Fibroblastic reticular cell-derived lysophosphatidic acid regulates confined intranodal T-cell motility

Lysophosphatidic acid regulates implant osseointegration in murine models via YAP

BACKGROUND

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a simple bioactive lysophospholipid, has been reported to regulate bone homeostasis and bone remodeling. This study aimed to elucidate the function and intrinsic mechanism of LPA in osseointegration in murine models.

METHOD

We constructed immediate implant models in murine maxillae. Micro-CT, H&E staining, and PCR assays were performed to evaluate the effects of LPA on osseointegration. Furthermore, Prx1-Cre;Yapf/f mice and Sp7-Cre;Yapf/f mice were generated to investigate the role of YAP on LPA-induced osseointegration.

RESULT

In this study, we identified that LPA might promote bone deposition on the tissue-implant interface and improve osseointegration. In addition, conditional knockout of YAP from MCSs and pre-osteoblasts blunts LPA-induced osteogenesis and osseointegration in mice.

CONCLUSION

Our data demonstrated that LPA-YAP signaling is particularly important to regulate osseointegration, which expands our understanding of LPA and provide the potential of LPA to be used in osseointegration.

GPCRs: emerging targets for novel T cell immune checkpoint therapy

Although immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has become the mainstay of treatment for advanced solid organ malignancies, success in revitalizing the host anticancer immune response remains limited. G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a broad family of cell-surface proteins that have been regarded as main players in regulating the immune system, namely by mediating the activity of T lymphocytes. Among the most novel immunoregulatory GPCRs include GPR171, lysophosphatidic acid receptors (LPARs), GPR68, cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2), and prostaglandin E receptors, many of which have shown promise in mediating antitumor response via activation of cytotoxic T cells, inhibiting immunosuppressive lymphocytes, and facilitating immune cell infiltration within the tumor microenvironment across multiple types of cancers. This paper reviews our current understanding of some of the most novel GPCRs-their expression patterns, evolving roles within the immune system and cancer, potential therapeutic applications, and perspective for future investigation.

Autotaxin-Lysophosphatidate Axis: Promoter of Cancer Development and Possible Therapeutic Implications

Autotaxin (ATX) is a member of the ectonucleotide pyrophosphate/phosphodiesterase (ENPP) family; it is encoded by the ENPP2 gene. ATX is a secreted glycoprotein and catalyzes the hydrolysis of lysophosphatidylcholine to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). LPA is responsible for the transduction of various signal pathways through the interaction with at least six G protein-coupled receptors, LPA Receptors 1 to 6 (LPAR1-6). The ATX-LPA axis is involved in various physiological and pathological processes, such as angiogenesis, embryonic development, inflammation, fibrosis, and obesity. However, significant research also reported its connection to carcinogenesis, immune escape, metastasis, tumor microenvironment, cancer stem cells, and therapeutic resistance. Moreover, several studies suggested ATX and LPA as relevant biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets. In this review of the literature, we aimed to deepen knowledge about the role of the ATX-LPA axis as a promoter of cancer development, progression and invasion, and therapeutic resistance. Finally, we explored its potential application as a prognostic/predictive biomarker and therapeutic target for tumor treatment.

Regulation of CD8 T-cell signaling, metabolism, and cytotoxic activity by extracellular lysophosphatidic acid

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is an endogenous bioactive lipid that is produced extracellularly and signals to cells via cognate LPA receptors, which are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Mature lymphocytes in mice and humans express three LPA receptors, LPA2 , LPA5, and LPA6 , and work from our group has determined that LPA5 signaling by T lymphocytes inhibits specific antigen-receptor signaling pathways that ultimately impair lymphocyte activation, proliferation, and function. In this review, we discuss previous and ongoing work characterizing the ability of an LPA-LPA5 axis to serve as a peripheral immunological tolerance mechanism that restrains adaptive immunity but is subverted during settings of chronic inflammation. Specifically, LPA-LPA5 signaling is found to regulate effector cytotoxic CD8 T cells by (at least) two mechanisms: (i) regulating the actin-microtubule cytoskeleton in a manner that impairs immunological synapse formation between an effector CD8 T cell and antigen-specific target cell, thus directly impairing cytotoxic activity, and (ii) shifting T-cell metabolism to depend on fatty-acid oxidation for mitochondrial respiration and reducing metabolic efficiency. The in vivo outcome of LPA5 inhibitory activity impairs CD8 T-cell killing and tumor immunity in mouse models providing impetus to consider LPA5 antagonism for the treatment of malignancies and chronic infections.

Emerging roles of lysophosphatidylserine as an immune modulator

In addition to direct activation by pathogens and antigens, immune cell functions are further modulated by factors in their environment. Recent studies have revealed that lysophospholipids (LPL) derived from membrane glycerophospholipids are such environmental factors. They are produced by the action of various phospholipases and modulate immune responses positively or negatively via G-protein-coupled receptor-type receptors. These include lysophosphatidic acid, lysophosphatidylserine (LysoPS), and lysophosphatidylinositol. Here, we summarize what is known about the synthetic pathways, receptors, and immunomodulatory functions of these LPLs. Particular focus is given to LysoPS, which have recently been identified, and recent findings on their immunomodulatory actions are presented.

