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Daniels RS, Galiano M, Ermetal B, Kwong J, Lau CS, Xiang Z, McCauley JW, Lo J. Temporal and Gene Reassortment Analysis of Influenza C Virus Outbreaks in Hong Kong, SAR, China. J Virol 2022; 96:e0192821. [PMID: 34787455 PMCID: PMC8826914 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01928-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
From 2014 to week 07/2020 the Centre for Health Protection in Hong Kong conducted screening for influenza C virus (ICV). A retrospective analysis of ICV detections to week 26/2019 revealed persistent low-level circulation with outbreaks occurring biennially in the winters of 2015 to 2016 and 2017 to 2018 (R. S. Daniels et al., J Virol 94:e01051-20, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01051-20). Here, we report on an outbreak occurring in 2019 to 2020, reinforcing the observation of biennial seasonality in Hong Kong. All three outbreaks occurred in similar time frames, were subsequently dwarfed by seasonal epidemics of influenza types A and B, and were caused by similar proportions of C/Kanagawa/1/76 (K)-lineage and C/São Paulo/378/82 S1- and S2-sublineage viruses. Ongoing genetic drift was observed in all genes, with some evidence of amino acid substitution in the hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion (HEF) glycoprotein possibly associated with antigenic drift. A total of 61 ICV genomes covering the three outbreaks were analyzed for reassortment, and 9 different reassortant constellations were identified, 1 K-lineage, 4 S1-sublineage, and 4 S2-sublineage, with 6 of these being identified first in the 2019-1920 outbreak (2 S2-lineage and 4 S1-lineage). The roles that virus interference/enhancement, ICV persistent infection, genome evolution, and reassortment might play in the observed seasonality of ICV in Hong Kong are discussed. IMPORTANCE Influenza C virus (ICV) infection of humans is common, with the great majority of people being infected during childhood, though reinfection can occur throughout life. While infection normally results in "cold-like" symptoms, severe disease cases have been reported in recent years. However, knowledge of ICV is limited due to poor systematic surveillance and an inability to propagate the virus in large amounts in the laboratory. Following recent systematic surveillance in Hong Kong SAR, China, and direct ICV gene sequencing from clinical specimens, a 2-year cycle of disease outbreaks (epidemics) has been identified, with gene mixing playing a significant role in ICV evolution. Studies like those reported here are key to developing an understanding of the impact of influenza C virus infection in humans, notably where comorbidities exist and severe respiratory disease can develop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney S. Daniels
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Monica Galiano
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Burcu Ermetal
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jasmine Kwong
- Centre for Health Protection, Department of Health, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Chi S. Lau
- Centre for Health Protection, Department of Health, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Zheng Xiang
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - John W. McCauley
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Janice Lo
- Centre for Health Protection, Department of Health, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Matsuzaki Y, Sugawara K, Shimotai Y, Kadowaki Y, Hongo S, Mizuta K, Nishimura H. Growth Kinetics of Influenza C Virus Antigenic Mutants That Escaped from Anti-Hemagglutinin Esterase Monoclonal Antibodies and Viral Antigenic Changes Found in Field Isolates. Viruses 2021; 13:401. [PMID: 33802440 PMCID: PMC7998938 DOI: 10.3390/v13030401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The antigenicity of the hemagglutinin esterase (HE) glycoprotein of influenza C virus is known to be stable; however, information about residues related to antigenic changes has not yet been fully acquired. Using selection with anti-HE monoclonal antibodies, we previously obtained some escape mutants and identified four antigenic sites, namely, A-1, A-2, A-3, and Y-1. To confirm whether the residues identified as the neutralizing epitope possibly relate to the antigenic drift, we analyzed the growth kinetics of these mutants. The results showed that some viruses with mutations in antigenic site A-1 were able to replicate to titers comparable to that of the wild-type, while others showed reduced titers. The mutants possessing substitutions in the A-2 or A-3 site replicated as efficiently as the wild-type virus. Although the mutant containing a deletion at positions 192 to 195 in the Y-1 site showed lower titers than the wild-type virus, it was confirmed that this region in the 190-loop on the top side of the HE protein is not essential for viral propagation. Then, we revealed that antigenic changes due to substitutions in the A-1, A-3, and/or Y-1 site had occurred in nature in Japan for the past 30 years. These results suggest that some residues (i.e., 125, 176, 192) in the A-1 site, residue 198 in the A-3 site, and residue 190 in the Y-1 site are likely to mediate antigenic drift while maintaining replicative ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Matsuzaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan; (K.S.); (Y.S.); (Y.K.); (S.H.)
