS-Cur group (P < 0.01). In conclusion, these findings underscore the targeting potential of l-arginine-modified nanocrystals, which effectively enhance curcumin concentration in inflammatory environments by selectively targeting M1 macrophages. This study thus introduces novel perspectives and theoretical support for the development of targeted therapeutic interventions for acute inflammatory lung diseases, including ALI/ARDS.

Engineering Stimuli-Responsive Materials for Precision Medicine

Over the past decade, precision medicine has garnered increasing attention, making significant strides in discovering new therapeutic drugs and mechanisms, resulting in notable achievements in symptom alleviation, pain reduction, and extended survival rates. However, the limited target specificity of primary drugs and inter-individual differences have often necessitated high-dosage strategies, leading to challenges such as restricted deep tissue penetration rates and systemic side effects. Material science advancements present a promising avenue for these issues. By leveraging the distinct internal features of diseased regions and the application of specific external stimuli, responsive materials can be tailored to achieve targeted delivery, controllable release, and specific biochemical reactions. This review aims to highlight the latest advancements in stimuli-responsive materials and their potential in precision medicine. Initially, we introduce disease-related internal stimuli and capable external stimuli, elucidating the reaction principles of responsive functional groups. Subsequently, we provide a detailed analysis of representative pre-clinical achievements of stimuli responsive materials across various clinical applications, including enhancements in the treatment of cancers, injury diseases, inflammatory diseases, infection diseases, and high-throughput microfluidic biosensors. Finally, we discuss some clinical challenges, such as off-target effects, long-term impacts of nano-materials, potential ethical concerns, and offer insights into future perspectives of stimuli-responsive materials.

Overcoming Challenges in Small-Molecule Drug Bioavailability: A Review of Key Factors and Approaches

The bioavailability of small-molecule drugs remains a critical challenge in pharmaceutical development, significantly impacting therapeutic efficacy and commercial viability. This review synthesizes recent advances in understanding and overcoming bioavailability limitations, focusing on key physicochemical and biological factors influencing drug absorption and distribution. We examine cutting-edge strategies for enhancing bioavailability, including innovative formulation approaches, rational structural modifications, and the application of artificial intelligence in drug design. The integration of nanotechnology, 3D printing, and stimuli-responsive delivery systems are highlighted as promising avenues for improving drug delivery. We discuss the importance of a holistic, multidisciplinary approach to bioavailability optimization, emphasizing early-stage consideration of ADME properties and the need for patient-centric design. This review also explores emerging technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9-mediated personalization and microbiome modulation for tailored bioavailability enhancement. Finally, we outline future research directions, including advanced predictive modeling, overcoming biological barriers, and addressing the challenges of emerging therapeutic modalities. By elucidating the complex interplay of factors affecting bioavailability, this review aims to guide future efforts in developing more effective and accessible small-molecule therapeutics.

Nanotherapy therapy for acute respiratory distress syndrome: a review

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a complex and life-threatening disease characterized by severe respiratory failure. The lethality of ARDS remains alarmingly high, especially with the persistent ravages of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in recent years. ARDS is one of the major complications of neocoronavirus pneumonia and the leading cause of death in infected patients. The large-scale outbreak of COVID-19 has greatly increased the incidence and mortality of ARDS. Despite advancements in our understanding of the causes and mechanisms of ARDS, the current clinical practice is still limited to the use of supportive medications to alleviate its progression. However, there remains a pressing need for effective therapeutic drugs to combat this devastating disease. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the commonly used therapeutic drugs for ARDS, including steroids, vitamin C, targeted inhibitors, and heparin. While these medications have shown some promise in managing ARDS, there is still a significant gap in the availability of definitive treatments. Moreover, we highlight the potential of nanocarrier delivery systems, such as liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, as promising therapeutic approaches for ARDS in the future. These innovative delivery systems have demonstrated encouraging results in early clinical trials and offer the potential for more targeted and effective treatment options. Despite the promising early results, further clinical trials are necessary to fully assess the efficacy and safety of nanotherapies for ARDS. Additionally, more in-depth research should be conducted to focus on the continuous development of precision therapies targeting different stages of ARDS development or different triggers. This will provide more ideas and rationale for the treatment of ARDS and ultimately lead to better patient outcomes.