ENPP2 alleviates hypoxia/reoxygenation injury and ferroptosis by regulating oxidative stress and mitochondrial function in human cardiac microvascular endothelial cells

This study aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) injury in human cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (HCMECs) by regulating ferroptosis. H/R model was established with HCMECs and before the reperfusion, ferroptosis inhibitor ferrostatin-1 or ferroptosis inducer erastin was all administered. Wound-healing assay was performed to detect the migration ability of cells in each group, and the angiogenesis ability was determined by tube formation assay. The level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was detected by flow cytometry. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to observe the state of mitochondria. The expressions of related proteins in HCMECs were assessed by Western blot. From the results, H/R injury could inhibit the migration and angiogenesis, induce the ROS production, and cause the mitochondrial damage of HCMECs. Ferroptosis activator erastin could aggravate H/R injury in HCMECs, while the ferroptosis inhibitor ferrostatin-1 could reverse the effects of H/R on HCMECs. Western blot results showed that H/R or/and erastin treatment could significantly induce ACSL4, HGF, VEGF, p-ERK, and uPA protein expression and inhibit GPX4 expression. The addition of ferrostatin-1 resulted in the opposite trend of the proteins expression above to erastin treatment. What is more, overexpression of ENPP2 markedly suppressed the damaging effect of H/R on HCMECs and reversed the effects of H/R or erastin treatment on the expression of related proteins. These results demonstrated a great therapeutic efficacy of ENPP2 overexpression in preventing the development of H/R injury through inhibiting oxidative stress and ferroptosis.

Lysophosphatidic acid, a simple phospholipid with myriad functions

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a simple phospholipid consisting of a phosphate group, glycerol moiety, and only one hydrocarbon chain. Despite its simple chemical structure, LPA plays an important role as an essential bioactive signaling molecule via its specific six G protein-coupled receptors, LPA_1-6. Recent studies, especially those using genetic tools, have revealed diverse physiological and pathological roles of LPA and LPA receptors in almost every organ system. Furthermore, many studies are illuminating detailed mechanisms to orchestrate multiple LPA receptor signaling pathways and to facilitate their coordinated function. Importantly, these extensive "bench" works are now translated into the "bedside" as exemplified by approaches targeting LPA₁ signaling to combat fibrotic diseases. In this review, we discuss the physiological and pathological roles of LPA signaling and their implications for clinical application by focusing on findings revealed by in vivo studies utilizing genetic tools targeting LPA receptors.

Modulations of urinary lipid mediators in acute bladder cystitis

Bioactive lipids, such as lysophospholipids, ceramides, and eicosanoids and related mediators, have been demonstrated to be involved in inflammation. We aimed to investigate the possible orchestral modulations of these bioactive lipids in human inflammation. We simultaneously measured the urinary levels of lysophospholipids, ceramides, and eicosanoids and related mediators by a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method in patients with cystitis and control subjects. The urinary levels of lysophosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylethanolamine, sphingosine 1-phosphate, ceramides, prostaglandin (PG)E₂ and its metabolites represented by tetranor-PGEM, several oxylipins, DHA, and lysoPAF were higher in patients with cystitis. Urinary levels of some species of glycerolysophospholipids were highly positively correlated with those of other species of the same glycerolysophospholipids. Cluster analyses revealed that lysophosphatidylcholine was close to a PGE₂ metabolite, lysophosphatidylethanolamine was close to DHA, and sphingosine 1-phosphate and ceramides were close to lysoPAF. The orchestral dynamism of the lipid mediators was observed in the urine of cystitis, suggesting the necessity for simultaneous investigation of lipid mediators for translational research.

The role of extracellular ATP in homeostatic immune cell migration

Antigen stimulation induces adenosine triphosphate (ATP) release from naïve lymphocytes in lymphoid tissues. However, previous studies indicated that the non-lytic release of ATP also occurs in most tissues and cell types under physiological conditions. Here, we show that extracellular ATP (eATP) is indeed constitutively produced by naïve T cells in response to lymphoid chemokines in uninflamed lymph nodes and is involved in the regulation of immune cell migration. In this review, we briefly summarize the homeostatic role of extracellular ATP in immune cell migration in vivo.

Classes of Lipid Mediators and Their Effects on Vascular Inflammation in Atherosclerosis

It is commonly believed that the inactivation of inflammation is mainly due to the decay or cessation of inducers. In reality, in connection with the development of atherosclerosis, spontaneous decay of inducers is not observed. It is now known that lipid mediators originating from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are important constituents of all cell membranes, can act in the inflamed tissue and bring it to resolution. In fact, PUFAs, such as arachidonic acid (AA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are precursors to both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory compounds. In this review, we describe the lipid mediators of vascular inflammation and resolution, and their biochemical activity. In addition, we highlight data from the literature that often show a worsening of atherosclerotic disease in subjects deficient in lipid mediators of inflammation resolution, and we also report on the anti-proteasic and anti-thrombotic properties of these same lipid mediators. It should be noted that despite promising data observed in both animal and in vitro studies, contradictory clinical results have been observed for omega-3 PUFAs. Many further studies will be required in order to clarify the observed conflicts, although lifestyle habits such as smoking or other biochemical factors may often influence the normal synthesis of lipid mediators of inflammation resolution.

Autotaxin and Lysophosphatidic Acid Signalling: the Pleiotropic Regulatory Network in Cancer

Autotaxin, also known as ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 2, is a secreted glycoprotein that plays multiple roles in human physiology and cancer pathology. This protein, by converting lysophosphatidylcholine into lysophosphatidic acid, initiates a complex signalling cascade with significant biological implications. The article outlines the autotaxin gene and protein structure, expression regulation and physiological functions, but focuses mainly on the role of autotaxin in cancer development and progression. Autotaxin and lysophosphatidic acid signalling influence several aspects of cancer, including cell proliferation, migration, metastasis, therapy resistance, and interactions with the immune system. The potential of autotaxin as a diagnostic biomarker and promising drug target is also examined.