| | - Kanetsu Sugawara
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan; (K.S.); (Y.S.); (Y.K.); (S.H.)
| | - Yoshitaka Shimotai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan; (K.S.); (Y.S.); (Y.K.); (S.H.)
| | - Yoko Kadowaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan; (K.S.); (Y.S.); (Y.K.); (S.H.)
| | - Seiji Hongo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan; (K.S.); (Y.S.); (Y.K.); (S.H.)
| | - Katsumi Mizuta
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Yamagata 990-0031, Japan;
| | - Hidekazu Nishimura
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Sendai 983-8520, Japan;
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Daniels RS, Tse H, Ermetal B, Xiang Z, Jackson DJ, Guntoro J, Nicod J, Stewart A, Cross KJ, Hussain S, McCauley JW, Lo J. Molecular Characterization of Influenza C Viruses from Outbreaks in Hong Kong SAR, China. J Virol 2020; 94:e01051-20. [PMID: 32817211 PMCID: PMC7565627 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01051-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2014, the Centre for Health Protection in Hong Kong introduced screening for influenza C virus (ICV) as part of its routine surveillance for infectious agents in specimens collected from patients presenting with symptoms of respiratory viral infection, including influenza-like illness (ILI). A retrospective analysis of ICV detections up to week 26 of 2019 revealed persistent low-level circulation, with two outbreaks having occurred in the winters of 2015 to 2016 and 2017 to 2018. These outbreaks occurred at the same time as, and were dwarfed by, seasonal epidemics of influenza types A and B. Gene sequencing studies on stored ICV-positive clinical specimens from the two outbreaks have shown that the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) genes of the viruses fall into two of the six recognized genetic lineages (represented by C/Kanagawa/1/76 and C/São Paulo/378/82), with there being significant genetic drift compared to earlier circulating viruses within both lineages. The location of a number of encoded amino acid substitutions in hemagglutinin-esterase fusion (HEF) glycoproteins suggests that antigenic drift may also have occurred. Observations of ICV outbreaks in other countries, with some of the infections being associated with severe disease, indicates that ICV infection has the potential to have significant clinical and health care impacts in humans.IMPORTANCE Influenza C virus infection of humans is common, and reinfection can occur throughout life. While symptoms are generally mild, severe disease cases have been reported, but knowledge of the virus is limited, as little systematic surveillance for influenza C virus is conducted and the virus cannot be studied by classical virologic methods because it cannot be readily isolated in laboratories. A combination of systematic surveillance in Hong Kong SAR, China, and new gene sequencing methods has been used in this study to assess influenza C virus evolution and provides evidence for a 2-year cycle of disease outbreaks. The results of studies like that reported here are key to developing an understanding of the impact of influenza C virus infection in humans and how virus evolution might be associated with epidemics.
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MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Aged
- Amino Acid Substitution
- Child
- Child, Preschool
- Disease Outbreaks
- Epidemiological Monitoring
- Female
- Gene Expression
- Hemagglutinins, Viral/chemistry
- Hemagglutinins, Viral/genetics
- Hemagglutinins, Viral/metabolism
- High-Throughput Nucleotide Sequencing
- Hong Kong/epidemiology
- Humans
- Infant
- Influenza, Human/epidemiology
- Influenza, Human/pathology
- Influenza, Human/virology
- Gammainfluenzavirus/enzymology
- Gammainfluenzavirus/genetics
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Models, Molecular
- Molecular Epidemiology
- Mutation
- Phylogeny
- Protein Conformation, alpha-Helical
- Protein Conformation, beta-Strand
- Retrospective Studies
- Viral Fusion Proteins/chemistry
- Viral Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Viral Fusion Proteins/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney S Daniels
- Worldwide Influenza Centre (a WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza), The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Herman Tse
- Centre for Health Protection, Department of Health, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Burcu Ermetal
- Worldwide Influenza Centre (a WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza), The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Zheng Xiang
- Worldwide Influenza Centre (a WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza), The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Deborah J Jackson
- Advanced Sequencing Facility, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy Guntoro
- Advanced Sequencing Facility, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jérôme Nicod
- Advanced Sequencing Facility, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aengus Stewart
- Bioinformatics & Biostatistics, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Karen J Cross
- Worldwide Influenza Centre (a WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza), The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Saira Hussain
- Worldwide Influenza Centre (a WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza), The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - John W McCauley
- Worldwide Influenza Centre (a WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza), The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Janice Lo
