1
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Boonsawat P, Asadollahi R, Niedrist D, Steindl K, Begemann A, Joset P, Bhoj EJ, Li D, Zackai E, Vetro A, Barba C, Guerrini R, Whalen S, Keren B, Khan A, Jing D, Palomares Bralo M, Rikeros Orozco E, Hao Q, Schlott Kristiansen B, Zheng B, Donnelly D, Clowes V, Zweier M, Papik M, Siegel G, Sabatino V, Mocera M, Horn AHC, Sticht H, Rauch A. Deleterious ZNRF3 germline variants cause neurodevelopmental disorders with mirror brain phenotypes via domain-specific effects on Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Am J Hum Genet 2024; 111:1994-2011. [PMID: 39168120 PMCID: PMC11393693 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2024.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Zinc and RING finger 3 (ZNRF3) is a negative-feedback regulator of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, which plays an important role in human brain development. Although somatically frequently mutated in cancer, germline variants in ZNRF3 have not been established as causative for neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). We identified 12 individuals with ZNRF3 variants and various phenotypes via GeneMatcher/Decipher and evaluated genotype-phenotype correlation. We performed structural modeling and representative deleterious and control variants were assessed using in vitro transcriptional reporter assays with and without Wnt-ligand Wnt3a and/or Wnt-potentiator R-spondin (RSPO). Eight individuals harbored de novo missense variants and presented with NDD. We found missense variants associated with macrocephalic NDD to cluster in the RING ligase domain. Structural modeling predicted disruption of the ubiquitin ligase function likely compromising Wnt receptor turnover. Accordingly, the functional assays showed enhanced Wnt/β-catenin signaling for these variants in a dominant negative manner. Contrarily, an individual with microcephalic NDD harbored a missense variant in the RSPO-binding domain predicted to disrupt binding affinity to RSPO and showed attenuated Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the same assays. Additionally, four individuals harbored de novo truncating or de novo or inherited large in-frame deletion variants with non-NDD phenotypes, including heart, adrenal, or nephrotic problems. In contrast to NDD-associated missense variants, the effects on Wnt/β-catenin signaling were comparable between the truncating variant and the empty vector and between benign variants and the wild type. In summary, we provide evidence for mirror brain size phenotypes caused by distinct pathomechanisms in Wnt/β-catenin signaling through protein domain-specific deleterious ZNRF3 germline missense variants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reza Asadollahi
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich London, Medway Campus, Chatham Maritime ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Dunja Niedrist
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katharina Steindl
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anaïs Begemann
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Joset
- Medical Genetics, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Elizabeth J Bhoj
- Center for Applied Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Dong Li
- Center for Applied Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Elaine Zackai
- Division of Human Genetics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Annalisa Vetro
- Neuroscience Department, Meyer Children's Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy
| | - Carmen Barba
- Neuroscience Department, Meyer Children's Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy; University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Renzo Guerrini
- Neuroscience Department, Meyer Children's Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy
| | - Sandra Whalen
- Unité Fonctionnelle de Génétique Odellin, Hôpital Armand Trousseau, Paris, France
| | - Boris Keren
- Département de Génétique, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Amjad Khan
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biological Science (Zoology), University of Lakki Marwat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 28420, Pakistan
| | - Duan Jing
- Shenzhen Children's Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - María Palomares Bralo
- Instituto de Genética Médica y Molecular (INGEMM), Unidad de Trastornos Del Neurodesarrollo, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Emi Rikeros Orozco
- Instituto de Genética Médica y Molecular (INGEMM), Unidad de Trastornos Del Neurodesarrollo, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Qin Hao
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | | | - Bixia Zheng
- Nanjing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Deirdre Donnelly
- Northern Ireland Regional Genetics Centre, Belfast Health & Social Care Trust, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Virginia Clowes
- Thames Regional Genetics Service, North West University Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Markus Zweier
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Papik
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gabriele Siegel
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Valeria Sabatino
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martina Mocera
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anselm H C Horn
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Institute of Biochemistry, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Heinrich Sticht
- Institute of Biochemistry, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Anita Rauch
- Institute of Medical Genetics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Pediatric University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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2
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Shi DL. Canonical and Non-Canonical Wnt Signaling Generates Molecular and Cellular Asymmetries to Establish Embryonic Axes. J Dev Biol 2024; 12:20. [PMID: 39189260 PMCID: PMC11348223 DOI: 10.3390/jdb12030020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2024] [Revised: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The formation of embryonic axes is a critical step during animal development, which contributes to establishing the basic body plan in each particular organism. Wnt signaling pathways play pivotal roles in this fundamental process. Canonical Wnt signaling that is dependent on β-catenin regulates the patterning of dorsoventral, anteroposterior, and left-right axes. Non-canonical Wnt signaling that is independent of β-catenin modulates cytoskeletal organization to coordinate cell polarity changes and asymmetric cell movements. It is now well documented that components of these Wnt pathways biochemically and functionally interact to mediate cell-cell communications and instruct cellular polarization in breaking the embryonic symmetry. The dysfunction of Wnt signaling disrupts embryonic axis specification and proper tissue morphogenesis, and mutations of Wnt pathway genes are associated with birth defects in humans. This review discusses the regulatory roles of Wnt pathway components in embryonic axis formation by focusing on vertebrate models. It highlights current progress in decoding conserved mechanisms underlying the establishment of asymmetry along the three primary body axes. By providing an in-depth analysis of canonical and non-canonical pathways in regulating cell fates and cellular behaviors, this work offers insights into the intricate processes that contribute to setting up the basic body plan in vertebrate embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- De-Li Shi
- Department of Medical Research, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang 524001, China;
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), UMR7622, Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Sorbonne University, 75005 Paris, France
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3
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Nag JK, Appasamy P, Malka H, Sedley S, Bar-Shavit R. New Target(s) for RNF43 Regulation: Implications for Therapeutic Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8083. [PMID: 39125653 PMCID: PMC11311281 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25158083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer cells depend on specific oncogenic pathways or present a genetic alteration that leads to a particular disturbance. Still, personalized and targeted biological therapy remains challenging, with current efforts generally yielding disappointing results. Carefully assessing onco-target molecular pathways can, however, potently assist with such efforts for the selection of patient populations that would best respond to a given drug treatment. RNF43, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that negatively regulates Wnt/frizzled (FZD) receptors by their ubiquitination, internalization, and degradation, controls a key pathway in cancer. Recently, additional target proteins of RNF43 were described, including p85 of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2), a G-protein-coupled receptor that potently induces β-catenin stabilization, independent of Wnts. RNF43 mutations with impaired E3 ligase activity were found in several types of cancers (e.g., gastrointestinal system tumors and endometrial and ovarian cancer), pointing to a high dependency on FZD receptors and possibly PAR2 and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. The development of drugs toward these targets is essential for improved treatment of cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Rachel Bar-Shavit
- Sharett Institute of Oncology, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91120, Israel; (J.K.N.); (P.A.); (H.M.); (S.S.)