Advances and prospects of precision nanomedicine in personalized tumor theranostics

Tumor, as the second leading cause of death globally, following closely behind cardiovascular diseases, remains a significant health challenge worldwide. Despite the existence of various cancer treatment methods, their efficacy is still suboptimal, necessitating the development of safer and more efficient treatment strategies. Additionally, the advancement of personalized therapy offers further possibilities in cancer treatment. Nanomedicine, as a promising interdisciplinary field, has shown tremendous potential and prospects in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. As an emerging approach in oncology, the application of nanomedicine in personalized cancer therapy primarily focuses on targeted drug delivery systems such as passive targeting drug delivery, active targeting drug delivery, and environmentally responsive targeting drug delivery, as well as imaging diagnostics such as tumor biomarker detection, tumor cell detection, and in vivo imaging. However, it still faces challenges regarding safety, biocompatibility, and other issues. This review aims to explore the advances in the use of nanomaterials in the field of personalized cancer diagnosis and treatment and to investigate the prospects and challenges of developing personalized therapies in cancer care, providing direction for the clinical translation and application.

Stimuli-Responsive NO Delivery Platforms for Bacterial Infection Treatment

The prevalence of drug-resistant bacterial infections has emerged as a grave threat to clinical treatment and global human health, presenting one of the foremost challenges in medical care. Thus, there is an urgent imperative to develop safe and efficacious novel antimicrobial strategies. Nitric oxide (NO) is a recognized endogenous signaling molecule, which plays a pivotal role in numerous pathological processes. Currently, NO has garnered significant interest as an antibacterial agent due to its capability to eradicate bacteria, disrupt biofilms, and facilitate wound healing, all while circumventing the emergence of drug resistance. However, the inherently unstable characteristic of NO therapeutic gas renders the controlled administration of NO gases exceedingly challenging. Hence, in this review, the current challenge of bacterial infection is discussed; then it is briefly elucidated the antibacterial mechanism of NO and comprehensively delineate the recent advancements in stimulus-responsive NO delivery platforms, along with their merits, obstacles, and prospective avenues for clinical application. This review offers guidance for future advancements in NO-medicated anti-infection therapy is hoped.

Potential of a CO2-Responsive supramolecular drug-carrier system as a safer and more effective treatment for cancer

We combined carbon dioxide (CO2)-responsive cytosine-containing rhodamine 6G (Cy-R6G) as a hydrophobic anticancer agent with hydrogen-bonded cytosine-functionalized polyethylene glycol (Cy-PEG) as a hydrophilic supramolecular carrier to construct a CO2-responsive drug delivery system, with the aim of enhancing the responsiveness of the system to the tumor microenvironment and thus the overall effectiveness of anticancer therapy. Due to self-complementary hydrogen bonding interactions between cytosine units, Cy-R6G and Cy-PEG co-assemble in water to form spherical-like nanogels, with Cy-R6G effectively encapsulated within the nanogels. The nanogels exhibit several distinctive physical features, such as widely tunable nanogel size and drug loading capacity for Cy-R6G, intriguing fluorescence properties, high co-assembled structural stability in normal aqueous environments, enhanced anti-hemolytic characteristics, sensitive dual CO2/pH-responsive behavior, and precise and easily controllable CO2-induced release of Cy-R6G. Cytotoxicity assays clearly indicated that, due to the presence of cytosine receptors on the surface of cancer cells, Cy-R6G-loaded nanogels exert selective cytotoxicity against cancer cells in pristine culture medium, but do not affect the viability of normal cells. Surprisingly, in CO2-rich culture medium, Cy-R6G-loaded nanogels exhibit a further significant enhancement in cytotoxicity against cancer cells, and remain non-cytotoxic to normal cells. More importantly, a series of in vitro experiments demonstrated that compared to pristine culture medium, CO2-rich culture medium promotes more rapid selective internalization of Cy-R6G-loaded nanogels into cancer cells through cytosine-mediated macropinocytosis and thus accelerates the induction of apoptosis. Therefore, this newly developed system provides novel avenues for the development of highly effective CO2-responsive drug delivery systems with potent anticancer capabilities.

Vesicle-based formulations for pain treatment: a narrative review

Pain, a complex and debilitating condition, necessitates innovative therapeutic strategies to alleviate suffering and enhance patients' quality of life. Vesicular systems hold the potential to enhance precision of drug localisation and release, prolong the duration of therapeutic action and mitigate adverse events associated with long-term pharmacotherapy. This review critically assesses the current state-of-the-art in vesicle-based formulations (liposomes, polymersomes, ethosomes, and niosomes) for pain management applications. We highlight formulation engineering strategies used to optimise drug pharmacokinetics, present preclinical findings of experimental delivery systems, and discuss the clinical evidence for the benefits of clinically approved formulations. We present the challenges and outlook for future improvements in long-acting anaesthetic and analgesic formulation development.