- Centre for Health Protection, Department of Health, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Matsuzaki Y, Shimotai Y, Kadowaki Y, Sugawara K, Hongo S, Mizuta K, Nishimura H. Antigenic changes among the predominantly circulating C/Sao Paulo lineage strains of influenza C virus in Yamagata, Japan, between 2015 and 2018. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2020; 81:104269. [PMID: 32135195 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Influenza C virus is a pathogen that causes acute respiratory illness in children and results in the hospitalization of infants. The antigenicity of the hemagglutinin esterase (HE) glycoprotein is highly stable, and it is not yet known whether antigenic changes contribute to the worldwide transmission and the occurrence of outbreaks of influenza C virus. Here, we performed antigenic analysis of 84 influenza C viruses isolated in Yamagata, Japan, during a 4-year period from 2015 to 2018 and analyzed sequence data for strains of the virus from Japan and many other parts of the world. Antigenic and phylogenetic analyses revealed that 83 strains belonged to the C/Sao Paulo lineage, and two sublineage strains, the Aichi99 sublineage and Victoria2012 sublineage, cocirculated between 2016 and 2018. Aichi99 sublineage strains exhibiting decreased reactivity with the monoclonal antibody YA3 became predominant after 2016, and these strains possessed the K190N mutation. Residue 190 is located in the 190-loop on the top side of the HE protein within a region that is known to show variation that does not impair the biological activity of the protein. The Aichi99 sublineage strains possessing the K190N mutation were detected after 2012 in Europe, Australia, the USA, and Asia as well as Japan. These observations suggest that antigenic variants with K190N mutations have circulated extensively around the world and caused outbreaks in Japan between 2016 and 2018. Our study indicated that the 190-loop is an important antigenic region, and the results suggested that changes in the 190-loop have contributed to the extensive transmission of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Matsuzaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, 2-2-2 Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan.
| | - Yoshitaka Shimotai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, 2-2-2 Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan
| | - Yoko Kadowaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, 2-2-2 Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan
| | - Kanetsu Sugawara
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, 2-2-2 Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan
| | - Seiji Hongo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, 2-2-2 Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan
| | - Katsumi Mizuta
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Yamagata, Yamagata 990-0031, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Nishimura
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Sendai 983-8520, Japan
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Liu R, Sheng Z, Lin T, Sreenivasan C, Gao R, Thomas M, Druce J, Hause BM, Kaushik RS, Li F, Wang D. Genetic and antigenic characteristics of a human influenza C virus clinical isolate. J Med Virol 2020; 92:161-166. [PMID: 31498448 PMCID: PMC6901781 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Unlike influenza A and B viruses that infect humans and cause severe diseases in seasonal epidemics, influenza C virus (ICV) is a ubiquitous childhood pathogen typically causing mild respiratory symptoms. ICV infections are rarely diagnosed and less research has been performed on it despite the virus being capable of causing severe disease in infants. Here we report on the isolation of a human ICV from a child with acute respiratory disease, provisionally designated C/Victoria/2/2012 (C/Vic). The full-length genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion (HEF) gene of C/Vic was derived from C/Sao Paulo lineage, while its PB2 and P3 genes evolved separately from all characterized historical ICV isolates. Furthermore, antigenic analysis using the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay found that 1947 C/Taylor virus (C/Taylor lineage) was antigenically more divergent from1966 C/Johannesburg (C/Aichi lineage) than from 2012 C/Vic. Structure modeling of the HEF protein identified two mutations in the 170-loop of the HEF protein around the receptor-binding pocket as a possible antigenic determinant responsible for the discrepant HI results. Taken together, results of our studies reveal novel insights into the genetic and antigenic evolution of ICV and provide a framework for further investigation of its molecular determinants of antigenic property and replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runxia Liu
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- BioSNTR, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
| | - Zizhang Sheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Tao Lin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
| | - Chithra Sreenivasan
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- BioSNTR, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
| | - Rongruan Gao
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- BioSNTR, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
| | - Milton Thomas
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
| | - Julian Druce
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ben M. Hause
- Cambridge Technologies Inc., Worthington, 56187, USA
| | - Radhey S. Kaushik
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- BioSNTR, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
| | - Dan Wang
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- BioSNTR, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