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Young KA, Wojdyla K, Lai T, Mulholland KE, Aldaz Casanova S, Antrobus R, Andrews SR, Biggins L, Mahler-Araujo B, Barton PR, Anderson KR, Fearnley GW, Sharpe HJ. The receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPRK promotes intestinal repair and catalysis-independent tumour suppression. J Cell Sci 2024; 137:jcs261914. [PMID: 38904097 PMCID: PMC11298714 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.261914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
PTPRK is a receptor tyrosine phosphatase that is linked to the regulation of growth factor signalling and tumour suppression. It is stabilized at the plasma membrane by trans homophilic interactions upon cell-cell contact. PTPRK regulates cell-cell adhesion but is also reported to regulate numerous cancer-associated signalling pathways. However, the signalling mechanism of PTPRK remains to be determined. Here, we find that PTPRK regulates cell adhesion signalling, suppresses invasion and promotes collective, directed migration in colorectal cancer cells. In vivo, PTPRK supports recovery from inflammation-induced colitis. In addition, we confirm that PTPRK functions as a tumour suppressor in the mouse colon and in colorectal cancer xenografts. PTPRK regulates growth factor and adhesion signalling, and suppresses epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). Contrary to the prevailing notion that PTPRK directly dephosphorylates EGFR, we find that PTPRK regulation of both EGFR and EMT is independent of its catalytic function. This suggests that additional adaptor and scaffold functions are important features of PTPRK signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tiffany Lai
- Signalling programme, Babraham Institute, Cambridge CB22 3AT, UK
| | | | | | - Robin Antrobus
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | | | - Laura Biggins
- Bioinformatics, Babraham Institute, Cambridge CB22 3AT, UK
| | | | - Philippa R. Barton
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Keith R. Anderson
- Molecular biology department, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Hayley J. Sharpe
- Signalling programme, Babraham Institute, Cambridge CB22 3AT, UK
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5
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Buckley DN, Tew BY, Gooden C, Salhia B. A comprehensive analysis of minimally differentially methylated regions common to pediatric and adult solid tumors. NPJ Precis Oncol 2024; 8:125. [PMID: 38824198 PMCID: PMC11144230 DOI: 10.1038/s41698-024-00590-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer is the second most common cause of death in children aged 1-14 years in the United States, with 11,000 new cases and 1200 deaths annually. Pediatric cancers typically have lower mutational burden compared to adult-onset cancers, however, the epigenomes in pediatric cancer are highly altered, with widespread DNA methylation changes. The rarity of pediatric cancers poses a significant challenge to developing cancer-type specific biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis, or treatment monitoring. In the current study, we explored the potential of a DNA methylation profile common across various pediatric cancers. To do this, we conducted whole genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) on 31 recurrent pediatric tumor tissues, 13 normal tissues, and 20 plasma cell-free (cf)DNA samples, representing 11 different pediatric cancer types. We defined minimal focal regions that were differentially methylated across samples in the multiple cancer types which we termed minimally differentially methylated regions (mDMRs). These methylation changes were also observed in 506 pediatric and 5691 adult cancer samples accessed from publicly available databases, and in 44 pediatric cancer samples we analyzed using a targeted hybridization probe capture assay. Finally, we found that these methylation changes were detectable in cfDNA and could serve as potential cfDNA methylation biomarkers for early detection or minimal residual disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- David N Buckley
- Department of Translational Genomics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ben Yi Tew
- Department of Translational Genomics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Chris Gooden
- Department of Translational Genomics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Bodour Salhia
- Department of Translational Genomics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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6
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Tsukiyama T. New insights in ubiquitin-dependent Wnt receptor regulation in tumorigenesis. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2024; 60:449-465. [PMID: 38383910 PMCID: PMC11126518 DOI: 10.1007/s11626-024-00855-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Wnt signaling plays a crucial role in embryonic development and homeostasis maintenance. Delicate and sensitive fine-tuning of Wnt signaling based on the proper timings and positions is required to balance cell proliferation and differentiation and maintain individual health. Therefore, homeostasis is broken by tissue hypoplasia or tumor formation once Wnt signal dysregulation disturbs the balance of cell proliferation. The well-known regulatory mechanism of Wnt signaling is the molecular reaction associated with the cytoplasmic accumulation of effector β-catenin. In addition to β-catenin, most Wnt effector proteins are also regulated by ubiquitin-dependent modification, both qualitatively and quantitatively. This review will explain the regulation of the whole Wnt signal in four regulatory phases, as well as the different ubiquitin ligases and the function of deubiquitinating enzymes in each phase. Along with the recent results, the mechanism by which RNF43 negatively regulates the surface expression of Wnt receptors, which has recently been well understood, will be detailed. Many RNF43 mutations have been identified in pancreatic and gastrointestinal cancers and examined for their functional alteration in Wnt signaling. Several mutations facilitate or activate the Wnt signal, reversing the RNF43 tumor suppressor function into an oncogene. RNF43 may simultaneously play different roles in classical multistep tumorigenesis, as both wild-type and mutant RNF43 suppress the p53 pathway. We hope that the knowledge obtained from further research in RNF43 will be applied to cancer treatment in the future despite the fully unclear function of RNF43.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadasuke Tsukiyama
- Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, 15NW7, Kita-Ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-8638, Japan.