Tumor microenvironment-responsive hyperbranched polymers for controlled drug delivery

Hyperbranched polymers (HBPs) have drawn great interest in the biomedical field on account of their special morphology, low viscosity, self-regulation, and facile preparation methods. Moreover, their large intramolecular cavities, high biocompatibility, biodegradability, and targeting properties render them very suitable for anti-tumor drug delivery. Recently, exploiting the specific characteristics of the tumor microenvironment, a range of multifunctional HBPs responsive to the tumor microenvironment have emerged. By further introducing various types of drugs through physical embedding or chemical coupling, the resulting HBPs based delivery systems have played a crucial part in improving drug stability, increasing effective drug concentration, decreasing drug toxicity and side effects, and enhancing anti-tumor effect. Here, based on different types of tumor microenvironment stimulation signals such as pH, redox, temperature, etc., we systematically review the preparation and response mechanism of HBPs, summarize the latest advances in drug delivery applications, and analyze the challenges and future research directions for such nanomaterials in biomedical clinical applications.

Valence-Transforming O2-Depleting Nano-Assembly Enable In Situ Tumor Depositional Embolization

Abnormal metabolism and blood supply/O2 imbalance in tumor cells affect drug transport delivery and increase the difficulty of tumor treatment. Controlling tumor growth by inhibiting tumor cell metabolism and regulating progressive embolization in the tumor region provides an innovative basis for constructing tumor therapeutic models. A highly biocompatible and efficient O2-depleting agent has been investigated to enable in situ precipitation and embolization within the tumor microenvironment. In situ deformation embolizer, Fe-GA@CaCO3 nano-assembly (GA: gallic acid), can convert into the large granular size embolization components of Fe(III) precipitates and affluent Ca2+ within the tumor microenvironment. In situ progressive O2 depletion produces Fe(III) precipitates that embolize tumor regions, isolating O2 and nutrients by blocking supply. Meanwhile, affluent Ca2+ acts on the intracellular, causing mitochondrial dysfunction through calcium overload and contributing to irreversible tumor cell damage. Both internal and external routes work synergistically to produce precise functional inhibition of tumors from the inside out, simultaneously responding to both intracellular and the corresponding tumor regions, providing an innovative solution for anti-tumor therapy.

Enhanced gene transfection ability of sulfonylated low-molecular-weight PEI and its application in anti-tumor treatment

With the continuous progress of nanotechnology in the field of tumor vaccines, immunotherapy has been regarded as one of the most powerful approaches for cancer treatment. Currently, DNA vaccines are used to efficiently deliver plasmids encoding tumor-associated antigens to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and enhance the activation of immune cells. In this work, a series of aromatic sulfonyl small-molecule-modified polymers R-P based on low-molecular-weight polyethylenimine (PEI) were prepared, and their structure-activity relationship was studied. Among them, Ns-P with high transfection efficiency and low toxicity was applied to deliver antigen ovalbumin (OVA)-encoded plasmid DNA to APCs for triggering the immune activation of dendritic cells (DCs). It was also found that Ns-P could be used as an immune adjuvant to activate the STING pathway in DCs, integrating innate stimulating activity into the carrier to enhance antitumor immunity. Moreover, the modification of Ns-P/pOVA complexes with oxidized mannan could not only improve the biocompatibility of the complex, but also enhance the uptake of DCs, further inducing OVA antigen presentation and immune stimulation. In vivo antitumor assays indicated that Ns-P/pOVA/Man immunization could inhibit the growth of OVA-expressing E.G7 tumors in C57BL/6 mice. These results demonstrated that Ns-P/pOVA/Man is promising for gene delivery and immunotherapy application.

Vesicles: New Advances in the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by brain lesions that limit normal daily activities and represent a major challenge to healthcare systems worldwide, with a significant economic impact. Nanotechnology is the science of manipulating matter at the nanoscale, where materials exhibit unique properties that are significantly different from their larger counterparts. These properties can be exploited for a wide range of applications, including medicine. Among the emerging therapeutic approaches for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, nanotechnologies are gaining prominence as a promising avenue to explore. Here, we review the state of the art of biological and artificial vesicles and their biological properties in the context of neurodegenerative diseases. Indeed, nanometric structures such as extracellular vesicles and artificial vesicles represent a promising tool for the treatment of such disorders due to their size, biocompatibility, and ability to transport drugs, proteins, and genetic material across the blood-brain barrier to target specific cells and brain areas. In the future, a deeper and broader synergy between materials science, bioengineering, biology, medicine, and the discovery of new, increasingly powerful delivery systems will certainly enable a more applied use of nanotechnology in the treatment of brain disorders.