Lysophosphatidylinositol Induced Morphological Changes and Stress Fiber Formation through the GPR55-RhoA-ROCK Pathway

We previously reported that lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI) functions as an endogenous agonist of GPR55, a novel cannabinoid receptor. However, the physiological roles of LPI-GPR55 have not yet been elucidated in detail. In the present study, we found that LPI induced morphological changes in GPR55-expressing HEK293 cells. LPI induced the cell rounding of GPR55-expressing HEK293 cells but not of empty-vector-transfected cells. LPI also induced the activation of small GTP-binding protein RhoA and increased stress fiber formation in GPR55-expressing HEK293 cells. The inhibition of RhoA and Rho kinase ROCK by the C3 exoenzyme and the ROCK inhibitor reduced LPI-induced cell rounding and stress fiber formation. These results clearly indicated that the LPI-induced morphological changes and the assembly of the cytoskeletons were mediated through the GPR55-RhoA-ROCK pathway.

Tas2R signaling enhances mouse neutrophil migration via a ROCK-dependent pathway

Type-2 bitter taste receptors (Tas2Rs) are a large family of G protein-coupled receptors that are expressed in the oral cavity and serve to detect substances with bitter tastes in foods and medicines. Recent evidence suggests that Tas2Rs are also expressed extraorally, including in immune cells. However, the role of Tas2Rs in immune cells remains controversial. Here, we demonstrate that Tas2R126, Tas2R135, and Tas2R143 are expressed in mouse neutrophils, but not in other immune cells such as macrophages or T and B lymphocytes. Treatment of bone marrow-derived neutrophils from wild-type mice with the Tas2R126/143 agonists arbutin and d-salicin led to enhanced C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CXCL2)-stimulated migration in vitro, but this response was not observed in neutrophils from Tas2r126/135/143-deficient mice. Enhancement of CXCL2-stimulated migration by Tas2R agonists was accompanied by increased phosphorylation of myosin light chain 2 (MLC2) and was blocked by pretreatment of neutrophils with inhibitors of Rho-associated coiled-coil-containing protein kinase (ROCK), but not by inhibitors of the small GTPase RhoA. Taken together, these results demonstrate that mouse neutrophils express functional Tas2R126/143 and suggest a role for Tas2R126/143–ROCK–MLC2-dependent signaling in the regulation of neutrophil migration.

Extracellular ATP Limits Homeostatic T Cell Migration Within Lymph Nodes

Whereas adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) is the major energy source in cells, extracellular ATP (eATP) released from activated/damaged cells is widely thought to represent a potent damage-associated molecular pattern that promotes inflammatory responses. Here, we provide suggestive evidence that eATP is constitutively produced in the uninflamed lymph node (LN) paracortex by naïve T cells responding to C-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CCR7) ligand chemokines. Consistently, eATP was markedly reduced in naïve T cell-depleted LNs, including those of nude mice, CCR7-deficient mice, and mice subjected to the interruption of the afferent lymphatics in local LNs. Stimulation with a CCR7 ligand chemokine, CCL19, induced ATP release from LN cells, which inhibited CCR7-dependent lymphocyte migration in vitro by a mechanism dependent on the purinoreceptor P2X7 (P2X7R), and P2X7R inhibition enhanced T cell retention in LNs in vivo. These results collectively indicate that paracortical eATP is produced by naïve T cells in response to constitutively expressed chemokines, and that eATP negatively regulates CCR7-mediated lymphocyte migration within LNs via a specific subtype of ATP receptor, demonstrating its fine-tuning role in homeostatic cell migration within LNs.

Lysophospholipid Mediators in Health and Disease

Lysophospholipids, exemplified by lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), are produced by the metabolism and perturbation of biological membranes. Both molecules are established extracellular lipid mediators that signal via specific G protein-coupled receptors in vertebrates. This widespread signaling axis regulates the development, physiological functions, and pathological processes of all organ systems. Indeed, recent research into LPA and S1P has revealed their important roles in cellular stress signaling, inflammation, resolution, and host defense responses. In this review, we focus on how LPA regulates fibrosis, neuropathic pain, abnormal angiogenesis, endometriosis, and disorders of neuroectodermal development such as hydrocephalus and alopecia. In addition, we discuss how S1P controls collective behavior, apoptotic cell clearance, and immunosurveillance of cancers. Advances in lysophospholipid research have led to new therapeutics in autoimmune diseases, with many more in earlier stages of development for a wide variety of diseases, such as fibrotic disorders, vascular diseases, and cancer.

Autotaxin impedes anti-tumor immunity by suppressing chemotaxis and tumor infiltration of CD8+ T cells

Autotaxin (ATX; ENPP2) produces lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) that regulates multiple biological functions via cognate G protein-coupled receptors LPAR1–6. ATX/LPA promotes tumor cell migration and metastasis via LPAR1 and T cell motility via LPAR2, yet its actions in the tumor immune microenvironment remain unclear. Here, we show that ATX secreted by melanoma cells is chemorepulsive for tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and circulating CD8⁺ T cells ex vivo, with ATX functioning as an LPA-producing chaperone. Mechanistically, T cell repulsion predominantly involves Gα_12/13-coupled LPAR6. Upon anti-cancer vaccination of tumor-bearing mice, ATX does not affect the induction of systemic T cell responses but, importantly, suppresses tumor infiltration of cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells and thereby impairs tumor regression. Moreover, single-cell data from melanoma tumors are consistent with intratumoral ATX acting as a T cell repellent. These findings highlight an unexpected role for the pro-metastatic ATX-LPAR axis in suppressing CD8⁺ T cell infiltration to impede anti-tumor immunity, suggesting new therapeutic opportunities.