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7
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Rao X, Zhang Z, Pu Y, Han G, Gong H, Hu H, Ji Q, Liu N. RSPO3 induced by Helicobacter pylori extracts promotes gastric cancer stem cell properties through the GNG7/β-catenin signaling pathway. Cancer Med 2024; 13:e7092. [PMID: 38581123 PMCID: PMC10997846 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.7092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) accounts for the majority of gastric cancer (GC) cases globally. The present study found that H. pylori promoted GC stem cell (CSC)-like properties, therefore, the regulatory mechanism of how H. pylori promotes GC stemness was explored. METHODS Spheroid-formation experiments were performed to explore the self-renewal capacity of GC cells. The expression of R-spondin 3 (RSPO3), Nanog homeobox, organic cation/carnitine transporter-4 (OCT-4), SRY-box transcription factor 2 (SOX-2), CD44, Akt, glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), p-Akt, p-GSK-3β, β-catenin, and G protein subunit gamma 7 (GNG7) were detected by RT-qPCR, western blotting, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and immunofluorescence. Co-immunoprecipitation (CoIP) and liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) were performed to identify proteins interacting with RSPO3. Lentivirus-based RNA interference constructed short hairpin (sh)-RSPO3 GC cells. Small interfering RNA transfection was performed to inhibit GNG7. The in vivo mechanism was verified using a tumor peritoneal seeding model in nude mice. RESULTS H. pylori extracts promoted a CSC-like phenotype in GC cells and elevated the expression of RSPO3. RSPO3 knockdown significantly reduced the CSC-like properties induced by H. pylori. Previous studies have demonstrated that RSPO3 potentiates the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, but the inhibitor of Wnt cannot diminish the RSPO3-induced activation of β-catenin. CoIP and LC-MS/MS revealed that GNG7 is one of the transmembrane proteins interacting with RSPO3, and it was confirmed that RSPO3 directly interacted with GNG7. Recombinant RSPO3 protein increased the phosphorylation level of Akt and GSK-3β, and the expression of β-catenin in GC cells, but this regulatory effect of RSPO3 could be blocked by GNG7 knockdown. Of note, GNG7 suppression could diminish the promoting effect of RSPO3 to CSC-like properties. In addition, RSPO3 suppression inhibited MKN45 tumor peritoneal seeding in vivo. IHC staining also showed that RSPO3, CD44, OCT-4, and SOX-2 were elevated in H. pylori GC tissues. CONCLUSION RSPO3 enhanced the stemness of H. pylori extracts-infected GC cells through the GNG7/β-catenin signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiwu Rao
- Department of OncologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Postdoctoral Research Station of Guangzhou University of Chinese MedicineGuangzhouChina
| | - Zhipeng Zhang
- Department of OncologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Postdoctoral Research Station of Guangzhou University of Chinese MedicineGuangzhouChina
| | - Yunzhou Pu
- Department of OncologyShuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Gang Han
- Department of OncologyShuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Hangjun Gong
- Department of GastroenterologyShuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Hao Hu
- Department of GastroenterologyShuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Qing Ji
- Department of OncologyShuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Ningning Liu
- Department of OncologyShuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
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8
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Ohkawara B, Kurokawa M, Kanai A, Imamura K, Chen G, Zhang R, Masuda A, Higashi K, Mori H, Suzuki Y, Kurokawa K, Ohno K. Transcriptome profile of subsynaptic myonuclei at the neuromuscular junction in embryogenesis. J Neurochem 2024; 168:342-354. [PMID: 37994470 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.16013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle fiber is a large syncytium with multiple and evenly distributed nuclei. Adult subsynaptic myonuclei beneath the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) express specific genes, the products of which coordinately function in the maintenance of the pre- and post-synaptic regions. However, the gene expression profiles that promote the NMJ formation during embryogenesis remain largely unexplored. We performed single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) analysis of embryonic and neonatal mouse diaphragms, and found that each myonucleus had a distinct transcriptome pattern during the NMJ formation. Among the previously reported NMJ-constituting genes, Dok7, Chrna1, and Chrnd are specifically expressed in subsynaptic myonuclei at E18.5. In the E18.5 diaphragm, ca. 10.7% of the myonuclei express genes for the NMJ formation (Dok7, Chrna1, and Chrnd) together with four representative β-catenin regulators (Amotl2, Ptprk, Fam53b, and Tcf7l2). Additionally, the temporal gene expression patterns of these seven genes are synchronized in differentiating C2C12 myoblasts. Amotl2 and Ptprk are expressed in the sarcoplasm, where β-catenin serves as a structural protein to organize the membrane-anchored NMJ structure. In contrast, Fam53b and Tcf7l2 are expressed in the myonucleus, where β-catenin serves as a transcriptional coactivator in Wnt/β-catenin signaling at the NMJ. In C2C12 myotubes, knockdown of Amotl2 or Ptprk markedly, and that of Fam53b and Tcf7l2 less efficiently, impair the clustering of acetylcholine receptors. In contrast, knockdown of Fam53b and Tcf7l2, but not of Amotl2 or Ptprk, impairs the gene expression of Slit2 encoding an axonal attractant for motor neurons, which is required for the maturation of motor nerve terminal. Thus, Amotl2 and Ptprk exert different roles at the NM compared to Fam53b and Tcf7l2. Additionally, Wnt ligands originating from the spinal motor neurons and the perichondrium/chondrocyte are likely to work remotely on the subsynaptic nuclei and the myotendinous junctional nuclei, respectively. We conclude that snRNA-seq analysis of embryonic/neonatal diaphragms reveal a novel coordinated expression profile especially in the Wnt/β-catenin signaling that regulate the formation of the embryonic NMJ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bisei Ohkawara
- Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Masaomi Kurokawa
- Department of Informatics, National Institute of Genetics, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Akinori Kanai
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kiyomi Imamura
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Guiying Chen
- Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Ruchen Zhang
- Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Akio Masuda
- Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Koichi Higashi
- Department of Informatics, National Institute of Genetics, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Mori
- Department of Informatics, National Institute of Genetics, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Yutaka Suzuki
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Ken Kurokawa
- Department of Informatics, National Institute of Genetics, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Kinji Ohno
- Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
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9
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Srivastava A, Rikhari D, Srivastava S. RSPO2 as Wnt signaling enabler: Important roles in cancer development and therapeutic opportunities. Genes Dis 2024; 11:788-806. [PMID: 37692504 PMCID: PMC10491879 DOI: 10.1016/j.gendis.2023.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