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Sederdahl BK, Williams JV. Epidemiology and Clinical Characteristics of Influenza C Virus. Viruses 2020; 12:E89. [PMID: 31941041 PMCID: PMC7019359 DOI: 10.3390/v12010089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza C virus (ICV) is a common yet under-recognized cause of acute respiratory illness. ICV seropositivity has been found to be as high as 90% by 7-10 years of age, suggesting that most people are exposed to ICV at least once during childhood. Due to difficulty detecting ICV by cell culture, epidemiologic studies of ICV likely have underestimated the burden of ICV infection and disease. Recent development of highly sensitive RT-PCR has facilitated epidemiologic studies that provide further insights into the prevalence, seasonality, and course of ICV infection. In this review, we summarize the epidemiology and clinical characteristics of ICV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany K. Sederdahl
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA;
| | - John V. Williams
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA;
- Institute for Infection, Inflammation, and Immunity in Children (i4Kids), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
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Mizuta K, Tanaka W, Komabayashi K, Tanaka S, Seto J, Aoki Y, Ikeda T. Longitudinal Epidemiology of Viral Infectious Diseases Combining Virus Isolation, Antigenic Analysis, and Phylogenetic Analysis as Well as Seroepidemiology in Yamagata, Japan, between 1999 and 2018. Jpn J Infect Dis 2019; 72:211-223. [PMID: 30814463 DOI: 10.7883/yoken.jjid.2018.500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We introduced a microplate method for virus isolation in the Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health (YPIPH) in 1999 in Yamagata, Japan. We have since carried out longitudinal epidemiological studies on viral infectious diseases, particularly respiratory viruses, combining traditional technologies such as virus isolation and serological techniques and newly developed molecular methods. Here, we provide an overview of our activities at YPIPH between 1999 and 2018. During the study period, we observed emerging and re-merging diseases such as those caused by echovirus type 13, enterovirus D68, parechovirus-A3 (PeV-A3), and Saffold virus. With regard to PeV-A3, we proposed a new disease concept, "PeV-A3-associated myalgia/myositis." We also revealed the longitudinal epidemiologies of several viruses such as enterovirus A71 and coxsackievirus A16. To perform longitudinal epidemiological studies at any time in Yamagata, we established a system for stocking clinical specimens, viral isolates, complementary DNAs, and serum specimens. We have also pursued collaboration works with virology laboratories across Japan. We hope our experiences, findings, and research materials will further contribute to the development of countermeasures against viral infectious diseases and improvement in public health strategies in Yamagata, Japan, Asia, and around the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsumi Mizuta
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health
| | - Waka Tanaka
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health
| | | | - Shizuka Tanaka
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health
| | - Junji Seto
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health
| | - Yoko Aoki
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health
| | - Tatsuya Ikeda
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health
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Matsuzaki Y, Sugawara K, Furuse Y, Shimotai Y, Hongo S, Mizuta K, Nishimura H. Neutralizing Epitopes and Residues Mediating the Potential Antigenic Drift of the Hemagglutinin-Esterase Protein of Influenza C Virus. Viruses 2018; 10:E417. [PMID: 30096880 PMCID: PMC6116000 DOI: 10.3390/v10080417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We mapped the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) antigenic epitopes of the influenza C virus on the three-dimensional (3D) structure of the HE glycoprotein using 246 escape mutants that were selected by a panel of nine anti-HE monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), including seven of the C/Ann Arbor/1/50 virus and two of the C/Yamagata/15/2004 virus. The frequency of variant selection in the presence of anti-HE MAbs was very low, with frequencies ranging from 10-4.62 to 10-7.58 for the C/Ann Arbor/1/50 virus and from 10-7.11 to 10-9.25 for the C/Yamagata/15/2004 virus. Sequencing of mutant HE genes revealed 25 amino acid substitutions at 16 positions in three antigenic sites: A-1, A-2, and A-3, and a newly designated Y-1 site. In the 3D structure, the A-1 site was widely located around the receptor-binding site, the A-2 site was near the receptor-destroying enzyme site, and the Y-1 site was located in the loop on the topside of HE. The hemagglutination inhibition reactions of the MAbs with influenza C viruses, circulating between 1947 and 2016, were consistent with the antigenic-site amino acid changes. We also found some amino acid variations in the antigenic site of recently circulating strains with antigenic changes, suggesting that viruses that have the potential to alter antigenicity continue to circulate in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Matsuzaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan.
| | - Kanetsu Sugawara
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan.
| | - Yuki Furuse
- Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.
- Hakubi Center for Advanced Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.
| | - Yoshitaka Shimotai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan.
| | - Seiji Hongo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan.
| | - Katsumi Mizuta
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Yamagata 990-0031, Japan.
| | - Hidekazu Nishimura
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Sendai 983-8520, Japan.