Through LPA production, ATX modulates the tumor microenvironment in autocrine-paracrine manners. Matas-Rico et al. show that ATX/LPA is chemorepulsive for T cells with a dominant inhibitory role for Gα_12/13-coupled LPAR6. Upon anticancer vaccination, tumor-intrinsic ATX suppresses the infiltration of CD8⁺ T cells without affecting their cytotoxic quality.

Motility Dynamics of T Cells in Tumor-Draining Lymph Nodes: A Rational Indicator of Antitumor Response and Immune Checkpoint Blockade

The migration status of T cells within the densely packed tissue environment of lymph nodes reflects the ongoing activation state of adaptive immune responses. Upon encountering antigen-presenting dendritic cells, actively migrating T cells that are specific to cognate antigens slow down and are eventually arrested on dendritic cells to form immunological synapses. This dynamic transition of T cell motility is a fundamental strategy for the efficient scanning of antigens, followed by obtaining the adequate activation signals. After receiving antigenic stimuli, T cells begin to proliferate, and the expression of immunoregulatory receptors (such as CTLA-4 and PD-1) is induced on their surface. Recent findings have revealed that these 'immune checkpoint' molecules control the activation as well as motility of T cells in various situations. Therefore, the outcome of tumor immunotherapy using checkpoint inhibitors is assumed to be closely related to the alteration of T cell motility, particularly in tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLNs). In this review, we discuss the migration dynamics of T cells during their activation in TDLNs, and the roles of checkpoint molecules in T cell motility, to provide some insight into the effect of tumor immunotherapy via checkpoint blockade, in terms of T cell dynamics and the importance of TDLNs.

LPA and Autotaxin: Potential Drug Targets in Asthma?

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a versatile lysolipid, and activates a variety of signaling cascades in many cell types. Extracellular LPA is produced from lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) by the enzyme autotaxin (ATX), and binds to a family of G-protein coupled receptors on its target cells. Research by many groups continues to support the idea that LPA, and the ATX-LPA axis, have important roles in asthma and allergic airway inflammation. In vitro studies have shown that LPA activates many cell types implicated in airway inflammation, including eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, lymphocytes, airway epithelial cells, and airway smooth muscle cells. In animal models ATX and LPA receptor antagonists have been shown to attenuate allergic airway inflammation and hyperreactivity, cardinal features of asthma in humans. ATX and LPA antagonists are currently under active development to treat lung fibrosis, cancer, and other conditions. If compounds with acceptable safety profiles can be identified, then it seems likely that they will be useful in inflammatory lung diseases like asthma.

Lysophosphatidic Acid: Promoter of Cancer Progression and of Tumor Microenvironment Development. A Promising Target for Anticancer Therapies?

Increased expression of the enzyme autotaxin (ATX) and the consequently increased levels of its product, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), have been reported in several primary tumors. The role of LPA as a direct modulator of tumor cell functions—motility, invasion and migration capabilities as well as resistance to apoptotic death—has been recognized by numerous studies over the last two decades. Notably, evidence has recently been accumulating that shows that LPA also contributes to the development of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Indeed, LPA plays a crucial role in inducing angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, triggering cellular glycolytic shift and stimulating intratumoral fibrosis. In addition, LPA helps tumoral cells to escape immune surveillance. Treatments that counter the TME components, in order to deprive cancer cells of their crucial support, have been emerging among the promising new anticancer therapies. This review aims to summarize the latest knowledge on how LPA influences both tumor cell functions and the TME by regulating the activity of its different elements, highlighting why and how LPA is worth considering as a molecular target for new anticancer therapies.

LN-Derived Fibroblastic Reticular Cells and Their Impact on T Cell Response—A Systematic Review

Fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs), usually found and isolated from the T cell zone of lymph nodes, have recently been described as much more than simple structural cells. Originally, these cells were described to form a conduit system called the “reticular fiber network” and for being responsible for transferring the lymph fluid drained from tissues through afferent lymphatic vessels to the T cell zone. However, nowadays, these cells are described as being capable of secreting several cytokines and chemokines and possessing the ability to interfere with the immune response, improving it, and also controlling lymphocyte proliferation. Here, we performed a systematic review of the several methods employed to investigate the mechanisms used by fibroblastic reticular cells to control the immune response, as well as their ability in determining the fate of T cells. We searched articles indexed and published in the last five years, between 2016 and 2020, in PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane, following the PRISMA guidelines. We found 175 articles published in the literature using our searching strategies, but only 24 articles fulfilled our inclusion criteria and are discussed here. Other articles important in the built knowledge of FRCs were included in the introduction and discussion. The studies selected for this review used different strategies in order to access the contribution of FRCs to different mechanisms involved in the immune response: 21% evaluated viral infection in this context, 13% used a model of autoimmunity, 8% used a model of GvHD or cancer, 4% used a model of Ischemic-reperfusion injury (IRI). Another four studies just targeted a particular signaling pathway, such as MHC II expression, FRC microvesicles, FRC secretion of IL-15, FRC network, or ablation of the lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)-producing ectoenzyme autotaxin. In conclusion, our review shows the strategies used by several studies to isolate and culture fibroblastic reticular cells, the models chosen by each one, and dissects their main findings and implications in homeostasis and disease.