R-spondins are secretory proteins localized in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi bodies and are processed through the secretory pathway. Among the R-spondin family, RSPO2 has emanated as a novel regulator of Wnt signaling, which has now been acknowledged in numerous in vitro and in vivo studies. Cancer is an abnormal growth of cells that proliferates and spreads uncontrollably due to the accumulation of genetic and epigenetic factors that constitutively activate Wnt signaling in various types of cancer. Colorectal cancer (CRC) begins when cells in the colon and rectum follow an indefinite pattern of division due to aberrant Wnt activation as one of the key hallmarks. Decades-long progress in research on R-spondins has demonstrated their oncogenic function in distinct cancer types, particularly CRC. As a critical regulator of the Wnt pathway, it modulates several phenotypes of cells, such as cell proliferation, invasion, migration, and cancer stem cell properties. Recently, RSPO mutations, gene rearrangements, fusions, copy number alterations, and altered gene expression have also been identified in a variety of cancers, including CRC. In this review, we addressed the recent updates regarding the recurrently altered R-spondins with special emphasis on the RSPO2 gene and its involvement in potentiating Wnt signaling in CRC. In addition to the compelling physiological and biological roles in cellular fate and regulation, we propose that RSPO2 would be valuable as a potential biomarker for prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic use in CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankit Srivastava
- Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh 211004, India
| | - Deeksha Rikhari
- Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh 211004, India
| | - Sameer Srivastava
- Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh 211004, India
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10
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Lee H, Camuto CM, Niehrs C. R-Spondin 2 governs Xenopus left-right body axis formation by establishing an FGF signaling gradient. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1003. [PMID: 38307837 PMCID: PMC10837206 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-44951-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Establishment of the left-right (LR, sinistral, dextral) body axis in many vertebrate embryos relies on cilia-driven leftward fluid flow within an LR organizer (LRO). A cardinal question is how leftward flow triggers symmetry breakage. The chemosensation model posits that ciliary flow enriches a signaling molecule on the left side of the LRO that promotes sinistral cell fate. However, the nature of this sinistralizing signal has remained elusive. In the Xenopus LRO, we identified the stem cell growth factor R-Spondin 2 (Rspo2) as a symmetrically expressed, sinistralizing signal. As predicted for a flow-mediated signal, Rspo2 operates downstream of leftward flow but upstream of the asymmetrically expressed gene dand5. Unexpectedly, in LR patterning, Rspo2 acts as an FGF receptor antagonist: Rspo2 via its TSP1 domain binds Fgfr4 and promotes its membrane clearance by Znrf3-mediated endocytosis. Concordantly, we find that at flow-stage, FGF signaling is dextralizing and forms a gradient across the LRO, high on the dextral- and low on the sinistral side. Rspo2 gain- and loss-of function equalize this FGF signaling gradient and sinistralize and dextralize development, respectively. We propose that leftward flow of Rspo2 produces an FGF signaling gradient that governs LR-symmetry breakage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeyoon Lee
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Celine Marie Camuto
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christof Niehrs
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), 55128, Mainz, Germany.
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11
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Farnhammer F, Colozza G, Kim J. RNF43 and ZNRF3 in Wnt Signaling - A Master Regulator at the Membrane. Int J Stem Cells 2023; 16:376-384. [PMID: 37643759 PMCID: PMC10686798 DOI: 10.15283/ijsc23070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The Wnt β-catenin signaling pathway is a highly conserved mechanism that plays a critical role from embryonic development and adult stem cell homeostasis. However, dysregulation of the Wnt pathway has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer. Therefore, multiple layers of regulatory mechanisms tightly control the activation and suppression of the Wnt signal. The E3 ubiquitin ligases RNF43 and ZNRF3, which are known negative regulators of the Wnt pathway, are critical component of Wnt signaling regulation. These E3 ubiquitin ligases control Wnt signaling by targeting the Wnt receptor Frizzled to induce ubiquitination-mediated endo-lysosomal degradation, thus controlling the activation of the Wnt signaling pathway. We also discuss the regulatory mechanisms, interactors, and evolution of RNF43 and ZNRF3. This review article summarizes recent findings on RNF43 and ZNRF3 and their potential implications for the development of therapeutic strategies to target the Wnt signaling pathway in various diseases, including cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Farnhammer
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Vienna Biocenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria
- Division of Oncology and Children’s Research Center, University Children’s Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gabriele Colozza
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Vienna Biocenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria
| | - Jihoon Kim
- Department of Medical and Biological Sciences, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Korea
- Center for Genome Engineering, Institute for Basic Science, Daejeon, Korea
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12
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Posey TA, Jacob J, Parkhurst A, Subramanian S, Francisco LE, Liang Z, Carmon KS. Loss of LGR5 through Therapy-induced Downregulation or Gene Ablation Is Associated with Resistance and Enhanced MET-STAT3 Signaling in Colorectal Cancer Cells. Mol Cancer Ther 2023; 22:667-678. [PMID: 36921315 PMCID: PMC10164100 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-22-0415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat-containing, G protein-coupled receptor 5 (LGR5) is highly expressed in colorectal cancer and cancer stem cells (CSCs) that play important roles in tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis. Loss of LGR5 has been shown to enhance therapy resistance. However, the molecular mechanisms that mediate this resistance remain elusive. In this study, we demonstrate conversion of LGR5+ colorectal cancer cells to an LGR5- state in response to chemotherapy, LGR5- targeted antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), or LGR5 gene ablation led to activation of STAT3. Further investigation revealed increased STAT3 activation occurred as a result of increased mesenchymal epithelial transition (MET) factor receptor activity. LGR5 overexpression decreased MET-STAT3 activity and sensitized colorectal cancer cells to therapy. STAT3 inhibition suppressed MET phosphorylation, while constitutively active STAT3 reduced LGR5 levels and increased MET activity, suggesting a potential feedback mechanism. Combination treatment of MET-STAT3 inhibitors with irinotecan or antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) substantiated synergistic effects in colorectal cancer cells and tumor organoids. In colorectal cancer xenografts, STAT3 inhibition combined with irinotecan enhanced tumor growth suppression and prolonged survival. These findings suggest a mechanism by which drug-resistant LGR5- colorectal cancer cells acquire a survival advantage through activation of MET-STAT3 and provide rationale for new treatment strategies to target colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tressie A. Posey