Development of citric acid-based biomaterials for biomedical applications

The development of bioactive materials with controllable preparation is of great significance for biomedical engineering. Citric acid-based biomaterials are one of the few bioactive materials with many advantages such as simple synthesis, controllable structure, biocompatibility, biomimetic viscoelastic mechanical behavior, controllable biodegradability, and further functionalization. In this paper, we review the development of multifunctional citrate-based biomaterials for biomedical applications, and summarize their multifunctional properties in terms of physical, chemical, and biological aspects, and finally the applications of citrate-based biomaterials in biomedical engineering, including bone tissue engineering, skin tissue engineering, drug/cell delivery, vascular and neural tissue engineering, and bioimaging.

Integrin-Specific Stimuli-Responsive Nanomaterials for Cancer Theranostics

Background: Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. The tumor microenvironment makes the tumor difficult to treat, favoring drug resistance and the formation of metastases, resulting in death. Methods: Stimuli-responsive nanoparticles have shown great capacity to be used as a powerful strategy for cancer treatment, diagnostic, as well as theranostic. Nanocarriers are not only able to respond to internal stimuli such as oxidative stress, weakly acidic pH, high temperature, and the high expression of particular enzymes, but also to external stimuli such as light and paramagnetic characteristics to be exploited. Results: In this work, stimulus-responsive nanocarriers functionalized with arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (Arg-Gly-Asp) sequence as well as mimetic sequences with the capability to recognize integrin receptors are analyzed. Conclusions: This review highlights the progress that has been made in the development of new nanocarriers, capable of responding to endogenous and exogenous stimuli essential to combat cancer.

Dual targeting and bioresponsive nano-PROTAC induced precise and effective lung cancer therapy

Epigenetic regulation has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for lung cancer treatment, which can facilitate the antitumor responses by modulating epigenetic dysregulation of target proteins in lung cancer. The proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) reagent, dBET6 shows effective inhibition of bromodomain-containing protein 4 (BRD4) that exerts antitumor efficacy by degrading BRD4 via the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Nevertheless, the low tissue specificity and bioavailability impede its therapeutic effects and clinical translation on lung cancer treatment. Herein, we developed a type of dual targeting and bioresponsive nano-PROTAC (c R GD/L LC membrane/D S-P LGA/d B ET6, named RLDPB), which was constructed by using the pH and glutathione (GSH)-responsive polymer, disulfide bond-linked poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA-S-S-PLGA, DS-PLGA) to load the PROTAC agent dBET6, and further camouflaged with the homotypic LLC cell membranes, followed by the conjugation with cRGD ligand to the surface of the nanoparticles. Notably, RLDPB showed enhanced celluar uptake by lung cancer cells in vitro and accumulation in the tumors via the dual targeting structure including cRGD and LLC membrane. The pH/GSH responsiveness improved the release of dBET6 from the DS-PLGA-based nanoparticles within the cells. RLDPB was demonstrated to facilitate tumor regression by inducing the apoptosis of lung cancer cells with the degradation of BRD4. Thus, RLDPB can be considered a powerful tool to suppress lung cancer, which opens a new avenue to treat lung cancer by PROTAC.

Ultrasound Guided Local Delivery of Bioorthogonal PDL1 Degrader for Enhanced Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy involving PDL1 degradation holds great potential in anti-tumor treatment. Optimal design of PDL1 degraders and subsequent efficient delivery into tumors are essential for expected efficacy, especially when abnormal tumor vasculature is considered. Herein, a nanodroplet-based novel drug delivery platform termed as NDsmTx (nanodroplet-based therapeutics) for ultrasound targeted delivery of PDL1 degrader is designed. Briefly, the shell of the NDsmTx is armed with RGD and mPD1 (a bioorthogonal PD1 mutant produced by genetic codon expansion technology can covalently bind PDL1), and the core is composed of perfluorohexane (PFH, C6F14). The RGD on the NDsmTx recognizes αvβ3 expressed by tumor vasculature, making NDsmTx accumulated in tumor practical and visible by low-frequency ultrasound (LFUS). In turn, inertial cavitation induced by LFUS facilitates mPD1 on the nanodroplet debris penetrating the tumor, where mPD1 covalently binds PDL1 and initiates a lysosomal degradation process. Through both in vitro and in vivo study, the superior performance of NDsmTx in degrading PDL1 and boosting anti-tumor immunity is confirmed. In conclusion, NDsmTx emerge as an alternative to existing PDL1 blockers in tumor immunotherapy.