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Jelley L, Levy A, Deng YM, Spirason N, Lang J, Buettner I, Druce J, Blyth C, Effler P, Smith D, Barr IG. Influenza C infections in Western Australia and Victoria from 2008 to 2014. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2016; 10:455-461. [PMID: 27373693 PMCID: PMC5059950 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza C is usually considered a minor cause of respiratory illness in humans with many infections being asymptomatic or clinically mild. Large outbreaks can occur periodically resulting in significant morbidity. OBJECTIVES This study aimed at analyzing the available influenza C clinical samples from two widely separated states of Australia, collected over a 7-year period and to compare them with influenza C viruses detected in other parts of the world in recent years. PATIENTS/METHODS Between 2008 and 2014, 86 respiratory samples that were influenza C positive were collected from subjects with influenza-like illness living in the states of Victoria and Western Australia. A battery of other respiratory viruses were also tested for in these influenza C-positive samples. Virus isolation was attempted on all of these clinical samples, and gene sequencing was performed on all influenza C-positive cultures. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Detections of influenza C in respiratory samples were sporadic in most years studied, but higher rates of infection occurred in 2012 and 2014. Many of the patients with influenza C had coinfections with other respiratory pathogens. Phylogenetic analysis of the full-length hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion (HE) gene found that most of the viruses grouped in the C/Sao Paulo/378/82 clade with the remainder grouping in the C/Kanagawa/1/76 clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Jelley
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Avram Levy
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine WA, Nedlands, WA, Australia
- School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Yi-Mo Deng
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Natalie Spirason
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Jurissa Lang
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine WA, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Iwona Buettner
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Julian Druce
- Victorian Infectious Disease Reference Laboratory, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Chris Blyth
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
- Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Subiaco, Perth, WA, Australia
- Wesfarmers Centre for Vaccines and infectious Diseases, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Paul Effler
- School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
- Communicable Disease Control Directorate, Department of Health, Shenton Park, WA, Australia
| | - David Smith
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine WA, Nedlands, WA, Australia
- School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Ian G Barr
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.
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Matsuzaki Y, Sugawara K, Furuse Y, Shimotai Y, Hongo S, Oshitani H, Mizuta K, Nishimura H. Genetic Lineage and Reassortment of Influenza C Viruses Circulating between 1947 and 2014. J Virol 2016; 90:8251-65. [PMID: 27384661 PMCID: PMC5008092 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00969-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Since influenza C virus was first isolated in 1947, the virus has been only occasionally isolated by cell culture; there are only four strains for which complete genome sequences are registered. Here, we analyzed a total of 106 complete genomes, ranging from the first isolate from 1947 to recent isolates from 2014, to determine the genetic lineages of influenza C virus, the reassortment events, and the rates of nucleotide substitution. The results showed that there are six lineages, named C/Taylor, C/Mississippi, C/Aichi, C/Yamagata, C/Kanagawa, and C/Sao Paulo. They contain both antigenic and genetic lineages of the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) gene, and the internal genes PB2, PB1, P3, NP, M, and NS are divided into two major lineages, a C/Mississippi/80-related lineage and a C/Yamagata/81-related lineage. Reassortment events were found over the entire period of 68 years. Several outbreaks of influenza C virus between 1990 and 2014 in Japan consisted of reassortant viruses, suggesting that the genomic constellation is related to influenza C virus epidemics. The nucleotide sequences were highly homologous to each other. The minimum percent identity between viruses ranged from 91.1% for the HE gene to 96.1% for the M gene, and the rate of nucleotide substitution for the HE gene was the highest, at 5.20 × 10(-4) substitutions/site/year. These results indicate that reassortment is an important factor that increases the genetic diversity of influenza C virus, resulting in its ability to prevail in humans. IMPORTANCE Influenza C virus is a pathogen that causes acute respiratory illness in children and results in hospitalization of infants. We previously demonstrated (Y. Matsuzaki et al., J Clin Virol 61:87-93, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2014.06.017) that periodic epidemics of this virus occurred in Japan between 1996 and 2014 and that replacement of the dominant antigenic group occurred every several years as a result of selection by herd immunity. However, the antigenicity of the HE glycoprotein is highly stable, and antigenic drift has not occurred for at least 30 years. Here, we analyzed a total of 106 complete genomes spanning 68 years for the first time, and we found that influenza C viruses are circulating worldwide while undergoing reassortment as well as selection by herd immunity, resulting in an increased ability to prevail in humans. The results presented in this study contribute to the understanding of the evolution, including reassortment events, underlying influenza C virus epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Matsuzaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Kanetsu Sugawara
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Yuki Furuse
- Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Shimotai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Seiji Hongo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Oshitani
- Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Katsumi Mizuta
- Department of Microbiology, Yamagata Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Nishimura
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Miyagi, Japan
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