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Joan Jacob
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Ashlyn Parkhurst
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Shraddha Subramanian
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Liezl E. Francisco
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Zhengdong Liang
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Kendra S. Carmon
- Center for Translational Cancer Research, The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX
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13
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Zhang K, Da Silva F, Seidl C, Wilsch-Bräuninger M, Herbst J, Huttner WB, Niehrs C. Primary cilia are WNT-transducing organelles whose biogenesis is controlled by a WNT-PP1 axis. Dev Cell 2023; 58:139-154.e8. [PMID: 36693320 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2022.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
WNT signaling is important in development, stem cell maintenance, and disease. WNT ligands typically signal via receptor activation across the plasma membrane to induce β-catenin-dependent gene activation. Here, we show that in mammalian primary cilia, WNT receptors relay a WNT/GSK3 signal that β-catenin-independently promotes ciliogenesis. Characterization of a LRP6 ciliary targeting sequence and monitoring of acute WNT co-receptor activation (phospho-LRP6) support this conclusion. Ciliary WNT signaling inhibits protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) activity, a negative regulator of ciliogenesis, by preventing GSK3-mediated phosphorylation of the PP1 regulatory inhibitor subunit PPP1R2. Concordantly, deficiency of WNT/GSK3 signaling by depletion of cyclin Y and cyclin-Y-like protein 1 induces primary cilia defects in mouse embryonic neuronal precursors, kidney proximal tubules, and adult mice preadipocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiqing Zhang
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Fabio Da Silva
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Carina Seidl
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michaela Wilsch-Bräuninger
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraβe 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Jessica Herbst
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Wieland B Huttner
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraβe 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Christof Niehrs
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), 55128 Mainz, Germany.
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14
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Nag JK, Appasamy P, Sedley S, Malka H, Rudina T, Bar-Shavit R. RNF43 induces the turnover of protease-activated receptor 2 in colon cancer. FASEB J 2023; 37:e22675. [PMID: 36468684 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202200858rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Post-translational modification of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) plays a central role in tissue hemostasis and cancer. The molecular mechanism of post-translational regulation of protease-activated receptors (PARs), a subgroup of GPCRs is yet understudied. Here we show that the cell-surface transmembrane E3 ubiquitin ligase ring finger 43 (RNF43) is a negative feedback regulator of PAR2 , impacting PAR2 -induced signaling and colon cancer growth. RNF43 co-associates with PAR2 , promoting its membrane elimination and degradation as shown by reduced cell surface biotinylated PAR2 levels and polyubiquitination. PAR2 degradation is rescued by R-spondin2 in the presence of leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptor5 (LGR5). In fact, PAR2 acts jointly with LGR5, as recapitulated by increased β-catenin levels, transcriptional activity, phospho-LRP6, and anchorage-independent colony growth in agar. Animal models of the chemically induced AOM/DSS colon cancer of wt versus Par2/f2rl1 KO mice as also the 'spleen-liver' colon cancer metastasis, allocated a central role for PAR2 in colon cancer growth and development. RNF43 is abundantly expressed in the Par2/f2rl1 KO-treated AOM/DSS colon tissues while its level is very low to nearly null in colon cancer adenocarcinomas of the wt mice. The same result is obtained in the 'spleen-liver' model of spleen-inoculated cells, metastasized to the liver. High RNF43 expression is observed in the liver upon shRNA -Par2 silencing. "Limited-dilution-assay" performed in mice in-vivo, assigned PAR2 as a member of the cancer stem cell niche compartment. Collectively, we elucidate an original regulation of PAR2 oncogene, a member of cancer stem cells, by RNF43 ubiquitin ligase. It impacts β-catenin signaling and colon cancer growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeetendra Kumar Nag
- Sharett Institute of Oncology, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Priyanga Appasamy
- Sharett Institute of Oncology, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Shoshana Sedley
- Sharett Institute of Oncology, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Hodaya Malka
- Sharett Institute of Oncology, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Tatyana Rudina
- Sharett Institute of Oncology, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Rachel Bar-Shavit
- Sharett Institute of Oncology, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
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15
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Velloso I, Han W, He X, Abreu JG. The role of Wnt signaling in Xenopus neural induction. Curr Top Dev Biol 2023; 153:229-254. [PMID: 36967196 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2023.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Development of the central nervous system in amphibians has called attention from scientists for over a century. Interested in the matter of embryonic inductions, Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold found out that the dorsal blastopore lip of the salamander's embryo has organizer properties. Such an ectopic graft could induce structures in the host embryo, including a neural tube overlying the notochord of a perfect secondary body axis. A couple of decades later, the frog Xenopus laevis emerged as an excellent embryological experimental model and seminal concepts involving embryonic inductions began to be revealed. The so-called primary induction is, in fact, a composition of signaling and inductive events that are triggered as soon as fertilization takes place. In this regard, since early 1990s an intricate network of signaling pathways has been built. The Wnt pathway, which began to be uncovered in cancer biology studies, is crucial during the establishment of two signaling centers in Xenopus embryogenesis: Nieuwkoop center and the blastula chordin noggin expression center (BCNE). Here we will discuss the historical events that led to the discovery of those centers, as well as the molecular mechanisms by which they operate. This chapter highlights the cooperation of both signaling centers with potential to be further explored in the future. We aim to address the essential morphological transformation during gastrulation and neurulation as well as the role of Wnt signaling in patterning the organizer and the neural plate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Velloso
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Wonhee Han
- Department of Neurology, The F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Xi He
- Department of Neurology, The F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.