LN-Derived Fibroblastic Reticular Cells and Their Impact on T Cell Response-A Systematic Review

Fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs), usually found and isolated from the T cell zone of lymph nodes, have recently been described as much more than simple structural cells. Originally, these cells were described to form a conduit system called the “reticular fiber network” and for being responsible for transferring the lymph fluid drained from tissues through afferent lymphatic vessels to the T cell zone. However, nowadays, these cells are described as being capable of secreting several cytokines and chemokines and possessing the ability to interfere with the immune response, improving it, and also controlling lymphocyte proliferation. Here, we performed a systematic review of the several methods employed to investigate the mechanisms used by fibroblastic reticular cells to control the immune response, as well as their ability in determining the fate of T cells. We searched articles indexed and published in the last five years, between 2016 and 2020, in PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane, following the PRISMA guidelines. We found 175 articles published in the literature using our searching strategies, but only 24 articles fulfilled our inclusion criteria and are discussed here. Other articles important in the built knowledge of FRCs were included in the introduction and discussion. The studies selected for this review used different strategies in order to access the contribution of FRCs to different mechanisms involved in the immune response: 21% evaluated viral infection in this context, 13% used a model of autoimmunity, 8% used a model of GvHD or cancer, 4% used a model of Ischemic-reperfusion injury (IRI). Another four studies just targeted a particular signaling pathway, such as MHC II expression, FRC microvesicles, FRC secretion of IL-15, FRC network, or ablation of the lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)-producing ectoenzyme autotaxin. In conclusion, our review shows the strategies used by several studies to isolate and culture fibroblastic reticular cells, the models chosen by each one, and dissects their main findings and implications in homeostasis and disease.

Lipids in the tumor microenvironment: From cancer progression to treatment

Over the past decade, the study of metabolic abnormalities in cancer cells has risen dramatically. Cancer cells can thrive in challenging environments, be it the hypoxic and nutrient-deplete tumor microenvironment or a distant tissue following metastasis. The ways in which cancer cells utilize lipids are often influenced by the complex interactions within the tumor microenvironment and adjacent stroma. Adipocytes can be activated by cancer cells to lipolyze their triglyceride stores, delivering secreted fatty acids to cancer cells for uptake through numerous fatty acid transporters. Cancer-associated fibroblasts are also implicated in lipid secretion for cancer cell catabolism and lipid signaling leading to activation of mitogenic and migratory pathways. As these cancer-stromal interactions are exacerbated during tumor progression, fatty acids secreted into the microenvironment can impact infiltrating immune cell function and phenotype. Lipid metabolic abnormalities such as increased fatty acid oxidation and de novo lipid synthesis can provide survival advantages for the tumor to resist chemotherapeutic and radiation treatments and alleviate cellular stresses involved in the metastatic cascade. In this review, we highlight recent literature that demonstrates how lipids can shape each part of the cancer lifecycle and show that there is significant potential for therapeutic intervention surrounding lipid metabolic and signaling pathways.

The fibroblastic T cell niche in lymphoid tissues

Fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) are a necessary immunological component for T cell health. These myofibroblasts are specialized for immune cell support and develop in locations where T and B lymphocyte priming occurs, usually secondary lymphoid organs, but also tertiary lymphoid structures and sites of chronic inflammation. This review describes their dual supportive and suppressive functions and emerging evidence on the co-ordination required to balance these competing roles.

The roles of autotaxin/lysophosphatidic acid in immune regulation and asthma

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) species are present in almost all organ systems and play diverse roles through its receptors. Asthma is an airway disease characterized by chronic allergic inflammation where various innate and adaptive immune cells participate in establishing Th2 immune response. Here, we will review the contribution of LPA and its receptors to the functions of immune cells that play a key role in establishing allergic airway inflammation and aggravation of allergic asthma.

Concepts of GPCR-controlled navigation in the immune system

G‐protein–coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling is essential for the spatiotemporal control of leukocyte dynamics during immune responses. For efficient navigation through mammalian tissues, most leukocyte types express more than one GPCR on their surface and sense a wide range of chemokines and chemoattractants, leading to basic forms of leukocyte movement (chemokinesis, haptokinesis, chemotaxis, haptotaxis, and chemorepulsion). How leukocytes integrate multiple GPCR signals and make directional decisions in lymphoid and inflamed tissues is still subject of intense research. Many of our concepts on GPCR‐controlled leukocyte navigation in the presence of multiple GPCR signals derive from in vitro chemotaxis studies and lower vertebrates. In this review, we refer to these concepts and critically contemplate their relevance for the directional movement of several leukocyte subsets (neutrophils, T cells, and dendritic cells) in the complexity of mouse tissues. We discuss how leukocyte navigation can be regulated at the level of only a single GPCR (surface expression, competitive antagonism, oligomerization, homologous desensitization, and receptor internalization) or multiple GPCRs (synergy, hierarchical and non‐hierarchical competition, sequential signaling, heterologous desensitization, and agonist scavenging). In particular, we will highlight recent advances in understanding GPCR‐controlled leukocyte navigation by intravital microscopy of immune cells in mice.

Fibroblastic reticular cells at the nexus of innate and adaptive immune responses

Lymphoid organs guarantee productive immune cell interactions through the establishment of distinct microenvironmental niches that are built by fibroblastic reticular cells (FRC). These specialized immune‐interacting fibroblasts coordinate the migration and positioning of lymphoid and myeloid cells in lymphoid organs and provide essential survival and differentiation factors during homeostasis and immune activation. In this review, we will outline the current knowledge on FRC functions in secondary lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, spleen and Peyer's patches and will discuss how FRCs contribute to the regulation of immune processes in fat‐associated lymphoid clusters. Moreover, recent evidence indicates that FRC critically impact immune regulatory processes, for example, through cytokine deprivation during immune activation or through fostering the induction of regulatory T cells. Finally, we highlight how different FRC subsets integrate innate immunological signals and molecular cues from immune cells to fulfill their function as nexus between innate and adaptive immune responses.