Advancing Photodynamic Therapy with Nano-Conjugated Hypocrellin: Mechanisms and Clinical Applications

Hypocrellin-based photodynamic therapy (PDT) is developing as a viable cancer therapeutic option, especially when enhanced by nanoconjugation. This review investigates the methods by which nano-conjugated hypocrellin enhances therapeutic efficacy and precision when targeting cancer cells. These nanoconjugates encapsulate or covalently bind hypocrellin photosensitizers (PSs), allowing them to accumulate preferentially in malignancies. When activated by light, the nanoconjugates produce singlet oxygen and other reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in oxidative stress that selectively destroys cancer cells while protecting healthy tissues. We look at how they can be used to treat a variety of cancers. Clinical and preclinical studies show that they have advantages such as increased water solubility, improved tumor penetration, longer circulation times, and tailored delivery, all of which contribute to fewer off-target effects and overall toxicity. Ongoing research focuses on improving these nanoconjugates for better tumor targeting, drug release kinetics, and overcoming biological obstacles. Furthermore, the incorporation of developing technologies such as stimuli-responsive nanocarriers and combination therapies opens exciting opportunities for enhancing hypocrellin-based PDT. In conclusion, the combination of hypocrellin and nanotechnology constitutes a significant approach to cancer treatment, increasing the efficacy and safety of PDT. Future research will seek to create conjugates including hypocrellin, herceptin, and gold nanoparticles to induce apoptosis in human breast cancer cells in vitro, opening possibilities for therapeutic applications.

Photobleaching-mediated charge-convertible cyclodextrin nanoparticles achieve deep tumour penetration for rectal cancer theranostics

Although charge-converting nanoparticles (NPs) potentially penetrate tumours deeply, conventional charge conversion strategies possess limitations, including low selectivity and slow, inconsistent conversion rate within the tumour microenvironment. In this study, we synthesized a zwitterionic near-infrared cyclodextrin derivative of heptamethine cyanine and complexed it with pheophorbide-conjugated ferrocene to produce multifunctional theranostic nanotherapeutics. Our NPs demonstrated enhanced tumour-targeting ability, enabling the highly specific imaging of rectal tumours, with tumour-to-rectum signal ratios reaching up to 7.8. The zwitterionic surface charge of the NPs was rapidly converted to a cationic charge within the tumours on 880 nm near-infrared laser irradiation, promoting the tumoural penetration of NPs via transcytosis. After penetration, photodynamic/chemodynamic therapy was initiated using a 660 nm laser. Our NPs eradicated clinically relevant-sized heterotopic tumours (~250 mm3) and orthotopic rectal tumours, displaying their potential as theranostic nanoplatforms for targeting rectal cancer.

3D printing and computer-aided design techniques for drug delivery scaffolds in tissue engineering

INTRODUCTION

The challenge in tissue engineering lies in replicating the intricate structure of the native extracellular matrix. Recent advancements in AM, notably 3D printing, offer unprecedented capabilities to tailor scaffolds precisely, controlling properties like structure and bioactivity. CAD tools complement this by facilitating design using patient-specific data.

AREA’S COVERED

This review introduces additive manufacturing (AM) and computer-aided design (CAD) as pivotal tools in advancing tissue engineering, particularly cartilage regeneration. This article explores various materials utilized in AM, focusing on polymers and hydrogels for their advantageous properties in tissue engineering applications. Integrating bioactive molecules, including growth factors, into scaffolds to promote tissue regeneration is discussed alongside strategies involving different cell sources, such as stem cells, to enhance tissue development within scaffold matrices.

EXPERT OPINION

Applications of AM and CAD in addressing specific challenges like osteochondral defects and osteoarthritis in cartilage tissue engineering are highlighted. This review consolidates current research findings, offering expert insights into the evolving landscape of AM and CAD technologies in advancing tissue engineering, particularly in cartilage regeneration.