| | - Jose G Abreu
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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16
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Rusilowicz-Jones EV, Brazel AJ, Frigenti F, Urbé S, Clague MJ. Membrane compartmentalisation of the ubiquitin system. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2022; 132:171-184. [PMID: 34895815 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We now have a comprehensive inventory of ubiquitin system components. Understanding of any system also needs an appreciation of how components are organised together. Quantitative proteomics has provided us with a census of their relative populations in several model cell types. Here, by examining large scale unbiased data sets, we seek to identify and map those components, which principally reside on the major organelles of the endomembrane system. We present the consensus distribution of > 50 ubiquitin modifying enzymes, E2s, E3s and DUBs, that possess transmembrane domains. This analysis reveals that the ER and endosomal compartments have a diverse cast of resident E3s, whilst the Golgi and mitochondria operate with a more restricted palette. We describe key functions of ubiquitylation that are specific to each compartment and relate this to their signature complement of ubiquitin modifying components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma V Rusilowicz-Jones
- Dept. of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signaling, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Ailbhe J Brazel
- Dept. of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signaling, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK; Department of Biology, Maynooth University, Maynooth W23 F2K6, Ireland
| | - Francesca Frigenti
- Dept. of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signaling, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Sylvie Urbé
- Dept. of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signaling, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK.
| | - Michael J Clague
- Dept. of Molecular Physiology and Cell Signaling, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK.
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17
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Colozza G, Park SY, Koo BK. Clone wars: From molecules to cell competition in intestinal stem cell homeostasis and disease. Exp Mol Med 2022; 54:1367-1378. [PMID: 36117218 PMCID: PMC9534868 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-022-00854-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The small intestine is among the fastest self-renewing tissues in adult mammals. This rapid turnover is fueled by the intestinal stem cells residing in the intestinal crypt. Wnt signaling plays a pivotal role in regulating intestinal stem cell renewal and differentiation, and the dysregulation of this pathway leads to cancer formation. Several studies demonstrate that intestinal stem cells follow neutral drift dynamics, as they divide symmetrically to generate other equipotent stem cells. Competition for niche space and extrinsic signals in the intestinal crypt is the governing mechanism that regulates stemness versus cell differentiation, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are still poorly understood, and it is not yet clear how this process changes during disease. In this review, we highlight the mechanisms that regulate stem cell homeostasis in the small intestine, focusing on Wnt signaling and its regulation by RNF43 and ZNRF3, key inhibitors of the Wnt pathway. Furthermore, we summarize the evidence supporting the current model of intestinal stem cell regulation, highlighting the principles of neutral drift at the basis of intestinal stem cell homeostasis. Finally, we discuss recent studies showing how cancer cells bypass this mechanism to gain a competitive advantage against neighboring normal cells. Stem cells in the gut rapidly renew themselves through processes that cancer cells co-opt to trigger tumor development. Gabriele Colozza from the Institute of Molecular Biotechnology in Vienna, Austria, and colleagues review how a network of critical molecular signals and competition for limited space help to regulate the dynamics of stem cells in the intestines. The correct balance between self-renewal and differentiation is tightly controlled by the so-called Wnt signaling pathway and its inhibitors. Competition between dividing cells in the intestinal crypts, the locations between finger-like protrusions in the gut where stem cells are found, provides another protective mechanism against runaway stem cell growth. However, intestinal cancer cells, thanks to their activating mutations, bypass these safeguards to gain a survival advantage. Drugs that target these ‘super-competitive’ behaviors could therefore help combat tumor proliferation.
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18
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Evo-Devo of Urbilateria and its larval forms. Dev Biol 2022; 487:10-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2022.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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19
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Lebensohn AM, Bazan JF, Rohatgi R. Receptor control by membrane-tethered ubiquitin ligases in development and tissue homeostasis. Curr Top Dev Biol 2022; 150:25-89. [PMID: 35817504 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2022.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Paracrine cell-cell communication is central to all developmental processes, ranging from cell diversification to patterning and morphogenesis. Precise calibration of signaling strength is essential for the fidelity of tissue formation during embryogenesis and tissue maintenance in adults. Membrane-tethered ubiquitin ligases can control the sensitivity of target cells to secreted ligands by regulating the abundance of signaling receptors at the cell surface. We discuss two examples of this emerging concept in signaling: (1) the transmembrane ubiquitin ligases ZNRF3 and RNF43 that regulate WNT and bone morphogenetic protein receptor abundance in response to R-spondin ligands and (2) the membrane-recruited ubiquitin ligase MGRN1 that controls Hedgehog and melanocortin receptor abundance. We focus on the mechanistic logic of these systems, illustrated by structural and protein interaction models enabled by AlphaFold. We suggest that membrane-tethered ubiquitin ligases play a widespread role in remodeling the cell surface proteome to control responses to extracellular ligands in diverse biological processes.
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20
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Kumar V, Park S, Lee U, Kim J. The Organizer and Its Signaling in Embryonic Development. J Dev Biol 2021; 9:jdb9040047. [PMID: 34842722 PMCID: PMC8628936 DOI: 10.3390/jdb9040047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Germ layer specification and axis formation are crucial events in embryonic development. The Spemann organizer regulates the early developmental processes by multiple regulatory mechanisms. This review focuses on the responsive signaling in organizer formation and how the organizer orchestrates the germ layer specification in vertebrates. Accumulated evidence indicates that the organizer influences embryonic development by dual signaling. Two parallel processes, the migration of the organizer’s cells, followed by the transcriptional activation/deactivation of target genes, and the diffusion of secreting molecules, collectively direct the early development. Finally, we take an in-depth look at active signaling that originates from the organizer and involves germ layer specification and patterning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Kumar
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Cell Differentiation and Aging, College of Medicine, Hallym University, Chuncheon 24252, Korea;
| | - Soochul Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul 04310, Korea;
| | - Unjoo Lee
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Hallym University, Chuncheon 24252, Korea
- Correspondence: (U.L.); (J.K.); Tel.: +82-33-248-2544 (J.K.); Fax: +82-33-244-8425 (J.K.)
| | - Jaebong Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Cell Differentiation and Aging, College of Medicine, Hallym University, Chuncheon 24252, Korea;
- Correspondence: (U.L.); (J.K.); Tel.: +82-33-248-2544 (J.K.); Fax: +82-33-244-8425 (J.K.)