Regulation of global CD8+ T-cell positioning by the actomyosin cytoskeleton

CD8⁺ T cells have evolved as one of the most motile mammalian cell types, designed to continuously scan peptide-major histocompatibility complexes class I on the surfaces of other cells. Chemoattractants and adhesion molecules direct CD8⁺ T-cell homing to and migration within secondary lymphoid organs, where these cells colocalize with antigen-presenting dendritic cells in confined tissue volumes. CD8⁺ T-cell activation induces a switch to infiltration of non-lymphoid tissue (NLT), which differ in their topology and biophysical properties from lymphoid tissue. Here, we provide a short overview on regulation of organism-wide trafficking patterns during naive T-cell recirculation and their switch to non-lymphoid tissue homing during activation. The migratory lifestyle of CD8⁺ T cells is regulated by their actomyosin cytoskeleton, which translates chemical signals from surface receptors into mechanical work. We explore how properties of the actomyosin cytoskeleton and its regulators affect CD8⁺ T cell function in lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissue, combining recent findings in the field of cell migration and actin network regulation with tissue anatomy. Finally, we hypothesize that under certain conditions, intrinsic regulation of actomyosin dynamics may render NLT CD8⁺ T-cell populations less dependent on input from extrinsic signals during tissue scanning.

High-endothelial cell-derived S1P regulates dendritic cell localization and vascular integrity in the lymph node

While the sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)/sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor-1 (S1PR1) axis is critically important for lymphocyte egress from lymphoid organs, S1PR1-activation also occurs in vascular endothelial cells (ECs), including those of the high-endothelial venules (HEVs) that mediate lymphocyte immigration into lymph nodes (LNs). To understand the functional significance of the S1P/S1PR1-G_i axis in HEVs, we generated Lyve1;Spns2^Δ/Δ conditional knockout mice for the S1P-transporter Spinster-homologue-2 (SPNS2), as HEVs express LYVE1 during development. In these mice HEVs appeared apoptotic and were severely impaired in function, morphology and size; leading to markedly hypotrophic peripheral LNs. Dendritic cells (DCs) were unable to interact with HEVs, which was also observed in Cdh5^CRE-ERT2;S1pr1^Δ/Δ mice and wildtype mice treated with S1PR1-antagonists. Wildtype HEVs treated with S1PR1-antagonists in vitro and Lyve1-deficient HEVs show severely reduced release of the DC-chemoattractant CCL21 in vivo. Together, our results reveal that EC-derived S1P warrants HEV-integrity through autocrine control of S1PR1-G_i signaling, and facilitates concomitant HEV-DC interactions.

Autotaxin and chronic inflammatory diseases

Autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted glycoprotein, widely present in biological fluids including blood. ATX catalyzes the hydrolysis of lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a growth factor-like, signaling phospholipid. LPA exerts pleiotropic effects mediated by its G-protein-coupled receptors that are widely expressed and exhibit overlapping specificities. Although ATX also possesses matricellular properties, the majority of ATX reported functions in adulthood are thought to be mediated through the extracellular production of LPA. ATX-mediated LPA synthesis is likely localized at the cell surface through the possible interaction of ATX with integrins or other molecules, while LPA levels are further controlled by a group of membrane-associated lipid-phosphate phosphatases. ATX expression was shown to be necessary for embryonic development, and ATX deficient embryos exhibit defective vascular homeostasis and aberrant neuronal system development. In adult life, ATX is highly expressed in the adipose tissue and has been implicated in diet-induced obesity and glucose homeostasis with multiple implications in metabolic disorders. Additionally, LPA has been shown to affect multiple cell types, including stromal and immune cells in various ways. Therefore, LPA participates in many processes that are intricately involved in the pathogenesis of different chronic inflammatory diseases such as vascular homeostasis, skeletal and stromal remodeling, lymphocyte trafficking and immune regulation. Accordingly, increased ATX and LPA levels have been detected, locally and/or systemically, in patients with chronic inflammatory diseases, most notably idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), chronic liver diseases, and rheumatoid arthritis. Genetic and pharmacological studies in mice have confirmed a pathogenetic role for ATX expression and LPA signaling in chronic inflammatory diseases, and provided the proof of principle for therapeutic interventions, as exemplified by the ongoing clinical trials for IPF.

LPA5 Is an Inhibitory Receptor That Suppresses CD8 T-Cell Cytotoxic Function via Disruption of Early TCR Signaling

Persistent T cell antigen receptor (TCR) signaling by CD8 T cells is a feature of cancer and chronic infections and results in the sustained expression of, and signaling by, inhibitory receptors, which ultimately impair cytotoxic activity via poorly characterized mechanisms. We have previously determined that the LPA₅ GPCR expressed by CD8 T cells, upon engaging the lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) bioactive serum lipid, functions as an inhibitory receptor able to negatively regulate TCR signaling. Notably, the levels of LPA and autotaxin (ATX), the phospholipase D enzyme that produces LPA, are often increased in chronic inflammatory disorders such as chronic infections, autoimmune diseases, obesity, and cancer. In this report, we demonstrate that LPA engagement selectively by LPA₅ on human and mouse CD8 T cells leads to the inhibition of several early TCR signaling events including intracellular calcium mobilization and ERK activation. We further show that, as a consequence of LPA₅ suppression of TCR signaling, the exocytosis of perforin-containing granules is significantly impaired and reflected by repressed in vitro and in vivo CD8 T cell cytolytic activity. Thus, these data not only document LPA₅ as a novel inhibitory receptor but also determine the molecular and biochemical mechanisms by which a naturally occurring serum lipid that is elevated under settings of chronic inflammation signals to suppress CD8 T cell killing activity in both human and murine cells. As diverse tumors have repeatedly been shown to aberrantly produce LPA that acts in an autocrine manner to promote tumorigenesis, our findings further implicate LPA in activating a novel inhibitory receptor whose signaling may be therapeutically silenced to promote CD8 T cell immunity.

Integrative Computational Modeling of the Lymph Node Stromal Cell Landscape

Adaptive immune responses develop in secondary lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes (LNs) in a well-coordinated series of interactions between migrating immune cells and resident stromal cells. Although many processes that occur in LNs are well understood from an immunological point of view, our understanding of the fundamental organization and mechanisms that drive these processes is still incomplete. The aim of systems biology approaches is to unravel the complexity of biological systems and describe emergent properties that arise from interactions between individual constituents of the system. The immune system is greater than the sum of its parts, as is the case with any sufficiently complex system. Here, we review recent work and developments of computational LN models with focus on the structure and organization of the stromal cells. We explore various mathematical studies of intranodal T cell motility and migration, their interactions with the LN-resident stromal cells, and computational models of functional chemokine gradient fields and lymph flow dynamics. Lastly, we discuss briefly the importance of hybrid and multi-scale modeling approaches in immunology and the technical challenges involved.

Quantitative Measurement of Naïve T Cell Association With Dendritic Cells, FRCs, and Blood Vessels in Lymph Nodes

T cells play a vital role in eliminating pathogenic infections. To activate, naïve T cells search lymph nodes (LNs) for dendritic cells (DCs). Positioning and movement of T cells in LNs is influenced by chemokines including CCL21 as well as multiple cell types and structures in the LNs. Previous studies have suggested that T cell positioning facilitates DC colocalization leading to T:DC interaction. Despite the influence chemical signals, cells, and structures can have on naïve T cell positioning, relatively few studies have used quantitative measures to directly compare T cell interactions with key cell types. Here, we use Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC) and normalized mutual information (NMI) to quantify the extent to which naïve T cells spatially associate with DCs, fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs), and blood vessels in LNs. We measure spatial associations in physiologically relevant regions. We find that T cells are more spatially associated with FRCs than with their ultimate targets, DCs. We also investigated the role of a key motility chemokine receptor, CCR7, on T cell colocalization with DCs. We find that CCR7 deficiency does not decrease naïve T cell association with DCs, in fact, CCR7-/- T cells show slightly higher DC association compared with wild type T cells. By revealing these associations, we gain insights into factors that drive T cell localization, potentially affecting the timing of productive T:DC interactions and T cell activation.

Chemokines and integrins independently tune actin flow and substrate friction during intranodal migration of T cells

Although much is known about the physiological framework of T cell motility, and numerous rate-limiting molecules have been identified through loss-of-function approaches, an integrated functional concept of T cell motility is lacking. Here, we used in vivo precision morphometry together with analysis of cytoskeletal dynamics in vitro to deconstruct the basic mechanisms of T cell migration within lymphatic organs. We show that the contributions of the integrin LFA-1 and the chemokine receptor CCR7 are complementary rather than positioned in a linear pathway, as they are during leukocyte extravasation from the blood vasculature. Our data demonstrate that CCR7 controls cortical actin flows, whereas integrins mediate substrate friction that is sufficient to drive locomotion in the absence of considerable surface adhesions and plasma membrane flux.

Coming of Age for Autotaxin and Lysophosphatidate Signaling: Clinical Applications for Preventing, Detecting and Targeting Tumor-Promoting Inflammation

A quarter-century after the discovery of autotaxin in cell culture, the autotaxin-lysophosphatidate (LPA)-lipid phosphate phosphatase axis is now a promising clinical target for treating chronic inflammatory conditions, mitigating fibrosis progression, and improving the efficacy of existing cancer chemotherapies and radiotherapy. Nearly half of the literature on this axis has been published during the last five years. In cancer biology, LPA signaling is increasingly being recognized as a central mediator of the progression of chronic inflammation in the establishment of a tumor microenvironment which promotes cancer growth, immune evasion, metastasis, and treatment resistance. In this review, we will summarize recent advances made in understanding LPA signaling with respect to chronic inflammation and cancer. We will also provide perspectives on the applications of inhibitors of LPA signaling in preventing cancer initiation, as adjuncts extending the efficacy of current cancer treatments by blocking inflammation caused by either the cancer or the cancer therapy itself, and by disruption of the tumor microenvironment. Overall, LPA, a simple molecule that mediates a plethora of biological effects, can be targeted at its levels of production by autotaxin, LPA receptors or through LPA degradation by lipid phosphate phosphatases. Drugs for these applications will soon be entering clinical practice.

Two-Photon Imaging of T-Cell Motility in Lymph Nodes: In Vivo and Ex Vivo Approaches

T-cell motility is essential for the T cells' ability to scan antigens within lymph nodes and initiate contact with antigen-presenting cells. While T-cell migration has been extensively studied using in vitro migration assays, accumulating evidence indicates that the T-cell migration within lymph nodes is modulated by the surrounding cells and extracellular matrix, which form the confined architecture of the lymph nodes. Therefore, to understand the mechanisms of T-cell motility in vivo, their cell migration must be analyzed under physiological conditions. To this end, two-photon microscopy is extremely useful; this technique enables the tracking of fluorescently labeled cells in vivo and ex vivo, with high spatial and temporal resolutions. Here we describe the experimental procedures for applying two-photon microscopy to the in vivo and ex vivo imaging of T-cell migration in mouse lymph nodes. These approaches provide physiological insight into the mechanisms of T-cell behavior at a single-cell level in the three-dimensional lymph node environment.