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21
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Zhu X, Wang P, Wei J, Li Y, Zhai J, Zheng T, Tao Q. Lysosomal degradation of the maternal dorsal determinant Hwa safeguards dorsal body axis formation. EMBO Rep 2021; 22:e53185. [PMID: 34652064 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202153185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The Spemann and Mangold Organizer (SMO) is of fundamental importance for dorsal ventral body axis formation during vertebrate embryogenesis. Maternal Huluwa (Hwa) has been identified as the dorsal determinant that is both necessary and sufficient for SMO formation. However, it remains unclear how Hwa is regulated. Here, we report that the E3 ubiquitin ligase zinc and ring finger 3 (ZNRF3) is essential for restricting the spatial activity of Hwa and therefore correct SMO formation in Xenopus laevis. ZNRF3 interacts with and ubiquitinates Hwa, thereby regulating its lysosomal trafficking and protein stability. Perturbation of ZNRF3 leads to the accumulation of Hwa and induction of an ectopic axis in embryos. Ectopic expression of ZNRF3 promotes Hwa degradation and dampens the axis-inducing activity of Hwa. Thus, our findings identify a substrate of ZNRF3, but also highlight the importance of the regulation of Hwa temporospatial activity in body axis formation in vertebrate embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuechen Zhu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Pan Wang
- Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Beijing, China
| | - Jiale Wei
- MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yongyu Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiayu Zhai
- MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Tianrui Zheng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Qinghua Tao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Beijing, China
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22
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Kim M, Reinhard C, Niehrs C. A MET-PTPRK kinase-phosphatase rheostat controls ZNRF3 and Wnt signaling. eLife 2021; 10:70885. [PMID: 34590584 PMCID: PMC8516413 DOI: 10.7554/elife.70885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Zinc and ring finger 3 (ZNRF3) is a transmembrane E3 ubiquitin ligase that targets Wnt receptors for ubiquitination and lysosomal degradation. Previously, we showed that dephosphorylation of an endocytic tyrosine motif (4Y motif) in ZNRF3 by protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor-type kappa (PTPRK) promotes ZNRF3 internalization and Wnt receptor degradation (Chang et al 2020). However, a responsible protein tyrosine kinase(s) (PTK) phosphorylating the 4Y motif remained elusive. Here we identify the proto-oncogene MET (mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor) as a 4Y kinase. MET binds to ZNRF3 and induces 4Y phosphorylation, stimulated by the MET ligand HGF (hepatocyte growth factor, scatter factor). HGF-MET signaling reduces ZNRF3-dependent Wnt receptor degradation thereby enhancing Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Conversely, depletion or pharmacological inhibition of MET promotes the internalization of ZNRF3 and Wnt receptor degradation. We conclude that HGF-MET signaling phosphorylates- and PTPRK dephosphorylates ZNRF3 to regulate ZNRF3 internalization, functioning as a rheostat for Wnt signaling that may offer novel opportunities for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minseong Kim
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Carmen Reinhard
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christof Niehrs
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Mainz, Germany
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23
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Abstract
The identification of large chromosomal rearrangements in cancers has multiplied exponentially over the last decade. These complex and often rare genomic events have traditionally been challenging to study, in part owing to lack of tools that efficiently engineer disease-associated inversions, deletions and translocations in model systems. The emergence and refinement of genome editing technologies, such as CRISPR, have significantly expanded our ability to generate and interrogate chromosomal aberrations to better understand the networks that govern cancer growth. Here we review how existing technologies are employed to faithfully model cancer-associated chromosome rearrangements in the laboratory, with the ultimate goal of developing more accurate pre-clinical models of and therapeutic strategies for cancers driven by these genomic events. Summary: Chromosome rearrangements can be potent cancer drivers and effective therapeutic targets. Here, we review how genome-editing technologies can be exploited to engineer and study complex structural variants, and identify new treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Alonso
- Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.,Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Lukas E Dow
- Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.,Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
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24
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Abstract
The E3 ubiquitin ligases RING finger protein 43 (RNF43) and zinc and RING finger 3 (ZNRF3) have received great attention for their critical role in regulating WNT signalling during adult stem cell homeostasis. By promoting the turnover of WNT receptors, Frizzled and LRP5/6, RNF43 and ZNRF3 ensure that proper levels of WNT activity are maintained in stem cells. The molecular mechanism of RNF43/ZNRF3 activity is beginning to emerge from several recent studies, yet little is known about the regulation of RNF43/ZNRF3 at the post-translational level. A study in this issue of EMBO Reports identifies the deubiquitinating enzyme USP42 as a key regulator of WNT signalling, which acts by antagonizing the ubiquitin-dependent clearance of RNF43/ZNRF3 induced by R-spondins (Giebel et al, 2021).