Dysregulation of lysophosphatidic acids in multiple sclerosis and autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Abstract

Bioactive lipids contribute to the pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis. Here, we show that lysophosphatidic acids (LPAs) are dysregulated in multiple sclerosis (MS) and are functionally relevant in this disease. LPAs and autotaxin, the major enzyme producing extracellular LPAs, were analyzed in serum and cerebrospinal fluid in a cross-sectional population of MS patients and were compared with respective data from mice in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, spontaneous EAE in TCR¹⁶⁴⁰ mice, and EAE in Lpar2^-/- mice. Serum LPAs were reduced in MS and EAE whereas spinal cord LPAs in TCR¹⁶⁴⁰ mice increased during the ‘symptom-free’ intervals, i.e. on resolution of inflammation during recovery hence possibly pointing to positive effects of brain LPAs during remyelination as suggested in previous studies. Peripheral LPAs mildly re-raised during relapses but further dropped in refractory relapses. The peripheral loss led to a redistribution of immune cells from the spleen to the spinal cord, suggesting defects of lymphocyte homing. In support, LPAR2 positive T-cells were reduced in EAE and the disease was intensified in Lpar2 deficient mice. Further, treatment with an LPAR2 agonist reduced clinical signs of relapsing-remitting EAE suggesting that the LPAR2 agonist partially compensated the endogenous loss of LPAs and implicating LPA signaling as a novel treatment approach.

Graphical abstract

Graphical summary of lysophosphatidic signaling in multiple sclerosis

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40478-017-0446-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The molecular cues regulating immune cell trafficking

Lymphocyte recirculation between the blood and the lymphoid/non-lymphoid tissues is an essential homeostatic mechanism that regulates humoral and cellular immune responses in vivo. This system promotes the encounter of naïve T and B cells with their specific cognate antigen presented by dendritic cells, and with the regulatory cells with which they need to interact to initiate, maintain, and terminate immune responses. The constitutive lymphocyte trafficking is mediated by particular types of blood vessels, including the high endothelial venules (HEVs) in lymph nodes and Peyer's patches, and the flat-walled venules in non-lymphoid tissues including the skin. The lymphocyte migration across HEVs involves tethering/rolling, arrest/firm adhesion/intraluminal crawling, and transendothelial migration. On the other hand, relatively little is known about how lymphocytes and other types of cells migrate across the venules of non-lymphoid tissues. Here we summarize recent findings about the molecular mechanisms that govern immune cell trafficking, including the roles of chemokines and lysophospholipids in regulating immune cell motility and endothelial permeability.

Thymocytes in Lyve1-CRE/S1pr1f/f Mice Accumulate in the Thymus due to Cell-Intrinsic Loss of Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Receptor Expression

T cell emigration from the thymus is essential for immunological homeostasis. While stromal cell-produced sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has been shown to promote thymocyte egress via the S1P receptor, S1PR1, the significance of S1P/S1PR1 signaling in the thymic stromal cells that surround T cells remains unclear. To address this issue, we developed conditional knockout mice (Lyve1-CRE/S1pr1^f/f mice) in which S1pr1 was selectively targeted in cells expressing the lymphatic endothelial cell marker, Lyve1. In these mice, T cells were significantly reduced in secondary lymphoid tissues, and CD62L⁺ mature CD4 and CD8 single-positive (SP) T cells accumulated in the medulla failed to undergo thymus egress. Using a Lyve1 reporter strain in which Lyve1 lineage cells expressed tdTomato fluorescent protein, we unexpectedly found that a considerable proportion of the thymocytes were fluorescently labeled, indicating that they belonged to the Lyve1 lineage. The CD4 and CD8 SP thymocytes in Lyve1-CRE/S1pr1^f/f mice exhibited an egress-competent phenotype (HSA^low, CD62L^high, and Qa-2^high), but were CD69^high and lacked S1PR1 expression. In addition, CD4 SP thymocytes from these mice were unable to migrate to the periphery after their intrathymic injection into wild-type (WT) mice. In contrast, WT T cells could migrate to the periphery in both WT and Lyve1-CRE/S1pr1^f/f thymuses. These results demonstrated that thymocyte egress is mediated by T cell-expressed, but not stromal cell-expressed, S1PR1 and caution against using the Lyve1-CRE system for selectively gene deletion in lymphatic endothelial cells.

Microenvironmental Control of High-Speed Interstitial T Cell Migration in the Lymph Node

T cells are highly concentrated in the lymph node (LN) paracortex, which serves an important role in triggering adoptive immune responses. Live imaging using two-photon laser scanning microscopy revealed vigorous and non-directional T cell migration within this area at average velocity of more than 10 μm/min. Active interstitial T cell movement is considered to be crucial for scanning large numbers of dendritic cells (DCs) to find rare cognate antigens. However, the mechanism by which T cells achieve such high-speed movement in a densely packed, dynamic tissue environment is not fully understood. Several new findings suggest that fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) and DCs control T cell movement in a multilateral manner. Chemokines and lysophosphatidic acid produced by FRCs cooperatively promote the migration, while DCs facilitate LFA-1-dependent motility via expression of ICAM-1. Furthermore, the highly dense and confined microenvironment likely plays a key role in anchorage-independent motility. We propose that T cells dynamically switch between two motility modes; anchorage-dependent and -independent manners. Unique tissue microenvironment and characteristic migration modality of T cells cooperatively generate high-speed interstitial movement in the LN.