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Colozza
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA)Vienna Biocenter (VBC)ViennaAustria
| | - Bon‐Kyoung Koo
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA)Vienna Biocenter (VBC)ViennaAustria
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25
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Giebel N, de Jaime-Soguero A, García Del Arco A, Landry JJM, Tietje M, Villacorta L, Benes V, Fernández-Sáiz V, Acebrón SP. USP42 protects ZNRF3/RNF43 from R-spondin-dependent clearance and inhibits Wnt signalling. EMBO Rep 2021; 22:e51415. [PMID: 33786993 PMCID: PMC8097334 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202051415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumour suppressors RNF43 and ZNRF3 play a central role in development and tissue homeostasis by promoting the turnover of the Wnt receptors LRP6 and Frizzled (FZD). The stem cell growth factor R‐spondin induces auto‐ubiquitination and membrane clearance of ZNRF3/RNF43 to promote Wnt signalling. However, the deubiquitinase stabilising ZNRF3/RNF43 at the plasma membrane remains unknown. Here, we show that the USP42 antagonises R‐spondin by protecting ZNRF3/RNF43 from ubiquitin‐dependent clearance. USP42 binds to the Dishevelled interacting region (DIR) of ZNRF3 and stalls the R‐spondin‐LGR4‐ZNRF3 ternary complex by deubiquitinating ZNRF3. Accordingly, USP42 increases the turnover of LRP6 and Frizzled (FZD) receptors and inhibits Wnt signalling. Furthermore, we show that USP42 functions as a roadblock for paracrine Wnt signalling in colon cancer cells and mouse small intestinal organoids. We provide new mechanistic insights into the regulation R‐spondin and conclude that USP42 is crucial for ZNRF3/RNF43 stabilisation at the cell surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Giebel
- Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Ana García Del Arco
- Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jonathan J M Landry
- Genomics Core Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marlene Tietje
- Department of Medicine III, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.,TranslaTUM, Center for Translational Cancer Research, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Laura Villacorta
- Genomics Core Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Vladimir Benes
- Genomics Core Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Vanesa Fernández-Sáiz
- Department of Medicine III, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.,TranslaTUM, Center for Translational Cancer Research, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sergio P Acebrón
- Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
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26
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Colozza G, Koo BK. Wnt/β-catenin signaling: Structure, assembly and endocytosis of the signalosome. Dev Growth Differ 2021; 63:199-218. [PMID: 33619734 PMCID: PMC8251975 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Wnt/β‐catenin signaling is an ancient pathway that regulates key aspects of embryonic development, cell differentiation, proliferation, and adult stem cell homeostasis. Work from different laboratories has shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying the Wnt pathway, including structural details of ligand–receptor interactions. One key aspect that has emerged from multiple studies is that endocytosis of the receptor complex plays a crucial role in fine‐tuning Wnt/β‐catenin signaling. Endocytosis is a key process involved in both activation as well as attenuation of Wnt signaling, but how this is regulated is still poorly understood. Importantly, recent findings show that Wnt also regulates central metabolic pathways such as the acquisition of nutrients through actin‐driven endocytic mechanisms. In this review, we propose that the Wnt pathway displays diverse characteristics that go beyond the regulation of gene expression, through a connection with the endocytic machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Colozza
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Vienna Biocenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria
| | - Bon-Kyoung Koo
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Vienna Biocenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria
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27
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Tsukiyama T, Koo BK, Hatakeyama S. Post-translational Wnt receptor regulation: Is the fog slowly clearing?: The molecular mechanism of RNF43/ZNRF3 ubiquitin ligases is not yet fully elucidated and still controversial. Bioessays 2021; 43:e2000297. [PMID: 33569855 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202000297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Wnt signaling plays pivotal roles during our entire lives, from conception to death, through the regulation of morphogenesis in developing embryos and the maintenance of tissue homeostasis in adults. The regulation of Wnt signaling occurs on several levels: at the receptor level on the plasma membrane, at the β-catenin protein level in the cytoplasm, and through transcriptional regulation in the nucleus. Several recent studies have focused on the mechanisms of Wnt receptor regulation, following the discovery that the Wnt receptor frizzled (Fzd) is a target of the ubiquitin ligases, RNF43 and ZNRF3. RNF43 and ZNRF3 are homologous genes that are mutated in several cancers. The details underlying their mechanism of action continue to unfold, while at the same time raising many new questions. In this review, we discuss advances and controversies in our understanding of Wnt receptor regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadasuke Tsukiyama
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Bon-Kyoung Koo
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Shigetsugu Hatakeyama
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
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28
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Lee H, Seidl C, Sun R, Glinka A, Niehrs C. R-spondins are BMP receptor antagonists in Xenopus early embryonic development. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5570. [PMID: 33149137 PMCID: PMC7642414 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19373-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BMP signaling plays key roles in development, stem cells, adult tissue homeostasis, and disease. How BMP receptors are extracellularly modulated and in which physiological context, is therefore of prime importance. R-spondins (RSPOs) are a small family of secreted proteins that co-activate WNT signaling and function as potent stem cell effectors and oncogenes. Evidence is mounting that RSPOs act WNT-independently but how and in which physiological processes remains enigmatic. Here we show that RSPO2 and RSPO3 also act as BMP antagonists. RSPO2 is a high affinity ligand for the type I BMP receptor BMPR1A/ALK3, and it engages ZNRF3 to trigger internalization and degradation of BMPR1A. In early Xenopus embryos, Rspo2 is a negative feedback inhibitor in the BMP4 synexpression group and regulates dorsoventral axis formation. We conclude that R-spondins are bifunctional ligands, which activate WNT- and inhibit BMP signaling via ZNRF3, with implications for development and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeyoon Lee
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Carina Seidl
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rui Sun
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andrey Glinka
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christof Niehrs
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), 55128, Mainz, Germany.
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29
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Soares-Lima SC, Pombo-de-Oliveira MS, Carneiro FRG. The multiple ways Wnt signaling contributes to acute leukemia pathogenesis. J Leukoc Biol 2020; 108:1081-1099. [PMID: 32573851 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2mr0420-707r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
WNT proteins constitute a very conserved family of secreted glycoproteins that act as short-range ligands for signaling with critical roles in hematopoiesis, embryonic development, and tissue homeostasis. These proteins transduce signals via the canonical pathway, which is β-catenin-mediated and better-characterized, or via more diverse noncanonical pathways that are β-catenin independent and comprise the planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway and the WNT/Ca++ pathways. Several proteins regulate Wnt signaling through a variety of sophisticated mechanisms. Disorders within the pathway can contribute to various human diseases, and the dysregulation of Wnt pathways by different molecular mechanisms is implicated in the pathogenesis of many types of cancer, including the hematological malignancies. The types of leukemia differ considerably and can be subdivided into chronic, myeloid or lymphocytic, and acute, myeloid or lymphocytic, leukemia, according to the differentiation stage of the predominant cells, the progenitor lineage, the diagnostic age strata, and the specific molecular drivers behind their development. Here, we review the role of Wnt signaling in normal hematopoiesis and discuss in detail the multiple ways canonical Wnt signaling can be dysregulated in acute leukemia, including alterations in gene expression and protein levels, epigenetic regulation, and mutations. Furthermore, we highlight the different impacts of these alterations, considering the distinct forms of the disease, and the therapeutic potential of targeting Wnt signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila C Soares-Lima
- Epigenetics Group, Molecular Carcinogenesis Program, Brazilian National Cancer Institute, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Maria S Pombo-de-Oliveira
- Pediatric Hematology-Oncology Program Research Center, National Cancer Institute, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Flávia R G Carneiro
- FIOCRUZ, Center of Technological Development in Health (CDTS), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,FIOCRUZ, Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Pesquisas Médicas-Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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